Category: Linguistics

Introduction

Patricia OConner through her article proved that grammar is simple and entertaining. In an article she wrote, she comes out clearly explaining the use of the word like and proves that it is actually not grammatically wrong as perceived by many people. This essay is a short summary of that article she wrote. In this essay the main points concerning the use of the word like is highlighted with different views concerning the word examined

Summary

The word like is used in a range of uses. As a verb, it is used to express feelings of fondness between two or among many people. It is also used as preposition to compare two similar ideas. The word can also be used as a quotative.

It is used by young people to quote or paraphrase speeches of other people but often with sarcasm or irony. The word is also used to describe thoughts running within ones mind without necessarily speaking them out, for instance, I am like, this is not fair at all!

When like is used to describe thoughts as above, it does not serve in the same capacity as an adverb. The article by Patricia also aired some opinions about the use of the word OK claiming that it is grammatically correct.

The word like has been included in some dictionaries at the capacity of being used as an informal word in informal speeches and there is a feeling that it is a good innovative addition to English.

Though the word like seems to face some opposition, the author of the article is optimistic about the role that the word plays. She calls the word innovative and argues that it serves better as a quotative compared to other words. To many people, the use of the word has been associated with kids.

Ironically, some old people have been observed to use the word unknowingly with a good example being the authors mother who was still using the word in her fifties. Another example given in the article is that of an aunt of Jessica; the aunt used the word probably unknowingly.

Geoffrey Pullum who wrote The Cambridge grammar of English Language also supports the usage of the word like as he says that it is quite logical and reasonable. According to professor Arnold Zwicky, people associate this word with teenagers and anything that is associated with young people tends to be disdained. This explains why this word is highly criticized.

Another reason forwarded to explain the resistance of the word like is the perception that it is used by people with less education. According to Zwicky, using this word to many people is a sign of been uneducated and on the contrary, everyone wants to sound educated.

OConner is of the opinion that young people are aware that the word is not always formal and so they only use it in informal speeches. Zwicky experiences this with his students who are quite fond of the word and uses it informally. OConner challenges parents who criticize the use of the word like to stop as there is nothing wrong with using that word and furthermore parents often use it unknowingly.

Developing the Assessment: The Relevant Issues

Dialects and their development: the two sides of the sword

Among the things which needed to be done in the course of the given assignment, understanding the way dialects develop was the first and the foremost. Therefore, it was necessary to consider language development from a social standpoint, learning about the social processes that impact language development (Moyer, 2010, p. 11).

Terminology as an additional layer of the English vocabulary

Another peculiar issue that required an in-depth research was the difference between the British and the American English. It was rather intriguing to find out that the American language actually was actually developed out of the English of the XIX century (Werckmeister, 2012, p. 15). However, the above-mentioned explained a lot about the specifics of the American pronunciation, vocabulary and sentence structure.

Identifying Grammatical Variations: Cast the Standards Aside

Hisself and himself: more than a slip of the pen

He only gets a ticket for hisself.

In the given sentence, one can observe the effect of the so-called socially marked forms (Parker & Riley, 2005, p. 149). Though, judging linguistically, the form is incorrect, from the sociological standpoint, the given form has the rights to exist as a dialectal form.

The verb, and nothing but the verb: important details

I likes playing football more than what I used to.

In the given case, the form I likes is used instead of the traditional I like. The third-person ending is a distinct sing of a dialectal speech. As it is stated in the Chapter Four (n.d.), the given example is a clear-cut case of a difference between the Standard English and Concord.

Aint, doesnt and arent: the right thing to say

She aint got no money, only what he give her.

In the given sentence, instead of does not have, the author uses the word aint, which has earned quite a bad reputation over the past few years and seems to have become the symbol of bad taste and bad English (Denham & Lobek, 2011, p. 173). However, the given form is, in fact, a rudiment from the XVII century: Aint first appeared in print with its spelling in the late 1700ies, though it had been around long before that  at least a century  with the spelling ant (Denham & Lobek, 2011, p. 173).

On a regular occasion: irregular verbs and tense system

I seed the advertisement in the newspaper.

According to Correct American (n.d.), there is a tendency in the American English to regularize (Correct American, n.d.) the irregular forms of some verbs, and to see is one of these verbs. Considered a dialectal form of saw, seed is not an official, yet quite legitimate substitute for the traditional saw.

When it comes to two instances of dialect at once

I says you aint the one that was here before.

In the given case, two rules are broken in the same sentence. Along with the above-mentioned aint issue, which has already been discussed, the sentence features such phenomenon as says for the first person singular. As British Library claims, the given phenomenon can be addressed to as the historic present (British Library, n.d.).

The mystery of innit: something one will not see any day soon

You like my brother, innit?

A dialectal variation of isnt it?, innit? is known mostly within the borders of the United Kingdom. However, it seems that the given form is considered a mauve tone among the Brits (Smith, 2012).

A case of a grammar no-no: breaking the rules

I never thought nothing would happen.

Though it is traditionally considered that double negation is impossible within a single sentence in English, in some dialects, the phenomenon can take place. Used for emphasis, the given structure is yet considered a colloquialism (Chapter 1, n.d.).

Beyond all logical reasons: the logics of tenses

It were the police what done it.

According to the evidence offered in Lecture11a (n.d.), the phenomenon of using Past Participle instead of Past Indefinite form is another dialect which is not common in public speech, yet stands on its own as a dialect.

Discovering the Meaning of Words: When There is More than Meets the Eye

Elicitation

Elicitation is one of the phenomena which one is most likely to encounter in the field of linguistics, especially when it comes to dialects. According to Brennan, there are a number of ways to define elicitation. Is the author assures, the term has a number of various levels which can be revealed only when applying the term to a certain context.

Hence, elicitation can be defined in the following way: The definition of elicitation is: 1. to draw forth or bring out (something latent or potential) 2. to call forth or to draw out (as information or response) (Brennan, 2009, p. 53).

Applied to the context of language learning, the above-mentioned definition can be interpreted as drawing conclusions concerning the origin of a certain word or a cause of a certain linguistic phenomena with the help of a careful analysis of the existing facts and application of the appropriate theirs. Hence, elicitation can be considered a means to expand the meaning of a certain word.

Dialect levelling

One of the most peculiar language changes which is currently happening in the United Kingdom, dialect leveling is the process of dialect development.

Mostly enhanced by the fact that the representatives of the dialect groups intersect and, therefore, communicate on a regular basis, the phenomenon presupposes the process of the dialects merging into a single dialect According to the definition provided by Kugler, Ry & Vijver (2009), dialect leveling can be defined as the process of the reduction of formal variation (Kugler, Ry & Vijver, 2009, p. 313).

Hence, dialect leveling can be considered a step forward in the development of the English language, yet a step backward in distilling the peculiarities of the English dialects. On the one hand, the process of dialect leveling is quite easy to foresee; on the other hand, it is highly undesirable form the viewpoint of preserving the unique British culture in its versatility. Dialect leveling is the process aimed at making the English language more universal.

Multicultural London English

Weirdly enough, the British English is not as close to the traditional version of the English language as one might have thought. The British English has suffered a lot of changes due to the impact of numerous cultures. As Holmes explains,

Social dialect researchers in Hackney, an inner city area of London, and an ethnically very diverse area, have identified a new ethnic speech variety used by local teenagers. It has been labelled Multicultural London English because it is used by adolescents from a range of ethnic backgrounds, including Jamaican, African and Asian backgrounds. (Holmes, 2008, 190)

Therefore, technically, Multicultural London English is the dialect which has emerged after a range of ethnicities have added the specifics of their languages to English. However, it must be marked that the dialect has been considered legit only once adolescents started using it. Hence, it can be considered that the jargon crated by youngsters cannot be considered a legitimate language that can stand on its own.

Isogloss

Isogloss can be defined as the graphic layout of the use of a certain language and its geographical borders, as well as the regions in which the give language merges with other ones. According to the definition provided by Branner, the term isogloss was originally modeled on isopleth, used in topographical maps, and isotherm, used in weather maps (Branner, 2000, p. 32).Hence, it can be considered that the term has been derived from two other terms and, therefore, can be referred both to linguistics and geography.

Border dialect

One of the most peculiar cases of new dialects creation, language border is a phenomenon that can be best described as a cross between two different languages. While one of the languages remains dominant and makes for the grammatical stem of the new dialect, another one contributes its vocabulary stock. According to Penfield & Ornstein-Gallica (1985), border dialect is the English used by new learners which does fail within the parameters of interference (Penfield & Ornstein-Gallica, 1985, p. 16).

Reference List

Branner, D. P. 2000, Problems in comparative Chinese dialectology: the classification of Miin and Hakka, Mouton de Gruyter, Hague.

Brennan, I. K. 2009, A guide to business analysis body of knowledge (BABOK guide), version 2.0, IIBA, Toronto.

British Library, Glossary. Web.

Chapter 1. Web.

Chapter Four. Web.

Correct American. Web.

Denham, K. & Lobek, A. 2011, Linguistics for everyone: an introduction, Stamford, CN. Cengage Learning.

Holmes, J. A. 2008, An introduction to sociolinguistics, Pearson Education, UK.

Kugler, F., Ry, C. F., & Vijver, van der, R. F. H. E. 2009, Variation and gradience in phonetics and phonology, Walter de Gruyter, Hague.

Lecture 11a, n.d., Language, thought and culture  dialects. Web.

Moyer, A. 2010, Vernacular languages and dialects: Oxford bibliographies online research guide, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Parker , F. & Riley, K. 2005, Linguistics for non-linguists: a primer with exercises. Web.

Penfield, J. & Ornstein-Gallica, J. L. 1985, Chicano English: an ethnic contact dialect, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Netherlands.

Smith, L. 2012, Queens English Society says enuf is enough, innit? Web.

Werckmeister, A. 2012, American and British English differences with a look at their history, GRIN Verlag, Berlin.

The introduction: multilingualism and its meaning

While describing such phenomena as multilingualism and identity, I would like to highlight the importance of both issues. So, first of all, it is necessary to point out that language is considered to be one of the most important signs, which determine and express identity. Thus, it is obvious that there is a strong interdependence between the two issues.

Mark Warschauer and Inez De Florio-Hansen say that, The role of language and dialect in identity construction is becoming even more central in the post-modern era, as other traditional markers of identity are being destabilized (1).

However, the most interesting point is that in our days every European citizen has to know more than two languages. In other words, a person should know his or her native language, English and one more language he or she wants to learn.

Generally, it depends upon a person what third language he or she will choose. This phenomenon is called trilingualism. In the USA, English is recognized to be a common language for all ethic groups.

Moreover, one is to keep in mind that multilingualism in the United States and plurilingualism of individuals is one of the cornerstones of Europe (Warschauer & Florio-Hansen 1).

Multilingualism is of great social importance. In our days, this phenomenon can be investigated from different perspectives. I would like to point out that it is not so easy to count exact number of languages, as the border between the language and the dialect is rather ambiguous. However, they say that the inhabitants of Africa and Asia speak larger number of dialects, than the representatives of other regions.

The thesis statement

The relationship of language to race and ethnicity as essential to the multiple identities individuals are engaged in constructing in the age of information (Warschauer & Florio-Hansen 1).

It is necessary to determine the interdependence between language and identity and to highlight the impact of language on peoples communication skills and opportunities.

On the other hand, the interdependence between economic, political and social aspects of contemporary society and multilingualism is considered to be a crucial question.

The body: the fundamentals of multilingualism

So, the diversity of languages is really great. They say that there are approximately from 5,000 to 7,000 languages in the world; so, this fact allows one to make a conclusion that multilingualism is rather widespread phenomenon.

On the other hand, the fact that some governmental structures of many countries decided that no more than two languages can be used as spoken languages seems to contradict the previous conclusion.

In other words, it seems that multilingualism is not a widespread phenomenon. So, what statement is to be true? In my opinion, multilingualism is really popular, as it is difficult to find totally monolingual country.

I would like to point out that multilingualism is recognized to be a rule, but not an exception to the rule, as most of people may think. Of course, while speaking about multilingualism at the individual level, one can state that the phenomenon is not so widespread, when comparing with the sociolinguistic level; anyway, one is to keep in mind that the representatives of most of the countries speak more than one language.

Generally, there is a need to specify that when speaking about western cultures, the phenomenon of multilingualism always takes place.

I have to say that I am really fond of Amy Tans perception of language. Ive read her article and was really impressed by her attitude towards language.

Thus, I still remember her phrase, I spend a great deal of my time thinking about the power of language  the way it can evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or a simple truth (1). I would like you to read her article to understand the power of language.

There are many definitions of the phenomenon; however, I suppose that the term of multilingualism means a persons ability to speak three or more languages.

Of course, one can ask why three languages, but not two determine the phenomenon; so, to my mind, it is evident that an ability to speak two languages is mostly associated with bilingualism.

However, I would like to point out that I am speaking about multilingualism and its relation to societal level; so, this fact gives me an opportunity to state that there is certain difference between bilingualism and multilingualism.

On the other hand, if one wants to consider multilingualism at individual level, than the number of languages (two or three) is not important at all.

Another interesting question I would like to highlight is the cause of the phenomenon appearance. They say that multilingualism appeared due to various factors; however, I would like to represent the most common opinion.

So, the members of Sustainable Development in a Diverse World state that the factors which caused multilingualism are Historical or political movements such as imperialism or colonialism.

