A human being is created amazingly, their nature is biosocial. It means that a colossal number of factors affect their life activity, well-being, and lifespan development. Physical, emotional, social, and spiritual factors are fundamental and determine life quality and its duration. Such important problems as health and well-being, parenting, education, socio-cultural context, and social policy are the cause for concern and reflection and are closely related to the development of the life cycle of individuals and communities.
These areas represent significance in the context of the lifespan development of an individual and affect its formation. Health and wellness are not possible without each other. Health influences well-being, but subjective well-being also affects health and life expectancy. These aspects are extremely important at any stage since they govern the quality of life, and, therefore, development. The upbringing of children is relevant at a certain period of a person’s formation, at the initial stage of the personality’s molding, and also at the stage of parenting when the transfer of experience takes place. Such an aspect as education should always be relevant, but often the activity of this area comes in the first half of life, and in the second half a person usually uses “the accumulated knowledge”. (Pullen, 2017, p. 32) The sociocultural context affects the spiritual formation of the individual and the understanding of their own identity, within the lifespan development, this period is quite significant. Considering that a person is a social being, the formation, and development of their personality are influenced by a variety of factors described above, adding value in their own way.
In a global sense, the problem of introducing social policy is more important since it is designed for the masses. On the local level, it is a system of activities aimed at improving the quality and standard of living of social groups. Implementing concrete life support measures can