In this case the spread of some languages, such as Spanish to Latin America, it results in the coexistence of different languages (6). Other opinions include economic movements, increasing communications, social and cultural identity, education, and religion movements. Of course, nobody will deny the fact that English is recognized to be the main and the most important language in the world.

The contact between English and other languages in the three circles and the spread of English in the outer and expanding circles has important sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic implications (Sustainable Development in a Diverse World 8). The three circles of Kachru include expanding circle, outer circle and inner circle.

While speaking about multilingualism, it is necessary to highlight some basic functions of the languages. Thus, the principal functions include a communicative

function, i.e. the transmission of information in a broad sense, and a symbolic function, associated with cultural and political traits, for example with peoples sense of national identity (Gazzola 394).

So, taking into account the above-mentioned functions, one can state that it is the influence of a symbolic function, which determines the relation of the language to social, economic and political issues/aspects.

While speaking about language vitality, one is to keep in mind that it is the demographic factor, which determines how many languages will be at risk. Thus, one can make a conclusion that limited number of speakers is a crucial aspect, which cant be neglected.

Patricia Ryan states that, Languages are dying at an unprecedented rate. A language dies every 14 days (Patricia Ryan: Dont insist on English). However, some other factors also play an important role and should be considered in detail.

For instance, status, demography and institutional support are other significant aspects a person is to keep in mind. The status variables include the economic status, the social status, the sociohistorical variable and the status of the groups language.

The last status can be considered within the community as well as outside the community. The constituents of other factors are below:

(Sustainable Development in a Diverse World 15).

They say that the importance of language diversity is determined by the following aspects. These include ecological diversity; identity, which is expressed by languages; language and its relation to human knowledge; languages as repositories of national identity; and language as the most interesting phenomenon.

While speaking about multilingualism in education context, there is a need to point out that Harvard became part of a trend that also dominated about thirty years of American higher education, during which fewer and fewer students learned foreign languages in high schools and colleges (Sollors 64).

However, in 1999, a special program was established and non-majoring students were honored with a special award for their achievements in a foreign language. In our days, more than a third of the students of Harvard University take part in the program.

Generally, I have to admit that special programs to study foreign languages appeared long ago; however, at that time American students studied Latin and French. These languages determined the status of well-educated students.

The newer forms of bilingualism are directly related to migratory flows of people and cultural products, have stimulated the study of heritage and minority languages, have made Spanish also by far the most popular foreign language taken by students in the United States, and have led to the establishment of courses like Beginning Chinese for Native Speakers, while enrollment in Arabic has increased very noticeably (Sollors 66).

Another interesting aspect I would like to point out is that For languages such as English and Spanish that have many cognate connections, a focus on cognates can enhance students knowledge of TL vocabulary (Cummins 319).

The conclusion: the importance of the phenomenon

Though the United States traditionally has no national language policy, US language ideologies are evident in both national educational policy and state level language policies (Hornberger 46).

In the USA, multilingualism is extremely important issue, as there are many immigrants from other countries. In other words, with the growing population of linguistically and culturally diverse students in the United States, the debate over whether or not multilingualism should be accepted and encouraged in school and in the society quickly becoming one of the most controversial issues.

As a supporter of multilingualism, I agree that the role played by multilingualism in United States is vital. Both school and the society should encourage the spread of multilingualism, rather than requiring English-only education in school or destroying any dialects and non-standard English.

Works Cited:

Cummins, Jim. Multilingualism in the English-language Classroom: Redagogical Considerations, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc., 2009. Print.

Gazzola, Michele. Managing Multilingualism in the European Union: Language Policy Evaluation for the European Parliament, 2006. Web.

Hornberger, Nancy. Multilingual Language Policies and the Continua of Biliteracy: An Ecological Approach, 2002. Web.

Patricia Ryan: Dont insist on English. Ted. com. 2011. Web.

Sollors, Werner. Multilingualism in the United States: A Less Well-Known Source of Vitality in American Culture as an Issue of Social Justice and of Historical Memory, 2009. Web.

Sustainable Development in a Diverse World. Benefits of Linguistic Diversity and Multilingualism. Web.

Tan, Amy. Mother Tongue. Web.

Warschauer, Mark & Inez, De Florio-Hansen. Multilingualism, Identity and the Internet, 2003. Web.

Importance of stages in learning the first and second languages

According to Xing (110), Language acquisition is a process through which language is perceived and attained for use in communication. When one has acquired a language, the individual can use that language to make words. Several mechanisms take place when a person is learning a language (Igram 30). This accounts for the complexity of the learning process. Researchers have often disagreed on the value of stages especially in the acquisition of a second language.

The question that this essay will be seeking to answer is: Must the learners of a first and second language go through all the stages of language acquisition? This paper examines the importance of stages in language acquisition. These stages are important because they signify progress in the learning process and help the learner to have orderliness in mastering various rules in the language.

When certain stages are missed, the learner may never be able to master certain things in a language (Bylund, Nyclas and Hyltenstam, 44). It is therefore very important to study these stages. Every stage of language acquisition is important for acquiring the first and second languages.

Importance of stages in language acquisition

Children pass through many stages before they master their native language. Each of these stages forms the foundation on which the next stage will rest. Each stage is therefore very critical because the success of the child at any one stage depends on the success made in the previous stages. Learning the first language through stages is the only successful way to mastering the language. Ingram (53) argues that, acquisition of the first language has a critical period.

This can be understood as an important stage in which the baby needs exposure to language for normal acquisition of language to take place. If this stage is by passed, the baby may never acquire the language in a normal way because it is one of the many stages involved in learning a language (Xing, Dedrick, Troy and Kofi, 113).

The initial stage is cooing. Every baby sounds like the other in this stage regardless of their native language or place of residence. Passing through this stage gives the baby a chance to practice using the voice box before beginning to learn any language. According to Ingram (116), this stage forms the foundation for speech. Whenever the second stage sets in, the coos begin to take up the vowels present in the native language of the baby.

The babies start sounding differently from each other and the journey to speaking their native languages begins. This is an important stage because it determines the point at which the baby picks up a particular native language. In the third stage the babies start producing full words. They can make utterances using one word made of nouns.

The babies move on to sentences with two words made up of a combination of a verb and a noun. Longer utterances with three words or more are made with time as the babies learn the first language. The babies make utterances with adjectives followed by adverbs when they have mastered the language to an advanced level (Xing 150). Cooing is important because it forms a foundation for language formation.

Following the stages allows the learner to have an orderly and systematic grasp of the rules and commands of a language. Many people get a lot of difficulties while trying to learn a second language. These difficulties are even more complex when one fails to follow particular stages of acquiring a second language.

Every language has a system comprising of rules governing the arrangement of sounds to form patterns of speech that have a meaning. Words need to be in a certain particular order to form an understandable sentence. People trying to acquire a second language go through the same processes they went through when learning their first language (Quentin, Jing, Shin, Jee-Young, Shuang, Su, Jung-Hsuan, Burgess-Bringham, Gazer, Unal and Snow, 67).

According to Bylund et al (87), every stage has bigger challenges than the previous one and so the learner is prepared for the new challenge. Learning a second language for example, is a process comprising of the pre-production stage, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency and advanced fluency. In the pre-production stage, learners can have a receptive vocabulary of five hundred words although they dont speak.

Learners need the language to be repeated to them (Krech and Healy, 24). They understand gestures and certain movements. The early production stage takes about 6 months and learners may have 1000 words of passive as well as active vocabulary. This stage is important since it forms the foundation for the next stage.

Stages signify progress in learning. For example, the third stage of second language acquisition is called speech emergence. Learners have about three thousand words in their vocabulary and may use simply constructed sentences in communication. They are able to ask grammatical or ungrammatical questions and can follow easy stories.

In the fourth stage of intermediate fluency, learners have approximately six thousand active words and can speak and write complex sentences. Quentin et al (13), note that the learner may apply strategies from his native language to acquire content in the new language. In writing, the learners make many mistakes but they can understand complex concepts. The final stage in second language acquisition is advanced fluency.

Learners can take between 4 and 10 years to gain proficiency in their second language. This is progressive learning and the teacher has easy time to teach the language because he can identify successes and failures through these stages (Rui 120). Stages therefore show that the learner is growing in his or her knowledge of the language being acquired.

Some researchers argue that language can be acquired without the necessity of systematic stages. Such people overlook the fact that the brain itself is made in a manner that it masters things in an orderly way from the easier ones to the more complex ones ( Ingram 67). Failure to follow any order in learning can cause confusion in the learners.

Conclusion

The essay has presented an argument over the necessity of language acquisition stages for learning the first and second languages. The stages involved in language acquisition are very important because one can only master a language well if he goes through these stages.

One stage forms the foundation for the next stage, stages help the learner to master the rules of the language systematically and prepare the learner for the next stage. Stages also indicate progress in learning. The stages of language acquisition are therefore very important to the entire process. More research should be done on what happens to learners when they are unable to master certain specific stages in language acquisition.

Works Cited

Bylund, Emmanuel, A. Nyclas and K. Hyltenstam. Does First Language Hamper Nativelikeness in Second Language? Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 3.2 (2012): 13-17. Searchable Proficiency Database. Web.

Ingram, David. First Language acquisition: Method, Description and Explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Google Scholar. Web.

Krech, Thomas and A. Healy. A Comparison of Rereading Benefits in First and Second Language Reading. Language Learning; Journal of research in language studies 62.1 (2012): 10-21. ESF Database. Web.

Quentin, Dixob, Jing Zhao, Jee-Young Shin, Shuang Wu, Jung-Hsuan Su, Gazer Burgess-Bringham, Unal Melike and Catherine Snow. What we know About Second Language Acquisition: A Synthesis from Four Perspectives. Language 3.6 (2012): 2-6 Academic Search Complete. Web.

Rui, Chen. A brief Study on Second language Acquisition and Web Based English Teaching. E-business 3.6 (2011): 1-3. IEEE Xplore digital library. Web.

Xing, Tony, Robert Dedrick, Troy Locker and Kofi Marfo. Second-first Language Acquisition: Analysis of Expressive Language Skills in a sample of girls Adopted from China. Conference Feb. 2012. CINAHL with Full Text. Web.

To Survive in a Globalized World

The age of globalization is upon us. This means that people from different cultures have opportunities to interact with each other, thus, they need to find ways to communicate better. Learning a second language on top of their native one may be one step in reaching out to people from another culture.

Parents are now becoming more keen in letting their young children learn second, third and even multiple languages to prepare them for the competition they have to face in the world when they grow up. Childrens television shows such as Dora, the Explorer and Sesame Street are very popular, because these shows feature learning words in another language other than the childs first language.

Young children find exposure to more languages at an early age due to the encouragement of multicultural education. English has become the global language for businesses world wide, so many people from foreign countries engage in learning it as a second language.

However, several issues have come up regarding linguistic diversity. Educators need to investigate and understand these issues so that they can better design second language learning strategies to implement in their multicultural classes.

This paper will investigate language learning and discuss concepts, principles, theories and methods in learning language, specifically a second language. It will also discuss how learning a second language affects the first language as well as determine if age is a factor in learning a new language or if strategies employed in the learning of the language can override the age factor. This is in consideration of more and more adults wanting to learn a second language for their own benefit.

Language Acquisition and Development

Language acquisition and development has been a point of keen interest of educators, psychologists and researchers that numerous studies have been done to unveil more knowledge about it.There have been many theories conceptualized as to how language is acquired by human beings. A great deal of a childs acquisition of linguistic structure occurs during the first five years of life.

This is the period when he is most active in discerning a set of underlying organizational principles of language from the expression that surrounds him. It is amazing how at a very young age, he is capable of abstracting meaning from direct experience with other language users depending on his own context.

Beaty (2009) explains that even at an infant stage, the babys early nonverbal communication helps in preparing her for the spoken and written language to follow and at 6 months, she has become a language specialist, based on the sounds she hears most frequently. At 20 months, she may possess a sizable vocabulary if she hears adults around her talk to one another and to her all the time.

Of course good hearing and sensitive listening are paramount to language development. According to Lightbrown & Spada (1999), like the first language, learners age is one of the characteristics which determine the way in which an individual approaches second language learning. (68).

Language has four elements, and these elements have related skills necessary to develop a proficiency in language. According to Larsen-Freeman (1986), the natural order that children follow when learning their native language in terms of skill acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Crucial to the development of teaching approaches is an understanding of such processes involved in language use.

Learning of language and literacy is very much interrelated. With young children, it is essential that the learning approaches in teaching literacy be selected appropriately. Educators use different approaches to help children become literate:

• Whole language approach:
  • emphasizes a holistic, meaning-based and context-based approach in linking printed text with spoken language.
  • Little attention is paid to specific or isolated skills and limited emphasis is placed on the role of focused practice.
  • Language and literacy are viewed as integrated systems, and specific components of language such as sounds of each letter are not learned in isolation (Norris & Hoffman, 1993).
• Phonetic approach:
  • emphasizes phonological awareness training
  • value the provision of specific and focused opportunities to practice segmenting words into phonemes, blending phonemes into words and learning to rhyme.
• Natural literacy:
  • expands the concept of emergent literacy by emphasizing the role of interactions with adults or more competent peers in a childs learning experiences.

Although the whole language approach and the phonetic approach seem to be opposing camps, there is good reason to suggest an integration of both for more effective literacy development. Watkins & Bunce (1996) gives the rationale:

On the one hand, because the process of literacy acquisition occurs through natural, meaningful experiences with print and reading, these experiences should play a role in efforts to facilitate such skills. On the other hand, because phonological awareness contributes to early reading achievement, some focus on particular phonological awareness abilities appears warranted. Thus, a rationale exists for integrating whole language and phonological awareness perspectives in attempts to promote literacy proficiency in young children. (n.p.)

The activities teachers of young children should plan for them should comply to the requirements necessary to meet the developmental needs of young children in terms of their language and literacy development. Not only should children be literate, but they should also become good communicators in the future especially if they are exposed to more of developmentally-appropriate activities in their very young age.

Otto (2010) differentiates language acquisition and language learning as thus: in language acquisition, a child learns language unconsciously in a natural way because he needs to understand meaning. On the other hand, in language learning, a child consciously learns rules in formal instruction in learning a language. Emphasis here is on the form of the language.

Vygotsky (1962, as mentioned in Clay, 1998) emphasizes the value of childrens talk and their growing ability to articulate their understanding of their world orally and in writing. Taking part in negotiating meanings is part of the educational process, and Vygotsky believes that just being with others helps children learn.

Benson McMullen (1998) agrees that childrens collaboration with their peers in problem-solving sessions encourages listening to each others ideas and in turn, express their own thoughts clearly. The varied ideas on dealing with problems evolve in group discussions making children understand that there may be more than one solution to a problem. It also prompts children to negotiate with others which solution to try.

Adults play a huge role in the language development of children, as they need someone who uses simple language in correct form and is flexible enough adjust his language to suit the childs (Clay, 1988).

Lindfors (1987) notes that the childs language environment includes a set of specific sentences, however, it is not this set of sentences that he acquires, but deduces from these an underlying set of organizational principles and sound-meaning relationships.

To illustrate, children as young as two do not talk by simply using the specific sentences they hear, but rather, they construct sentences according to their own early version of organized principles underlying the specific sentences they have heard.

Perhaps due also limited language and motor skills, the childs early linguistic system is different from the adults and results in telegraphic and grammatically erratic sentences like He no want to sit me., I not like it, and He gived it to me.

Over time, his language system will be revised in many different situations, and his sentences will become more adult-like. For his own purpose, he builds his own rule-governed constructions as he has deduced from his environment (Lindfors, 1987).

Theories of Language Acquisition

Lindfors (1987) claims, Virtually every child, without special training, exposed to surface structures of language in many interaction contexts, builds for himself  in a short period of time and at an early stage in his cognitive development  a deep-level, abstract, and highly complex system of linguistic structure and use. (90) This implies that every child is capable of learning language.

This is consistent with Chomskys theories, known as many names& Linguistic, Nativistic or Innatist, that uphold that language is inherent or wired-in in the child at birth. A trigger from social interactions helps the language emerge (Brewer, 2001). He does not need to learn language, as he is equipped with a language acquisition device, a structure in the brain that made possible the learning of language (Chomsky, 1965).

Research to support the Linguistic model pointed to evidence that humans are the only species to acquire language, which they use to communicate ideas and pass on to other generations knowledge they have gained. Lenneberg (1964) pointed out some ways in which language acquisition is more genetically inherent than learned, as Behaviorists claim.

According to him, using language is like walking on two legs akin to behavior that shows: limited variation, within the species (although wide individual variation in the specifics of its execution but striking similarity in its basic design throughout the species; no beginning point for the behavior within the evolutionary history of the species evidence for inherited predisposition  humans are biologically constituted for a certain type of locomotion and for symbolic communication through language; apparent existence of organic correlates  like walking, it follows a pattern of maturational development.

Although, Lennebergs views seem to be more biologically inclined, he offers more interesting and, at that time, shocking information about the human brain. If a person figures in an accident affecting his brain, he found the prognosis to be directly related to the age at which insult to the brain is incurred (Lenneberg, 1967:142).

If the injury to the language area of the brain occurs in the early years, the brain is still malleable enough that another area can take over the function of language acquisition.

However, if the brain injury happens after puberty when the brain is already matured structurally, biochemically and neurophysiologically, the persons automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear and foreign languages have to be taught and earned through a conscious and labored effort (Lenneberg 1967: 176).

Being so, does this imply that a human being in the stage of the activation of the language acquisition system may learn many foreign languages at the same time?

Within the community of the Linguistic model, there also appears to have debates regarding the innateness of language learning potential. Chomsky, speaking form within a purely theoretical framework, argued that special innate capacity was content, that is, a body of unconscious knowledge of language universals already wired in(Lindfors, 1987) Such mechanism will be triggered when a child was exposed to the language of his community.

However, Slobin (1966) suggested a process approach to contrast with Chomskys content approach. He proposes that a child is born with a processing mechanism to process linguistic data. These mechanisms are such that, applying them to the input data, the child ends up with something which is a member of the class of human languages.

The linguistic universals, then, are the result of an innate cognitive competence rather than the content of such a competence. (87-88). Slobins theory seems to propose a more intricate and complicated language acquisition device inherent in each child, much like a computer processor chip implanted within the brain.

Even the Linguistic model poses a lot of questions to ponder about language acquisition. The internal debate amongst advocates of this theory goes on, but does not center on whether or not there is an innate capacity in humans that enables almost all members of the species to be successful in this incredible feat of learning a language. Rather, the discussion centers on the nature of this innate ability.(Lindfort, 1987).

Skinners Behaviorist Model of language acquisition is consistent with the rules of operant conditioning, based upon a stimulus-response model. Simply put, infants imitate language presented to them. They get rewards for their imitations so they continue to repeat what they have heard. Their imitation does not have to be exact or immediate in order for them to make use of it in learning language (Brewer, 2001).

For example, a baby is happily babbling in his crib and then his mother appears to play with him and by chance, he hits on the syllables ma-ma (which is likely in the phonological development of infants and may not serve any meaning to the baby).

He gets a very positive response from his mother as she shrieks with glee and gives him hugs and kisses. Such reward will surely reinforce the babys utterance of ma-ma in her presence. (Lindfors, 1987). However, as the child grows, imitation should approximate the accurate pronunciation of words.

According to the behaviorist view, an individual is reinforced (positively or negatively) for responses to various stimuli, hence, the external environment plays a great part in the formation of behaviors.

By administering positive reinforcement such as praising or smiling when a desired behavior occurs and administering negative reinforcement such as scolding or correcting when an undesired behavior occurs, one is assumed to encourage the desired behavior and make it more likely that that behavior will recur (Lindfors, 1987).

The Behaviorist theory of language acquisition reigned supreme in the period of its introduction. However, it was unable to explain many things related to language development. One is the fact that much of childrens language is constructed in ways that have never been modeled by mature speakers. If adults talk to children without errors, how come childrens language may still be filled with grammatical errors?

It is also puzzling to behaviorists that they can offer no explanation as to how regressions in childrens language happen. An example is that a young child will use the past tense of the word go as went correctly, however, as he matures and generalizes the rules for constructing past-tense verbs, he replaces went with goed, not realizing that go is an irregular verb. (Brewer, 2001).

This is evidence that language learners do not simply internalize a great list of imitated and memorized sentences (Lightbown & Spada, 2006:183). They need to learn ways on how others will be able to understand them better.

The Behaviorist theory is also criticized in the way it handles or fails to handle the patterning of language which can be described in linguistic science. He wrote almost as if linguistic science never existed, making little reference either to traditional grammar or to any other variety of grammar. He developed a sort of psychological grammar which conventionalized patterns of language play only a small part.

The rules of transformations in grammar cannot be explained by this theory. It likewise could not provide for the role of memory, of private behavior, of intuition and of many other phenomena recognized but not directly accessible to public observation.

Finally, as a major criticism of the Skinnerian theory of language one could say that it is primarily a psychology of the production of language rather than of the reception of language. It talks about how people learn to produce language but it says little about how people learn to understand it. (Carroll, 1962).

On the other hand, the behaviorist point of view is valid in terms of children learning to speak the languages of their homes. Children are observed to produce the necessary sounds they hear from their native languages and to screen out the sounds that are not needed in such language. Children also learn to repeat words and phrases that they hear around them even when they do not know what they mean.

According to Ausubels Cognitive Learning theory, meaningful processes of associating new information to already known concepts bring about learning.

Ausubel contrasts rote learning from meaningful learning in that rote learning is the acquisition of material as discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of meaningful relationships (Ausubel, 1968, as qtd in Brown, 1987: 65).

On the other hand, meaningful learning is a process that relates and establishes new information learned to relevant past knowledge and experiences. Ausubels theory of learning has important implications for second language learning and teaching. Too much rote activity, at the expense of meaningful communication in language classes, could stifle the learning process. (Brown, 1987: 69).

According to Lev Vygotsky, social interaction stimulated by speech is essential for language development. He also mentions that a supportive interactive environment can help the child to reach a higher level of knowledge and performance compared to what might be reached through his or her ability to improve independently (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 23).

Lightbrown & Spada (2006) contend that people obtain control and reorganize their thinking processes during mediation as what they learn is internalized during social interactions. This follows Vygotskys theory that people learn through socialization because of interaction and collaboration with other speakers.

Taking together Skinners, Ausubels and Vygotskys theories, it can be summarized that language is learned through reinforcing successful imitations of language that is meaningful for the learner and enhanced in social interactions.

Swain (2000) came up with the output hypothesis which claims that language output of speaking and writing is weaker than the receiving input of reading and listening. Such a theory has been influenced by cognitive theory, but it is most likely to be motivated by sociocultural theory as well.

Swain and Lapkin (2000) studied how second language learners co-construct what they learn while doing the production tasks of speaking and writing. This would mean that while producing language, they simultaneously engage in form and meaning. Swain (2000) calls it collaborative dialogue where language use  language learning can co-occur. It is language use mediating language learning.

It is cognitive activity and it is social activity (97). So the sociocultural perspective views that in second language learning, cognitive processes begin externally through socially mediation and eventually become internalized. On the other hand, other interactionist models believe that modified input and interaction bring with them internal cognitive processes.

Language acquisition has captured the interests of experts in Biology, Linguistics and Psychology, and has given birth to a host of interesting theories. However, as man evolves further, new observations and evidences come up, debunking previously established information.

Extensive research and more intensive and thorough observations of children provide ample evidence that they all learn language and do so in a variety of natural settings. They are not typically reinforced for form, as even when repeatedly corrected, young children slide into the use of mistaken grammar that they find natural at that particular stage in their development.

Second Language Learning

Learning a second language is one adaptation skill that proves to be necessary when diverse cultures come together. For example, Children from diverse linguistic backgrounds study English as a bridge to better education.

Otto (2010) contends that one of the main challenges posed by the English as a Second Language (ESL) approach is the development, selection and implementation of effective strategies and instructional techniques to suit the diverse learners since they come from various backgrounds.

In terms of how people learn individually, the concept of learning styles come in. Learning style, as defined by Reid, (1995) describes a persons natural and preferred way of learning, as new information and skills are absorbed, processed and retained.

Therefore, teachers uniquely customize their lectures and tasks to fit second language learners individual needs. It is truly challenging for a teacher to seek appropriate teaching methods that are appropriate to meet diverse needs of students having varied aptitude and learning styles.

In Korea, there is a greater need to establish more efficient ESL courses because of the growing world status of Korea. More and more Korean companies are following the footsteps of Hyundai and Samsung in going multinational and wherever they locate offices and plants, these firms need English-speaking Koreans as part of the management team. For this reason, there is a note of urgency in ESL acquisition among Korean youth (Yoon, 2001).

Likewise, English-knowing bilingualism has been reaping benefits for Singaporeans who have geared themselves to meeting global challenges. In the 1990s, the latest developments in nation-building have begun emphasizing a corporate outlook and regionalism directly related to the use of the English language.

The younger generation is tied to the pragmatics of English-knowing bilingualism because they are the immediate witnesses of the rise of English as a new global force in the period of the second Diaspora of English (Kachru 1992). The emphasis on the pursuit of excellence in the country has been made possible with a large part of the population, now almost 80%, having some command of English.  (Pakir, 1999)

Singapores educational system is gaining world recognition for its high quality. It is known to stress the areas on literacy, numeracy, bilingualism as well as physical and moral education. In its evolution towards excellence, three foci have remained constant.

First is the aspiration to provide the best form of education in the different phases of Singapores development, and the second is to ensure that education served the purpose of national cohesion. A third constant has been to ensure that the schooling population is given the opportunity to become bilingual in English and a mother tongue. (Pakir, 1999).

The bilingual policy requires each child to learn English and his or her mother tongue so as to ensure proficiency in English (the language of commerce, technology and administration) and their mother tongue (the language of respective cultural heritage). (US English Foundation, n.d.)This last focus engages parents to support language learning management even in the home setting.

Students are exposed to the English language at the start of their formal schooling. Lee Kwan Yew, the main architect of the bilingual education policy believes that learning a second language early on leads to higher proficiency.

He declares, Language is a key to the acquisition of knowledge. If a student is unable to understand a language, then he is unable to receive information or knowledge in that language. It is therefore crucial that a breakthrough must be made in the English language as early in life as possible. (as cited in Platt, 1982)

Although high premium is put on bilingualism, Singapores policy does not actually provide education in two languages giving instruction in both simultaneously. Instead, each language is allotted a certain number of hours during the day.

Pakir notes that there is a constant desire to upgrade English skills and mother tongue proficiency, and the desire is translated into gate-keeping procedures in terms of student admission to higher levels of education, for example, secondary school to junior college and from junior college to university entrance. (Pakir, 1999). Hence, ambitious Singaporean students strive to be proficient in both in order to gain access to portals of higher learning.

Indeed, globalization has imposed the need for learning the international language, thus the proliferation of English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses for English Language Learners (ELL) in many non-English speaking countries. More and more foreigners are also studying English as a bridge to better education.

This is due to the fact that they gain access to knowledge and information that benefits the majority of the population when they are adept in the English language. They learn their rights as citizens, understand health benefits and medical privileges, and simply survive better in an English speaking environment.

Leon (1996) has outlined the need for migrant workers and their families to be supported in gaining English-speaking competencies to enable them to live more satisfying lives in America. He said lack of bilingual support for students impedes their motivation to learn, as they could not cope with other English-speaking peers, so they feel unwanted, and just skip school.

He claims, We must teach all migrant students at an early age that it is important to learn English in order to know the system and work within the system. It will be to their advantage to know two languages. It will also help them interact with the rest of the children (Leon, 1996: 15). Gaining English language competency for these children will also raise their self-esteem so they get to be more confident to develop more personal and academic skills.

One issue in second language acquisition is its effect on the first language of the individual. The immense concentration necessary to learn a second language may create a negative impact on the first language. Otto (2010) calls this Subtractive bilingualism.

When a child becomes fluent in a second language due to immersion in that language, there is a strong tendency to forget the first language, causing disruptions in communication with family members who only know the first language. Transmission of cultural beliefs and parenting interactions would need a shared language for it to be successful. If not, social relationships with families or other members of the community who are monolingual may break down.

On the other hand, in learning a second language, a child need not forget the first language, but can be fluent in both. This is called Additive Bilingualism which means that although a child actively learns a second language, concurrently, there is continued development in the home language (Otto, 2010). The goal is to enhance language skills in both languages.

Swain & Lapkin (2000) conclude in their study that the first language is by default, a tool used by students to learn their second language. Collaborating with other students in tasks for learning a second language, students try to make sense of the requirements and content of the task, focusing their attention on language form vocabulary use and overall organization, then turn to their native language to process and discuss before finally getting back to completing the task.

Swain and Lapkin point out that without the use of their native language, they might not be able to accomplish the task effectively or it might not be accomplished at all. They argue that the insistence of not being allowed to access their first language in a linguistically and cognitively complex task of decoding a second language task would deprive them of an important cognitive tool.

They stress that bilingual programs that allow for the development and maintenance of the first language while learning the second language are successful in both goals.

English has become the foremost medium of international communication as it mediates a whole range of cultural and cross-cultural concepts. (Promdromou, 1992). Still, perpetrators of English Language Teaching (ELT) courses should keep in mind the culture of the students they teach and differentiate the use of appropriate and authentic ELT pedagogy.

Kramsch & Sullivan (1996) further explains that teaching methodologies and materials developed in Europe or the United States could not be used in the way they were intended when they reach far-out places with entirely different cultures from that of the English-speaking countries.

Widdowson (1994) argues that instead of teaching authentic English, which only privileges the native speaker and imposes its norms at the global level, one needs to be appropriate to the local culture, thereby revising the authentic English language and adapting it to local conditions.

This way, the learner becomes fluent in both global and local use of the English language, which makes them thrive in both international and national cultures. Clifford (1992) calls such cross-cultural individuals insiders-outsiders.

Promdromou (1992) concludes that in teaching any language, information, therefore power is imparted to the learners. Because the global language has become English, learners of the language not only derive English communication skills but likewise, they gain the power of knowing about the world as well as caring for it.

Global education is defined as education that develops the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are the basis for decision making and participation in a world characterized by cultural pluralism, interconnectedness and international economic competition (Merryfield, 1995: 1). However, diversity can affect both the environment of the class and the students.

The language differences may lead the students to a communication gap. Students belonging to a different culture may face different problems in accordance to their living standards.

The skill level expectation of the students depends upon their origin and culture. For example a student of China would face difficulties while studying in the UK. This is because the student is not able to cope with the standards of education in the UK as he has always studied in the standards of China. He may face difficulties in understanding the language and writing according to the standards in the UK.

It is believed that the age of the child is an important variable in learning a second language. Younger children may receive information better, however, it is still in the quality of delivery of such information that determines its learning. Among the available strategies in teaching and learning a foreign language, those that focus on both content and language are the most effective.

Students are more motivated to learn another language if they find the content interesting to them, and the teaching approach more exciting to engage their prolonged attention and retention of concepts. This means that as long as the strategy to teach the language is effective and engaging, it does not really matter what age the learner is.

Strategies/ Approaches in Second Language Learning

Various teaching methodologies on second language learning have evolved. Some of these methods are the Direct Method, the Grammar-Translation method, the Audio-Lingual method, the Community Language Learning method, Total Physical Response Method and the Communicative Approach. Each method has its own adaptation of the theories in its application.

In the Direct Method, it is theorized that second language learning should be more like first language learning  plenty of active, verbal interactions, spontaneous language use and no translations between first and second languages.

It is also not concerned with analysis of grammatical rules (Brown, 1987) although correct pronunciation and grammar should be exhibited. The use of pictures and objects as learning aids are available so that learners can easily associate English words directly with what is familiar to them.

Larsen-Freeman (1986) adds that the teacher should demonstrate and not explain or translate, because students should make a direct association between the target language (English) and meaning. This helps students learn to think in the target language, as they acquire vocabulary by using full sentences rather than memorizing word lists.

The Grammar-Translation method otherwise known as the Classical method because it is used in learning classical languages such as Greek or Latin, on the other hand, uses the mother tongue to learn a second language. It is as if the second language was the subject matter, and is explained and studied using the native language of the learners.

The goal is for learners to be able to translate one language to another, and not necessarily to be able to communicate spontaneously in the second language. It does not aim to develop fluency. The students read foreign text line by line and translate them, often processing it in their first language. The teacher draws attention to a specific grammar rule and then gives drills pertaining to this isolated rule.

The Audiolingual method (ALM) was designed to be unlike the grammar translation approach and aims for the learner to actually speak the language. It suggests that the learning of a foreign language should be the same as the acquisition of the native language whereby rules of language need not be memorized, as these will be induced from much practice with the foreign language.

However, the ALM is firmly grounded in linguistic and psychological theory, mostly behavioristic ones by Skinner. Conditioning and habit-formation models of learning are incorporated with mimicry drills and pattern practices of ALM (Brown, 1987). The rules of transformations in grammar cannot be explained by this theory.

It likewise could not provide for the role of memory, of private behavior, of intuition and of many other phenomena recognized but not directly accessible to public observation. Finally, as a major criticism of the Skinnerian theory of language one could say that it is primarily a psychology of the production of language rather than of the reception of language.

It talks about how people learn to produce language but it says little about how people learn to understand it. (Carroll, 1962). Lightbrown & Spada (2006) agree that language learners do not simply internalize a great list of imitated and memorized sentences (183). They need to learn ways on how others will be able to understand them better.

Teachers avoid allowing the beginning learners to speak the language freely as they will be prone to make errors, and such errors could become habits, so for ALM practitioners, it is better to prevent such bad habits from starting. Thus, they believe in the rule of Getting it right from the beginning. Lyster & Ranta (n.d.), however, welcome feedback from teachers when students commit errors.

They claim that it depends on their pre-negotiations. Feedback-uptake sequences engage the students more actively when they have negotiated that they need to correct a form in the language and know that they may be provided signals to assist them of the correction of the mistaken form.

Providing feedback as part of a negotiated sequence, however is possible only when the learners already possess an adequate level of proficiency in the second language. Of course corrections from the teacher should be nonthreatening and potentially useful in making the students think deeper in learning the task at hand.

Community Language Learning approach is based on a counseling learning approach developed by Charles A. Curran, whose philosophy is anchored on Rogerian humanist principles (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

It is a learner-centered approach, with the learner mostly taking the upper hand in learning phrases and sentences in a foreign language which serve his needs. A group sits in a circle, and one by one, clients (learners) speaks in their native tongue and the counselor (teacher) translates it in the second language.

The client is asked to repeat the translation. Each client takes his turn at what seems to grow as a conversation based on their interests. As the counseling progresses, the clients rely less on the counselor as they gain more proficiency in the second language. Eventually, they become independent second language speakers.

The Total Physical Response method is reminiscent of first language acquisition. Like very young children learning their first language, students are asked to merely listen and learn before applying what they have learned in speaking the second language.

The teacher gives out physical commands in the foreign language and responds by acting it out with the students. Eventually, the students who are assumed to have understood the commands in the foreign language, will be asked to speak in the second language themselves by giving out commands to their classmates.

The Communicative Approach, trains students to use the target language as a medium of communication, instead of just a focus of study. From its name, students are encouraged to communicate with each other in a foreign language on a variety of topics. Games and other forms of learning are used to elicit interest. Errors are tolerated and seen as part of the learning process.

Like in any other discipline, in second language acquisition, theory and practice should go hand in hand. Research knowledge and the pursuit of new and credible information understood by all, should be consistently in prioritized (Doman, 2005; Ellis, 1997). Van Lier (1994) contends that theory should not only be constructed and then implemented, but on its own, should be discernible as a reflection of the practice.

Education today has undergone various transformations from days of old. Schools at present may have similar goals of optimizing students learning and maximizing their potentials but may have differing philosophies, approaches and educational strategies in fulfilling these goals.

Predictably, the traditional teacher-centered model in which knowledge is transmitted from teacher to learner is rapidly being replaced by alternative models of instruction (e.g., learner-centered, constructivist, and socio-cultural I deas) in which the emphasis is on guiding and supporting students as they learn to construct their understanding of the culture and communities of which they are a part.

In the process of shifting our attention to the constructive activity of the learner, recognize the need to anchor learning in real-world or authentic contexts that make learning meaningful and purposeful.  (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998, p.27)

It is argued that the old way of teaching a second language through grammar-based texts (e.g. Grammar Translation method & Audiolingual method) yield less meaningful results if content is not integrated into language. The Communicative Approach trains students to use the target language as a medium of communication, instead of just a focus of study.

From its name, students are encouraged to communicate with each other in a foreign language on a variety of topics. Games and other forms of learning are used to elicit interest. Errors are tolerated and seen as part of the learning process. This approach also believes that when correctness is emphasized and mistakes are not permitted, it stifles the motivation of the learner.

They also believe that it is better for learners to develop fluency in the language before accuracy. Exploring the language freely will allow them to get to know it better and motivate them to engage in it more avidly. It has been found that language teaching approaches that focus on both content and language are the most effective.

Students are more motivated to learn another language if they find the content interesting to them, and the teaching approach more exciting to engage their prolonged attention and retention of concepts.

The concept of Getting it right from the beginning endorsed by both Grammar translation and Audiolinguistic approaches does not seem to be effective in second language learning because the students who undergo these approaches are often unable to communicate their messages and intentions effectively in the second language.

Such exclusively structure-based methods do not guarantee that learners develop the high levels of accuracy and linguistic knowledge expected of them.

Content-Based Instruction

Stroller (2002) defines Content-based Instruction (CBI) as a range of approaches in second language learning that fosters the integration of language and content. The link between the two is very strong, as language becomes a medium to learn content while content is the resource for learning the language.

That is why in some ESL classes, the use of ones home language is necessary when trying to understand content in the foreign language learned. Herrero (2005) agrees that in learning a new language, shifting emphasis from the instruction of learning the language to learning its content is an effective and quick way to learn the language.

The European Commission endorses Content-based instruction as a perfect way to progress in the learning of a foreign language. This is a credible endorsement coming from the multi-cultural and multi-lingual configuration of the European Commission.

CBI is now a prominent feature of the educational systems in Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Argentina, Spain, and the North American region led by the US and Canada (Duenas, 2002), which all share the need for greater proficiency in English.

The spread of such proficiency in European countries, for example, is much-needed because it would spare EC large amounts of money and effort that it expends on translation and interpretation to make member countries understand each other. For this reason, EC has helped develop the so-called Euroclic network, a forum for projects and proposals in language learning that integrates grammar and content (European Commission, n.d.)

According to Curtain and Pesola (1994), & in content-related instruction, the foreign language teacher uses concepts from the regular curriculum to enrich the program with academic content& The curriculum content is chosen to provide a vehicle for language learning and to reinforce the academic skills needed by the students (p. 35).

Several reasons may be argued in the incorporation of content in learning a second language. Firstly, content is rich in opportunities to develop knowledge that can be interesting and relevant in different subject areas. Secondly, students have the opportunity to apply new skills learned in terms of language functions as they practice the new language in understanding, discussing and reading and writing about the lessons.

Still another reason is that students become more motivated when content is included in the lesson rather than merely learning the language. Finally, teachers are able to use various teaching and learning strategies in teaching the second language if content is incorporated in the lessons. CBI meets goals for both learning language and content and does not sacrifice linguistic skills for focusing on content knowledge (Stoller, 2004).

CBI is designed to impart knowledge on both language and subject matter. According to Stryker & Leaver (1997), this is a holistic approach to foreign language education that is at once a philosophical orientation, a methodical system, and a syllabus designed for a single purpose or a framework for an entire program of instruction.

Previous experience in foreign language classrooms shows that a CBI approach in teaching enhances students motivation, accelerate the acquisition of language proficiency, broaden their cross-cultural knowledge and make language learning a more enjoyable and fulfilling experience (Stryker & Leaver, 1997). Modern-day educators find parallels between second language learning and learning how to play a musical instrument (Met, 1991).

One cannot learn to do this activity by mastering the musical notes and symbols but by actually playing the instrument and practicing constantly until he gets it right. In this analogy, the musical notes represent language and its structure, while the activity of actually playing the instrument stands for the content of language.

Thus, the music teacher who limits his instruction to musical keys and scales will be like the ESL instructor who teaches her students by immersing themselves in the study of grammar and sentence structures without practical application of the learning. Neither instructional method would be beneficial for their students.

English Language Learners (ELL) are faced with daunting tasks in their journey to mastering the English language. Echevarria & Short (n.d.) enumerate the tasks and skills these students have to learn. Using English, students, for example, must be able to read and understand expository prose such as that found in textbooks; write persuasively; argue points of view; and take notes from teacher lecture.

They must also articulate their thinking skills in Englishmake hypotheses and predictions, express analyses, draw conclusions, and so forth. In CBI classes, these students need to integrate their emerging knowledge of the English language with the content knowledge they are studying so as to complete the academic tasks related with the content area.

However, they must learn how to do these tasks by generating the format of an outline, negotiating roles in cooperative learning groups, interpreting charts and maps, and the like. Short (1998) emphasizes that the combination of three knowledge bases namely the knowledge of English, the knowledge of the content topic and the knowledge of how the tasks are to be accomplished, comprises the major components of academic literacy.

Pessoa, Hendiy, Donato, Tucker & Lee (2007) suggest that in promoting student proficiency within the context of content-based instruction, teachers need to be aware of the language of instruction when teaching academic content. One way to promote continual attention to the development of language competence is to include explicit language objectives in the curriculum.

These language objectives derive from the academic subject matter and connect lexically and functionally to the content. (Pessoa, et al, 2007: 115) Thematic webs that include language goals, academic content and cultural objectives may be designed to help teachers organize their lessons (Curtain and Haas, 1995).

Moreover, Stroller and Grabe (1997) remind teachers that in implementing theme units, they should not lose sight of content and language learning objectives and the time allotted to meet those objectives.

Linguistic, strategic and cultural objectives of the content-based lesson need to be clearly set in the design of the lesson plan. Since students are expected to improve on their second language skills to enable them to understand the culture of the origin of such language, teachers suggest the following to ESL teachers (Mohan, 1986; Crandall, 1999):

1. studying the target language very well
2. focusing on their students knowledge and discourse structures of the language with academic text.
3. knowing what works and developing the students learning strategies
4. using integrated units to focus on the whole language.
5. developing skills in the language with a variety of texts and activities related to the content being studied.
6. focusing on the development of tasks, themes and topics because both academic concepts and language skills should be simultaneously taken into account.

According to Stoller (2004), courses taught through the CBI method present students with themes that are related to academic concepts so they can learn the language they need depending on the weighing of different curricular elements.

The content in CBI often refers to authentic texts that are simply snatches of real-life events presented to an ESL class to illustrate the meaning of a study word or phrase and bring it down to earth (Nagata, 1995). For example, the class takes up the old English saying: birds of a feather flocks together. In the language-focused instruction, the students will be taught what birds and feather are by showing relevant pictures.

The dictionary meaning of the words together and flocks may also be given extensively, such that the adverb together will be explained as the act of forming into one and the intransitive verb flocks is to join a crowd. According to Mohan (1986), ESL instruction in this manner does not guarantee learning retention inasmuch as the knowledge gained from the process is not related to real-life objects familiar with the students.

The prospect for learning improves when the instructor uses content-based ESL instruction by giving life to the study text (Crandall, 1987). A suggested CBI method in discussing the above phrase is by bringing to class at least two live birds of the same species and explaining the literal meaning of the saying, that is, birds of the same species often live and fly in a flock because of a natural instinct.

The instructor can then proceed to dig deeper into the figurative substance of the adage. This way, the instruction sinks into the minds of students (Kern, 2002). The most persuasive argument for the advantages of CBI was offered by Herrero (2005), who studied the outcome of a content-and-language ESL course among Spanish-speaking students at the University of Costa Rica.

After one semester of the course, an aptitude test conducted on the participants found that 5 of the 12 students graded before hand as poor or fair moved up to the good or very good category.

Literature, for example, can be introduced in ESL instruction by relating dictionary words with literary pieces. Suppose the teacher discusses the word dreary and explains again and again that this means gloomy. The students are likely to lose this knowledge after taking up other dictionary words for study. However, the teacher is expected to do better if he employs content to teach the language.

The teacher can explain the word dreary more effectively by coming to class with a text of Edgar Allan Poes The Raven, which opens with the line: Once upon a midnight dreary, while I ponder weak and weary. This poem is about gloom and desolation, which explains precisely what dreary means, and if the instructor effectively imparts such message to students, they will retain the meaning of the study word.

The study of poetry in an ESL class is a great educational necessity for it calls on creativity and inventiveness in order to attain comprehension at the higher levels of culture and art.

This encourages the student to immerse himself/herself in the context of the language through practice and not merely to study in a detached manner, as is apparent in the Direct approach, Grammar translation approach and Audiolingual approach where parroting and committing learning to memory seem to be the main methodology.

Another feasible method of language and content integration is exemplified by an ESL course for immigrant students at Kingsborough Community College in New York City (Song, 2005). The schools content-based ESL program was established in 1995 as a semester-long inter-disciplinary program to meet the special needs of immigrant students.

Under the program, the ESL instruction on speech and writing is linked to the sociology course, such that one is dedicated to linguistic learning and the other to new social perspectives (Babbitt, 2001). Towards this goal, students are encouraged to bond socially and academically by working in groups, participating in social and academic events like potluck lunches and field trips.

At one sociology class, students were given a writing assignment after viewing the film My Fair Lady, an integral activity for the ESL course. The students were asked about their views on the sentiments expressed by the movies theme song as well as the sociological implications of the way it was sung in the movie.

Later, at the speech class, the students worked on pronunciation and intonation with the song as text. In view of this, the Communicative Approach seems to be on the right track in helping non-native English speakers to be successful in finally communicating and expressing themselves in their second language.

The forum provided in the content-based ESL classes for students to discuss their problems and concerns with the content course enables students to make sense of their assignments together and demystifies academic learning, whereas non-linked ESL students had to cope individually with difficulties encountered in the content courses.

In addition, because students in regular ESL classes did not take the same content courses or have the same schedules, they parted immediately after the ESL class, thus making socializing with each other very difficult if not completely impossible. They were not organized to participate in campus activities or field trips as the students in the content-linked program are.

Support services were available, but often students were not aware of them. There were some students who had been enrolled in college for several semesters, but still did not know whom to approach when they encountered difficulties in studies or experienced personal problems (Song, 2005).

There is no single formula for the integration of content in second language studies, but several models are being used worldwide. Duenas (2002) offers some options: sheltered and adjunct content courses, studies that are theme- and area-based as well as the so-called Language for Special Purposes, Collaborative Strategic Reading, Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction and Foreign Languages Across the Curriculum.

It should be noted that sheltered content courses are described by the teaching of a specialist in the content to a group of second language learners or native speakers who have had no previous encounter with either the specialist or the content he or she teaches. The purpose of this approach is for more intensified content instruction (Duenas, 2002).

Theme-based instruction, on the other hand, is so called because it focuses on topics chosen according to students needs and interests, while adjunct courses are specially designed language studies in which one instructor concentrates on content and another on language skills but using academic content as framework of a contextual learning process.

As for Language for Special Purposes, it is an advanced regular academic course on specific disciplines such as history, economics or psychology that intends to advance language competence by developing receptive and productive skills. Herrero (2005) observes in all integrated models, the subject matter, authentic language and texts always include content and learning activities appropriate to the needs of specific groups of students.

It is clear that in studying a second language, both language and content need to be able to accommodate all of the cognitive, social and linguistic demands of the educational system striving for relevance. Students become engaged when real-life events and situations are integrated with the learning of a new language. They also become more enthusiastic that is why learning is more efficient and productive.

It is assumed that they will easily get bored if learning is limited to language instruction only as it greatly takes away their interest, enjoyment and sense of fulfillment. Its direct outcome is slower and less effective learning of the language, In other words, ESL students will acquire such a well-balanced knowledge if teaching and learning are organized around content or information rather than around forms, functions and situations or skills.

There is an increasing body of empirical evidence showing that use of content-based instruction expands the students conceptual knowledge base while learning the target language through meaningful activities.

The most productive teaching method is to provide students with multiple literacy building activities that includes traditional forms of print covering a variety of subjects, technological skills and electronic media, experiential learning and opportunities for reflection, which all support and enhance their learning in and out of the classroom.

These are all non-static aspects of learning, which interact and overlap to make a dynamic context through which the students become more literate on many levels.

Benefits of Second Language Learning

Efforts to support bilingualism with English as the second language in non-English speaking individuals will surely bear fruits not only in terms of personal fulfillment but economic fulfillment as well. This will be more evident and felt by students when they graduate and find employment.

Chiswick & Miller (1996) report that for legal migrants who learn English language skills gain more employment and compensation for those skills. Their earnings increase with both speaking and reading skills whether analyzed separately or jointly. Males earn higher by 8% and females earn higher by 17% if they are proficient in both speaking and reading compared to their contemporaries lacking both skills (Chiswick & Miller, 1996)

Gaining proficiency in a second language or two is very fulfilling to the learner. By then, he could point out which particular strategies were effective in getting him to that successful point. However, if he does not get to consistently practice the language, then it becomes demoted to a mere feather in his cap.

The skill should find expression in his practical life, to communicate with others, bridge gaps of understanding instead of wedging differences in others. The door of unlimited possibilities opens for him and he is off to more adventures with all the languages he knows as his reliable tools.

The numerous issues on second language learning, especially English, only prove that it is creating much impact on the development of children from diverse cultures. More and more people consider its advantages and possible disadvantages. Such amount of attention is worth it because people think up of ways on how to maximize its benefits.

Learning another language apart from ones native language helps children be ready to be highly competent in an increasingly globalized world. However, although they become bilingual, it should not be forgotten that they also become bicultural, and learning of one language and the culture that goes with it does not mean forgetting their original one.

Teachers should take into consideration that their non-English speaking students should learn English in both its context and language elements so the students gain a better understanding and appreciation of the English language.

Supporting bilingualism in any age enriches an individual and gains him skills to live and enjoy a more fulfilling and satisfying quality of life.

Personal Insights & Conclusion

Being the highest creatures on earth, human beings are endowed with the power of language to verbally communicate with each other. It is a facility that enables each individual to bring out inner workings of his mind for others to respond to.

The myth that Languages are learned mainly through imitation is such a shallow concept of language learning and undermines the great researches that have been dedicated to its study. No doubt, language may be learned through imitation, but the language learner does not stop at imitating a language model. He goes beyond that.

I have held my own personal beliefs about second language learning. I know that second language learning takes a different process from the first time a person learns his mother language. Of course the presence of a first language is a big factor since this default language will naturally set the bar in learning the second one.

It shall always be referred to whenever the need arises, as it is but natural to fall back to it to understand the new language better. I am aware that bilingual or multilingual people may think in various languages depending on the need. I know one person who has trained herself to think in her second language when she is writing in that language, because thinking in her first language disrupts the flow of her thinking.

In her case, she has acquired the skill of separating both languages, as merging them in her mind only confuses her. Beginning learners are the opposite. I believe that they need a strong foundation in their first language before they can endeavor to learn another language. At this initial stage, they cannot help but refer to their mother language for meaning so they appreciate the second language better.

Schools and teachers can and should design programs to appropriately address and include diversity as an asset which may be used in the preparation of all students for citizenship in a diversified global world.

This emphasizes the point that teachers need to be equipped with skills in accommodating and adjusting to the needs of children from various cultures. Global education is defined as education that develops the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are the basis for decision-making and participation in a world characterized by cultural pluralism, interconnectedness and international economic competition (Merryfield, 1995, p. 1).

Usually, when schools and teachers do not seriously consider foreign students their native culture, these children feel unaccepted and unworthy to belong to their classes, hence display inappropriate behavior.

They become lost in terms of academic achievement and develop insecurities about their skin color, ethnic characteristics or language accents. Such embarrassment develops stress or anxiety during class. The students family may likewise seem withdrawn or non-participative in their childrens schooling and feel the same sense of not belonging to the new culture they have joined.

In view of this, culturally-relevant teaching must be learned by teachers. Such teaching takes into consideration the cultural background of the students at all times. It also keeps in mind cultural aspects in all interactions with students on both personal and educational levels. (Edwards & Kuhlman, 2007).

Students cultures, languages and experiences need to be acknowledged, valued and used as important sources of their education because they deserve the best that society can give them. This involves teachers learning about students backgrounds and personal experiences to use as tools to make connections with these students.

Some strategies that teachers can employ are the inclusion of the various histories, contributions, perspectives and concerns relevant to the diverse backgrounds of students (The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements, n.d.).

Incorporating these in the curriculum makes learning meaningful to these students. Multicultural education using literature from various cultures engages such children in reading and writing and makes them eager to learn the social or cultural contributions made by various groups of people.

Teachers challenge in adapting their students local culture and knowledge to Western schooling may be met though literature. Selecting appropriate text is essential in connecting with students. Books should reflect characters from the same culture as the students.

Examples of story themes are protagonists who dealt with race issues and children who solved problems successfully. Lesson plans should incorporate culturally relevant ideas in each diverse classroom (Edwards & Kuhlman, 2007).

For children learning a second language at an earlier age, it is important that their cultural background will not be discounted, as it makes up so much of their personhood. CBI strategies that are known it widely include content in its teaching strategies should focus more on the culture the learner comes from along with the culture of the second language he or she is learning.

Having a good second language teacher is essential to learning the language more fluently. I do not discount the fact that imitation of proper pronunciation and intonation is necessary. Hence, learners should have attentive ears and retentive minds, and of course, cooperative tongues to be able to speak fluently in such language. I also believe they need opportunities to practice speaking and listening to the second language outside the language lessons, so that means they need a support system of learners to interact with.

I agree with the behaviorists concept of language learning through imitation, repetition and reinforcement; socioculturalists concept of social influence in language learning and Ausubels need for meaning in order to learn language. Thus, it makes sense that I would lean towards the communicative approach in second language learning.

For me, it is more practical and user-friendly. I am not restricted to just learning the second language exclusively, but I am given freedom to refer to my native language for meaning. I also get to engage in meaningful activities that would make me appreciate the language better. I do not agree with getting it right the beginning because I see the value in making mistakes.

I know they do not have to remain mistakes because the lesson is that they need to be corrected and stay corrected the more I get proficient with the language. I liken it to a child first learning how to write. To correct her in her attempts at writing and spelling may discourage her from exploring her own learning capacities and may just stifle her motivation and quit.

I believe, this affects her self-esteem and confidence. However, when she feels liberated to explore writing, she will be more interested and passionate about getting it right that she would initiate asking if what she wrote was correct or not.

She will come to a point that she would welcome corrections from adults to set her in the straight and proper path. I believe there is richer learning in this process rather than just being spoonfed information to memorize by rote. For me, meaning is more important than form.

My beliefs in second language learning is happily validated by the research literature. Although the many theories I have discussed have different points, I derive what I think best suits my own philosophy. I agree with the sociocultural perspective of learning through interactions with others. A supportive environment will prop up beginning learners to reach their goals.

I also believe that people have different learning styles. Some may be content with the traditional ways of listening to a teacher and regurgitating back information to her. For these students, the oral and aural learning styles are preferred. The study of learning styles have unearthed other styles which might have been considered unorthodox in the past. There are kinesthetic learners, who learn through actions and movement.

It is fortunate that there are now learning approaches that cater to such learners who provide more active learning activities such as singing, games, dancing, interactive activities, etc. and not restricted to paper and pencil tasks and board work. I believe I am a more experiential learner, and teaching-learning methodologies that get me up my chair to actively participate will capture my interest more and make me retain new knowledge and skills better.

Activities like dining in a restaurant that serves the food of the country where the language I am studying comes from (ex. French restaurant) and order using that language will be a very fruitful experience from me which would keep me on my toes to use the new language I have learned to good use. Another example is watching a foreign movie with subtitles. I can try watching it by turning the subtitles off and see if I can understand it. If not, then I have the freedom to turn the subtitles back on.

I still believe in immersion strategies. Ideally, being in the country where the second language originates will leave the learner no choice but to learn, understand and use the language in order to survive. However, that does not mean that the first language gets pushed down in his psyche and forgotten altogether. It will serve as the learners anchor to understand the second language better.

I also believe that the foreign environment can influence the learning process of the second language with the condition of a proper interaction, where according to the social network theory personal relationships an individual shares with others such as relatives, friends, coworkers, and neighbors mediate variable linguistic behavior. (Mantero, 2007, p. 192).

The numerous issues on second language learning, especially English, only prove that it is creating much impact on the development of children from diverse cultures. More and more people consider its advantages and possible disadvantages.

Such amount of attention is worth it because people think up of ways on how to maximize its benefits. Learning another language apart from ones native language helps children be ready to be highly competent in an increasingly globalized world.

Works Cited

Ausubel, David. A. , Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston 1968.

Babbitt, Marcia. Making Writing Count in an ESL Learning Community. In I. Leki (ed), Academic Writing Programs, Alexandria, VA: TESOL. 2001.

Benson McMullen, Mary., Thinking before doing: A giant toddler step on the road to literacy, Young Children, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 65-70. 1998.

Bonk, Curtis J. & Cunningham, Donald J. Searching for Learner-Centered, Constructivist, and Sociocultural Components of Collaborative Educational Learning Tools in Electronic Collaborators. 2011. Web.

Brewer, Joan., Introduction to Early Childhood Education, Allyn & Bacon, 2001.

Brown, H. Douglas., Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, 2^nd Ed. NJ: Prentice Hall Regents 1987.

Carroll, John B, The Critical Need in the Study of Language. College Composition and Communication, Vol. 13, No. 3, Annual Meeting, Chicago, (1962), pp. 23-26.

Chiswick, Barry R. & Miller, Paul W., Language skills and earnings among legalized aliens, Journal of Population Economics, 12: 63-89, 1999.

Chomsky, Noam., Aspects of a Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965.

Clay, Marie., By Different Paths to Common Outcomes, Stenhouse Publishers, Maine, pp. 5-32. 1998.

Clifford, James.. Travelling culture in L. Grossberg, C. Nelson, and P. Treichler (eds.). Cultural Studies. New York: Routledge. 1992.

Crandall, JoAnn. (ed), ESL through Content-Area Instruction, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1987.

Curtain, Helena, & Haas, Mari. Integrating foreign language and content instruction in grades K-8, 2011. Web.

Curtain, Helena, & Pesola, Carol Ann Bjornstad, Languages and children: Making the match, Foreign language instruction for an early start grades K-8., White Plains, NY: Longman, 1994.

Doman, Evelyn, Current Debates in SLA, Asian EFL Journal, Vol 7, Issue 4, Art. 8. 2011. Web.

Duenas, Maria, A Description of Prototype Models for Content-Based Language Instruction in Higher Education, Department of English Studies, University of Murcia, 2002.

Echevarria, J. & Short, D.J., The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP), 2011. Web.

Edwards, Sarah & Kuhlman, Wilma, Culturally Responsive Teaching: Do We Walk Our Talk?, Multicultural Education, 2007.

Ellis, Rod. SLA and language pedagogy. An educational perspective. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 69-92. 1997.

European Commission, An Excellent Way of Making Progress in a Foreign Language 2011. Web.

Herrero, Annabelle H., Content-Based Instruction in an English Oral Communication Course at the University of Costa Rica, Actual Investigations in Education, Vol.5, No. 4, 2005.

Kachru, Braj B. The second diaspora of English, In T. W. Machan and C. T. Scotts (eds.), English in its social contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 230 252, 1992.

Kern, R.G., Literacy as a New Organizing Principle for Foreign Language Education. In Reading Between the Lines, New Heaven: Yale University Press, 2002.

Kramsch, Claire & Sullivan, Patricia, Appropriate Pedagogy, ELT J 50: 199-212, 1996.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press, Inc. 1986.

Lenneberg, Eric H.,The Capacity for Language Acquisition, in The Structure of Language, ed. J.A. Fodor and J.J. Katz. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1964.

Leon, Edgar, Challenges and Solutions for Educating Migrant Students , ERIC, ED393615, 1996.

Lightbown, Patsy M. & Spada, Nina, How Languages Are Learned. New York: Oxford University Press. 2006.

Lindfors, J.W., Childrens Language and Learning, 2^nd Ed. Prentice Hall, Inc. 1987.

Lyster, Roy & Ranta, Leila, Corrective Feedback And Learner Uptake. SSLA, 20, 37 66.

Mantero, Miguel, Identity and second language learning : culture, inquiry, and dialogic activity in educational contexts. Charlotte, N.C.: IAP. 2007.

Merryfield, Merry M., Institutionalizing cross-cultural experiences and international expertise in teacher education: The development and potential of a global education PDS network, Journal of Teacher Education, 46(1), 1-9., 1995.

Met, M.J.L. Learning Language through Content, Learning Content through Language. Foreign Language Annals 24 (4). (1991).

Mohan, B., Language and Content. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1986.

Nagata, H. Testing Oral Ability: 1LR am ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interviews. JALT Applied Materials 12, 1995.

Norris, J., & Hoffman, P., Whole Language Intervention for School-age Children. San Diego: Singular Press. 1993.

Otto, Beverly. Language development in early childhood. (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. 2010.

Pakir, Anne, Bilingual education with English as an official language: Sociocultural implications, Georgetown University Round Table On Languages And Linguistics. Georgetown University Press/ Digital Georgetown and the Department of Languages and Linguistics, 1999.

Pessoa, S., Hendiy, H., Donato, R., Tucker, G.R., Lee, H., Content-Based Instruction in the Foreign Language Classroom: A Discourse Perspective, Foreign Language Annals 40 (1) (2007).

Platt, John T. (1982) Bilingual language policies in a multilingual nation: Singapore. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 5, pp. 17-20.

Prodromou, L., What culture? Which culture? Cross-cultural factors in language learning, ELT J 46: 39-50, 1992.

Slobin, Dan.I., Comments on Developmental Psycholinguistics, in The Genesis of Language: A Psycholinguistic Approach, ed. F. Smith and G. Miller. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1966.

Song, Balin, Content-Based ESL Instruction: Long-term Effects and Outcomes, The American University: Elsevier Ltd. , 2005.

Stoller, E., Promoting the acquisition of knowledge in a content based course, In J. Crandall & D. Kaufman (Eds.), Content-based instruction in higher education settings (pp. 109-123). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. 2004.

Stoller, E, & Grabe, W., The six-Ts approach to content-based instruction. In M.Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: perspectives on Integrating language and content (pp. 78-94). New York: Addison-Wesley Longman 1997.

Stryker, S.N. & Leaver, B.L. Content-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. 1997.

Swain, Merrill & Lapkin, Sharon, Task-based second language learning: the uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research 4,3 pp. 251274, 2000.

The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements. (n.d.). Cultural and linguistic differences: What teachers should know. 2011. Web.

U.S.ENGLISH Foundation, Inc., Language Research: Language in everyday life: The use of language in everyday life, e.g. education, broadcasting, and other, 2011. Web.

Van Lier, Leo., Forks and hope: Pursuing understanding in different ways. Applied Linguistics,15, 328-347. 1994.

Watkins, Ruth. V., & Bunce, Betty. H., Promoting language and literacy skills in preschool classrooms. Invited presentation, Kansas Division for Early Childhood, Manhattan 1996.

Widdowson, Henry.G.,.The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly 28/2: 377-88, 1994.

Yoon, Yeotak T., New Directions for KFL as a Scholarly Discipline, Seoul National University, 2001.

Introduction

Despite not being a native language to many, English has continuously dominated the international communication and diplomacy, and is currently present in many national curriculums across the world (Al-Saidat, 2009). Although gradually influencing learners of different languages and different nations to adopt this language, learning English has never been a simple task.

Reading, writing, and pronunciation are some of the major concepts of English that also pose great challenges to the non-native speakers (Hammond, 2004). The concept of the English phonology, which describes a linguistic branch concerned with the logical arrangement of sounds within languages, has existed for quite some time (Kessler & Treiman, 1997).

Phonotactics is a linguistic branch that deals with constraints in combination of language phonemes. According to Jabbari and Samavarchi (2011), all languages possess unique phonology that seems similar but quite different.

When the English words have a difficult phonological system, learners get complications in learning. Review of Al-Saidats case of the English phonotactics in the Arabic English learners can best explain this quandary.

Article Summary

The non-native English learners have always found themselves in speech lapses, with little being clear on the cause of such communication errors. Due to having dissimilar phonological rules in different languages, it may become essential to undertake a re-syllabification of the words learnt (Whalen & Dell, 2006).

Al-Saidats article of the phonological analysis of the English phonotactics among the Arabic English learners is a study that aimed at examining the phonotactic issues connected with learning the English language by the Arabic English students (Al-Saidat, 2009).

The study principally aimed at establishing the pronunciation difficulties encountered by the Arabic English learners and in specific, investigating challenges caused by the Arabic inter-languages. The article examined how the differences in the phonological rules in pronunciation influenced the re-syllabification of some consonant clusters to enhance the learning process in these students.

As noted by Jabbari and Samavarchi (2011) as well as Coady and Aslin (2004), differences in the phonological rules between the non-native English learners and the English phonological rules force re-syllabification of words learnt to match the phonological constraints of the learners.

Since English remains a foreign language in many nations, several factors may contribute to the phonological constraints that impel re-syllabification to enhance English learning among the non-native speakers (Estes, Edwards & Saffran, 2011).

In examining the phonological constraints hampering proficiency in learning English among the Arabic learners, Al-Saidat (2009) aimes at discovering, categorizing, and analyzing mistakes of insertion made in the realm of pronunciation by the Arab students. Moreover, the study is directed at examining the probable causes of errors eminent in the English pronunciation among the Arab learners (Al-Saidat, 2009).

Finally, the study provides or suggests possible teaching approaches and procedures that would help the instructors and learners to rise above such difficulties. It collects the empirical evidence from the students of 24 years old who speak the Ammani language, which is a sub-dialect of Arabic.

These selected learners engage in reading the English words designed by the researcher, in order to identify pronunciation difficulties encountered due to the phonological differences.

Consonant-Vowel-Consonant (CVC) forms the major syllabic formulae that tend to influence patterns in articulation among the learners, and many phonological constraints occur in words of this language pattern (Chambers, Onishi & Fisher, 2010).

Before discussing the pronunciation errors committed by the participants, the study identifies some syllabic structural differences in the Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and that of the Ammani dialects. The syllabuses differ in the arrangement of consonants and vowels within words.

Zamuner, Gerken and Hammond (2004) affirm that researchers have employed several approaches in testing sensitivities of the English speakers to examine the patterns of CVC non-words. In examining the errors associated with the pronunciation of the English words among the students, the researcher identifies three forms of errors committed by the participants in the communication.

These errors include the insertion errors, the substitution errors, and the deletion errors in the enunciation of the English words. In the declusterization process, insertion errors among the Ammani Arabic dialects receive the most research attention and the study assume the substitution and the deletion errors.

Within the issues concerning the insertion errors, the researcher discovers that vowel /j/ is the sole vowel sound that constantly proves challenging and causes insertion errors within different positions of words (Al-Saidat, 2009, p. 128). In addition, certain consonants face insertion challenges within the Arabic English syllabuses.

The insertion of /j/ in the onset is most evident in dealing with the English monosyllabic words where three consonants (CCC) cause challenges to the Arabic English learners, as the native Arabic speakers never allow these consonant clusters initially. Al-Saidat (2009) presumes that mother tongue, age, and personality greatly influence the English pronunciation.

In conclusion, the researcher notices that mother tongue greatly impels declusterization especially that involves insertion of vowels /j/ in the English words pronunciation among the Arabic learners.

In suggesting the probable teaching procedures that would help with pronunciation difficulties, Al-Saidat (2009) proposes that teachers should first introduce syllable patterns of the students mother tongue, and then shorter followed by longer syllable patterns of English and finally compare syllable patterns of both languages to determine the differences. Instructors should stress more on the foreign syllabus patterns to eliminate pronunciation errors.

Article Critique

Al-Saidats (2009) article examines and analyzes the phonological issues revolving around the Arabic English learners, especially the issues concerning pronunciation difficulties encountered by the Arabic students. In this study, the choice of respondents may greatly influence the outcome of the study that only manages to identify vowel /j/ as the most inserted sound in the English pronunciation.

Age of the participants  the study uses well-exposed old respondents, and the possibility of getting the ultimate mother tongue influence in pronunciation is quite diminutive.

Contrary to other researchers, including Jabbari and Samavarchi (2011) who include children aged between 4-6 years, Estes, Edwards and Saffran (2011) with the 18-month-old infants, and Zamuner, Gerken and Hammond (2004) who also opt for younger participants for better results.

Level of education among participants is another crucial aspect where the researcher somewhat fails. According to Whalen and Dell (2006), phonological dialogue mistakes reveal the levels of linguistic fluency present in the speakers. The participants are mainly public university finalists, hence educationally well exposed.

On the knowledge basis, there is a high possibility that despite learners being non-native English speakers, their educational exposure influences their word pronunciation. Environment can greatly influence the pronunciation of learners and hence, reading certain words while testing the English pronunciation of these learners can demonstrate environmental influence (Silverman, 2000).

The main participants of the study are the Ammani dialects representatives of the Jordanian Arabic community who currently seem to remain in the lexical influence of Turkish, French, and English. This Semitic language structure may not possess a big portion of the Arabic speaking group and there is a probability that these participants have different accents in pronunciation.

Since there is no portion of the study that explains how the researcher distinguished the native language background of the participants, it is easy to assume that the results could not generalize the phonological issues examined to the entire Arabic community.

Phonological constraints are rising from the mother tongue influence, something that needs a solution; by recommending that instructors should introduce syllable patterns of the learners mother tongue, will worsen the English phonological issues.

Conclusion

The inception of English as an international business, communication, and diplomatic language has posed great challenges to the non-native English speakers. While this language continues to dominate the international issues and appearing in almost every national educational curriculum, English learning is not an easy undertaking at all.

The Arabic learners have a different phonology just like other communities, and this makes it uneasy for the Arabic English learners to cope with the English word pronunciation. Words with differing phonological systems from individuals native language create problems for the English learners, the reason why syllabuses differ globally.

Al-Saidats (2009) study aims at examining the English phonotactics among the Arabic English learners, where pronunciation issues protract from the participants. In the English word pronunciation, the study identified insertion, substitution, and deletion pronunciation errors as the major issues among the Ammani Arabic dialects.

However, the study by Al-Saidat (2009) only manages to ascertain the insertion errors linked to vowel /j/ and some very few errors in the consonant patterns.

Among possible mistakes, that the researcher made that results in the invalidity of the study is that the participants have high educational experience that influences their pronunciation, are not typical Arabs, and are old enough to make possible pronunciation errors.

References

Al-Saidat, E. (2009). Phonological analysis of English phonotactics: a case study of Arab learners of English. The Buckingham Journal of Language and Linguistics, 3(1), 121-134.

Chambers, K., Onishi, K., & Fisher, C. (2010). A vowel is a vowel: Generalizing newly learned phonotactic constraints to new contexts. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn, 36(3), 821828.

Coady, J., & Aslin, R. (2004). Young childrens sensitivity to probabilistic phonotactics in the developing lexicon. J. Experimental Child Psychology, 89 (1), 183213.

Estes, K., Edwards, J., & Saffran, J. (2011). Phonotactic Constraints on Infant Word Learning. Infancy, 16(2), 180197.

Hammond, M. (2004). Gradience, Phonotactics, and the Lexicon in English Phonology. International Journal of English Studies, 4(2), 1-24.

Jabbari, A., & Samavarchi, L. (2011). Persian Learners Syllabification of English Consonant Clusters. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(1), 236-246.

Kessler, B., & Treiman, R. (1997). Syllable Structure and the Distribution of Phonemes in English Syllables. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(1), 295-311.

Silverman, D. (2000). Dynamic versus Static Phonotactic Constraints in English Truncation. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.

Whalen, C., & Dell, G. (2006). Speaking outside the Box: Learning of Non-native Phonotactic Constraints is revealed in Speech Errors. Web.

Zamuner, T., Gerken, L., & Hammond, M. (2004). Phonotactic probabilities in young childrens speech production. J. Child Lang, 31(1), 515536.

Since there are hundreds of languages, it is not rare to come across people with difficulties in speaking your native language during travel, trade, or while carrying out other daily duties. However, in spite of language barriers, it is not impossible to communicate effectively.

Effectual communication is a talent that can be learned. The steps for getting your points across can easily be understood by individuals who have self-confidence and understanding of the basics (Janzen 21).

When you meet a person with difficulties in speaking your language, first, try communicating using other languages. Many people are multi lingual. You may come across a person in the US, for instance, who cannot speak Korean, but if both of you can speak English, you can talk with much ease. Concurrently, read the body language closely and try to understand the intentions of the person.

Use gestures to express universally acceptable concepts. You can smile to show that you have good intentions. This is an effective method of breaking the ice, which according to Lee, helps to make communication easy.

After making communication easy, it is advisable to use the language of the listener to say, I dont speak much of that language. Do not fear to use signs. In case of further difficulties, draw pictures on a note pad if possible (Lee).

At the same time, exercise patient and pronounce words properly to find out if the other party understands the basic vocabularies. Avoid using exaggerated pronunciations, as it may result to more confusion. Nevertheless, be attentive to learn if you need to articulate certain words as your listener does (Lee). It is highly commendable to choose this method if the suitable accent is dissimilar from the non- native accent.

Additionally, it is commendable to avoid turning up the volume thinking that it would enhance communication. Further, avoid hiding your mouth since the other party will be interested in studying your mouth as you utter each word. It is also improper to use baby talk or improper language.

It can puzzle the non-native speaker and send the wrong notion regarding your level of proficiency. Moreover, avoid using running words together. This is because listeners often face the challenge of determining the last part and the beginning of words. It is, therefore, necessary to give a pause between words to help them understand the words without struggling (Caputo et al. 13).

The listener may indicate that he/she is still struggling to communicate with you, and in this case, opt for simple words instead of complex ones. The simpler the word is, the enhanced the probability that the listener will appreciate it. For example, opt for the word big instead of enormous or make instead of manufacture.

Note that sometimes, the complex words are easier to understand than the simpler ones (Caputo et al. 13). For example, Romance language speakers find certain complex English words easy to understand since they are rooted in Latin.

When communicating with Somalia people, one should use the complex Swahili words since they are rooted in Arabic. After identifying your listeners native language, you will encounter little difficulty deciding whether to use the simple or complex words.

Your choice of verb phrases is also important. Use verb phrases whose meanings are easy to understand and do not pronounce as the listeners language. Lee says that it is advisable to use simple phrases instead of the confusing verb phrases. Look out sounds almost the same as look for.

Using any of the verbs is not helpful to the listener. Therefore, instead of opting for look for it is better to opt for search for. Moreover, instead of saying look out, it is best to say be careful.

Further, is better to avoid using filler and colloquialisms. Words such as um&, yeah, and totally do not help in making communication easy. You should avoid these words.

Non-native speakers, particularly those with poorer levels of proficiency, commonly suppose that fillers are vocabularies that they do not have in their native languages. Colloquialism is equally difficult to understand. Some of them are not easy to look up for in most dictionaries since they are not universal y accepted items of language.

Patience is special virtue that may make communicating with non-native speakers. This is because you may be asked a number of times to repeat something. When asked, repeat it as you said it the initial moment because it is possible that your listener did not hear you.

However, if your listener still demonstrates difficulty in understanding, modify a few important words in the sentence, as they could have encountered problems in understanding some of the words. When repeating a sentence, repeat the entire sentence and not simply certain few words. Handling this is time consuming, but it is essential in eliminating confusion (Janzen 20).

You should put in mind that your dialect may be different from what the listener learnt in school, and therefore while paraphrasing, try using other similar words that you might have known.

In addition, use long forms of words. It is difficult for non- native speakers to determine the difference between short and long forms of words. Be explicit. You should say yes or no but not Uh-huh or Uh-uh. The words are confusing since they are not in grammar books.

Outstandingly, for communication to be effective, both parties should understand each other. Therefore, listening is very important. Listen and refrain from making up your mind while the other party is still talking. Keep patience until the other person is done. This will help you to give useful information based on the information he/she have provided.

At the same time, you should be conscious that certain customs have diverse norms concerning matters such as touching, personal space, and eye contact. The awareness will help you to tell whether an individual is trying to offend or not. Someone standing far away or not maintaining eye contact due to obedience to his/her cultural norms is not offending.

On the other hand, a person who behaves in the same manner but has sufficient justification may be trying to offend. You should device better strategies to improve your communication. Remember to be relaxed and have satisfactory control of your communication (Caputo et al. 13).

Conclusively, dealing with people who do not speak your language is challenging, but one can learn the apposite communication basics and overcome the barriers.

Patience and showing emotional attachment are important elements for making communication with such persons effective. An effective communicator should put into practice all the basic steps. However, apart from putting the steps into practice, he/she should exercise creativity and innovativeness.

Works Cited

Caputo, John S., Jo Palosaari, Kenneth Pickering, and John Nicholas. Effective communication. Twickenham, Eng.: Dramatic Lines, 2003. Print.

Janzen, Joy. Teaching English language learners in the content areas. Review of Educational Research 78.4 (2008): 1010-1038.

Lee, Peter. How to Communicate with Non-Native Speakers of English | CultureLink International. CultureLink International. N.p., 1 Jan. 2009. Web.

The text is responding to a situation whereby English language is facing challenges in such a way that it is not clear whether it is a global language. There are instances in the text when the author is agreeing that English language has massively evolved into a major global language (Mydans, 2007).

However, the author does not take a firm position on whether English language is indeed global. This paper offers a rhetorical analysis essay on why English should be regarded as global language.

It is also vital to explore how the writer has managed to establish his credibility in the text. The author has established his credibility by referencing other pieces of literary works from other authors.

He has not taken all the credits for himself in the various arguments presented in the paper. In addition, there are myriads of sources that the author has cited in the text in order to support his arguments. Use of direct quotes is also instrumental in the text because it adds value and additional credibility.

It is also evident that the writer has an attitude towards the subject matter since the audience can easily identify with both the mood of the writer and the text itself. The writers attitude towards the subject is quite skeptic. As already mentioned in the paper, the writer has failed to take a particular standing point regarding the issue of English being a global language.

It is interesting to mention that the piece of writing contains various sub-themes from other authors even though he tends to neither support nor refute the notion that English is a global language (Mydans, 2007). The author is also quite frank in his description of English as the king of languages. He attains this by citing fascinating statements from other literary sources.

The text is targeting a particular audience or readers. The audience can be grouped into primary and secondary. The primary audience of the text is basically learners of English language both in grammar and in literature. Since this language is being discussed as a global entity, students of English language are definitely the primary audience who are supposed to be furnished with such information.

In addition, teachers of English should also be regarded as the primary audience that are being targeted by the text bearing in mind that they are supposed to learn the language and be acquainted with it even as they teach the various versions.

The secondary audiences are individuals who have great passion for English language. These are people with inner desire to learn more about English as a language especially in terms of its origin, growth as well as current and future developments.

The author has built several arguments in the paper that are supposed to persuade the reader to agree with the given piece of writing. The major argument in the text revolves around whether English should be treated as global language. The author has indeed attempted to circumnavigate the argument by citing and quoting various pieces of works that have been written by other reputable authors.

At the initial point, the author begins the text with an introduction and a thesis statement that highlights what is to be discussed in the paper. After the introduction, the author builds the argument by presenting his individual understanding of the subject matter before eventually going deep into the issues to be discussed. Nonetheless, there is no concluding point in the text where the author agrees to own or wind up the argument (Mydans, 2007).

There are also other arguments and perspectives that the author has presented in the text. Some of the arguments include historical development of English, globalization, the influence of technology in the development of English language and the cross cultural influence of English in the world of linguistics. He has also employed pathos, logos and ethos in the text as described in the remaining section of the paper.

English is one of the fastest growing languages across the world today. It has largely been boosted by the current trends in technology and globalization. The progressing dominance of this language has been discussed with cross reference to a published article by Seth Mydans.

Although the author argues that English language may never become a global language, there are clear indications that it is indeed growing at a very fast rate that cannot be reversed at all. The author has also employed excellent use of pathos, ethos and logos in the piece of writing.

He has offered a detailed description on English language as a whole. However, the author has failed to convince the audience whether English language will ever become a global language. This is one of the glaring weaknesses in the article when rhetorical analysis is conducted.

The author has also attempted to explain why English language has transited itself into the king of languages. He has achieved the latter by carrying out an interview with quite a number of experts in linguistics. Perhaps, this is one of the ways that the author uses to boost the credibility of his analysis (Mydans, 2007).

The audiences that read newspapers such as the Tribune or New York Times are drawn from various social and economic backgrounds. Paragraphs are brief and simple to comprehend. In the case of Mydans, the author has made use of high degree of allusions, metaphors and diction. These techniques have been closely intertwined with history. In spite of the complexities in this piece of writing, the audience can still find it easy to read and understand.

The author has used the word linguist in reference to one of the persons he interviewed when he was gathering information from the field. In order to expound the opinion of the linguist in regards to English as a global language, the author has made use of the word unequivocal. The text also contains the term vernacular.

The latter word has been employed by the author in order to offer a description of various versions of English language adopted in different destinations across the globe.

Some of the regions noted in the text include Papua New Guinea, Caribbean, Nigeria and Singapore. The phrase kind of languages has been used by the author at the introductory section of the text so as to offer a glimpse preview of the arguments presented in the essay (Mydans, 2007).

In conclusion, there is need for a global language since global communication is rapidly expanding (Crystal, 2003). A global language should be in a position to be understood and recognized by a large number of people. English language has been established in various parts across the globe. It is found in various forms or versions depending on the location.

References

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mydans, S. (2007). Across cultures, English is the word. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/09/world/asia/09iht-englede.1.5198685.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0&mtrref=undefined&gwh=66C2E4BE92CCCD2EB95C45787C91D565&gwt=pay

In recent decades, the discourse of how ones sense of self-identity affects his or her existential mode became strongly associated with the methodological framework of a linguistic anthropology. Partially, this can be explained by the fact that, as of today, there is a tendency among more and more cultural scientists, to refer to the concept of language in terms of an identity-forming tool.

In turn, this implies that the qualitative aspects of a linguistic communication are being concerned with how forms define the actual semiotic content, and not vice versa (Agar 1994). As Leavitt (2011, p. 61) noted, The key difference among languages lies less in what they allow you to say  any language will allow you to say anything you want  than in what a given language obliges you to refer to.

In its turn, this implies that there is indeed a rationale in referring to ones language, as such that cannot be quite separated from the concerned individuals sense of self-identity. In my paper, I will aim to explore the validity of this suggestion at length.

The foremost challenge of an intercultural communication is the fact that culturally diverse language-carriers, which indulge in it, often experience a hard time, while striving to make sense out of syntactic peculiarities of how phrases in foreign languages are being presented to them. This can be explained by the fact that the syntactic subtleties of a spoken phrase reflect the innermost workings of the speakers unconscious psyche, which suggests that languages can indeed be categorized as primitive, on the one hand, and advanced, on the other.

The validity of this statement can be explored to the well-documented phenomenon of the primitive tribesmens tendency to refer to themselves in the third person  Mamba will go hunting and Mamba will bring his family some meat. Yet, only few people seem to realize the fact that this cannot be explained solely by these tribesmens failure to get a good grip English language.

Apparently, the very specifics of the native peoples brain wiring naturally predispose them towards referring to themselves in such a manner.

In his book, Bruhl (1928, p. 120) was able to explain the earlier mentioned linguistic phenomenon, Nature appears in their (natives) collective representations not as a system of objects and phenomena governed by fixed laws& but as a moving assemblage or totality of mystic actions and reactions, within which individual does not subjectualize but objectualize itself.

In its turn, this explains why many people of the non-Western cultural background (especially those that reside in remote areas) tend to perceive life-challenges through the lenses of a utilitarian practicality, with their ability to define a dialectical relationship between causes and effects being somewhat undermined.

While in the field, Bruhl conducted an experiment  he presented the residents of a remote village in the South East Asia with the task of identifying the difference between the words: a log, a hammer, a nail and a handsaw.

As it appeared, villages were experiencing a hard time, while addressing this utterly simple cognitive task. This is because, in the eyes of these people, all of the earlier mentioned objects where equally useful, which is why there could not be any qualitative difference between them.

Worf (1956) explored the hypothesis that some languages reflect the workings of an essentially pre-logical (or holistic) mindset, in relation to the language of Hopi (native) tribesmen. According to the data, obtained during the course of his filed-study, in Hopi language there are no linguistic means to emphasize the times continuity, which is why they count days in a much different manner, as compared to what it is being the case with Westerners.

As the author pointed out,  (In Hopi language) Such an expression as ten days is not used. The equivalent statement is an operational one that reaches one day by a suitable count. They stayed ten days becomes they stayed until the eleventh day or they left after the tenth day. (p.140).

What it means is that, contrary to what the proponents of culturally-relativist linguistics suggest, the syntactic particulars of a specific language are being thoroughly consistent with how its speakers assess the significance of the surrounding reality. This, of course, implies that an individuals identity is indeed bound up with his or her language in a rather inseparable manner.

The legitimacy of this statement can be further illustrated in relation to what accounts for the qualitative difference, between how the semiotic meaning is being conveyed in Western and Oriental languages. For example, when a typical Western mother tries to familiarize its child with the notion of a car, she would be more likely to describe a car, as something with innately defined characteristics: Look at this car  it has four wheels, it is red and shiny.

Oriental mother, on the other hand, would be more likely to introduce its child to the notion of a car by emphasizing the cars contextual characteristics: Look at this car  it allows passengers to enjoy fast and comfortable ride (Masuda et al. 2008). The reason why it is being the case is apparent  unlike Westerners, endowed with the Faustian mentality, Orientals (endowed with the Apollonian mentality), tend to perceive the emanations of the surrounding reality not analytically, but rather contextually.

According to Bower (2000, p. 57), In a variety of reasoning tasks, East Asians take a holistic approach. They make little use of categories and formal logic and instead focus on relations among objects and the context in which they interact. In other words, ones language can be referred as such that provides us with an in-depth insight into the innermost specifics of his or her brain wiring, which happened to be so much more biologically then environmentally predetermined.

The full legitimacy of what has been said earlier can also be explored in regards to the popularity of the comic character of Ali G (Sasha Cohen) on British television, who was able to attain a public prominence by the mean of exposing viewers to his self-adopted identity of a Creole-speaking and gangsta-lifestyle-practicing Londoner.

The popularity of this character can be well explained in regards to the fact that ones language does in fact reflect the deep-seated aspects of his or her individuality. As Sebba (2007, p. 362) pointed out, Language is central to the Ali G phenomenon. Ali Gs language is a blend of non-standard Southern British English with grammatical, phonological and lexical features derived from Jamaican Creole.

Apparently, it is specifically Cohens ability to take a practical advantage of his awareness of the fact that the Creolized British cannot be adequately utilized, as a channel for conveying urban-based (intellectually advanced) semantic messages, which allowed this actor to ensure the comic appeal of his character. It appears that Ali G succeeded in mimicking the tendency among many ethnically diverse people in Britain, to intentionally simplify the syntactic conventions of English language.

This is the reason why in his interviews, Ali G always refers to himself in the third person, Me was bored cos me had to do the same year for four years; they didnt know me was dyslexical, and lots of people have told me that me have got the brain of a brain-scientist if me only been to school and not fallen behind so (Howells 2006, p. 160).

The actual reason why viewers are being amused, while exposed to this character on TV, is that despite that fact that he poses, as an individual endowed with the strong sense of self-identity, his act is in fact highly stereotypical.

This is because the very assumption that a particular person is being endowed with the strongly defined sense of an existential identity, presupposes his or her ability to mentally separate itself from the surrounding reality. In its turn, such ones ability cannot be discussed outside of what accounts for the concerned individuals rate of IQ  the higher is this rate, the more advanced (abstract) are the linguistic forms/idioms he or she uses, while communicating with others, and vice versa (Lynn & Vanhanen 2002).

This, of course, once again confirms the full validity of the suggestion that it is not only that the notions of language and identity are closely related, but also that they in fact derive out of each other rather organically.

Because the specifics of ones position in life (which cannot be discussed outside of what account for the linguistic aspects of the concerned individuals sense of self-identity) define his or her chances of attaining a social prominence, we can well evaluate the extent of just about anyones societal value, in relation to the syntactic characteristics of the persons language.

In other words, the less a particular person is being capable of acting as the societys productive member (in the Western sense of this word), the more his or her language would be reflective of the following:

1. Absence of covert categorization  in primitive languages, there are no contextual semantics within spoken sentences. This is the reason why the representational semiotics of these languages are necessarily literal.
2. Linguistic holism  the structural mechanics of primitive languages serve the function of helping speakers to blend with the surrounding environment mentally (by referring to themselves in the third person).
3. Emotional integrity  the structure of many sentences in primitive languages reflects the affiliated peoples tendency to focus on the emotional aspects of the referred objects/subjects.

The provided line of argumentation, in defense of the idea that the concepts of language and identity are mutually interrelated, does substantiate the full appropriateness of the practice of using the linguistic impressions of people, as a tool of gaining a discursive insight into the workings of their psyche.

This is because, as it was implied earlier, the particulars of how people use language, while communicating with each other, reflect the varying extent of their evolutionary advancement. Therefore, there is indeed a perfectly legitimate sense in defining the measure of peoples actual humanity in relation to the manner in which they express themselves verbally. I believe that this conclusion fully correlates with the papers initial thesis.

References

Agar, M. 1994, Language shock: understanding the culture of conversation, William Morrow, New York.

Bower, B. 2000, Cultures of reason, Science News, vol. 157 no. 4, pp. 56-58.

Bruhl, L. 1928, The soul of the primitive, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.

Howells, R. 2006, Is it because I is Black? Race, humor and the polysemiology of Ali G, Historical Journal of Film, Radio & Television, vol. 26 no. 2, pp. 155-177.

Leavitt, J. 2011, Linguistic relativities: language diversity and modern thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Lynn, R. & Vanhanen, T. 2002, IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, Greenwood Publishing Group.

Masuda, T. et al. 2008, Culture and aesthetic preference: comparing the attention to context of East Asians and Americans, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 34 no. 9, pp. 1260-1275.

Sebba, M. 2007, Identity and language construction in an online community: the case of Ali G, in P Auer (ed.), Social identity and communicative styles  an alternative approach to linguistic variability, Mouton, Berlin, pp. 361-392.

We are able to change the statement house of brick house  to the brick house. This is mainly because the first statement refers to a particular house and the material used to set up the structure (Strumpf and Douglas 2004). We cannot however equate the statement  the home of elephants to the statement the elephants home because from experience we know that a home can only be made of certain materials and in no way can living creatures be part of these materials.

This is the main reason why we need to add an extra s to make the statement the elephants home make sense. This is because the latter statement does not necessarily refer to the material used to build the house but to the ownership and occupancy of the structure (Hurford 1994).

The extra s is used to indicate that a number of elephants own the place in question and this serves to get rid the dispute between ownership and structural components. This is mainly a grammatical statement and like many statements of its nature it refers to a given item (Murphy 2007).

As it is in this case, the statement tries to set up a clear distinction between the physical characteristics of a structural component and its other features. In essence, the latter statement tries to create a sense of ownership while the earlier statement creates an idealistic view of the materials used to build the house. This is a grammatical paradox and would in essence call for an extensive detailing of the statements components just to make sure that the issues of contention are well addressed (Elliot 2006).

Reference List

Elliot, R. 2006. Painless Grammar. United States: Barrons Educational Series.

Hurford, J. 1994. Grammar: a students guide. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Murphy, R. 2007. Essential grammar in use: a self-study reference and practice book. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Strumpf, M. and Douglas, A. 2004. The grammar bible: everything you always wanted to know about grammar but didnt know whom to ask. Maryland: Holt.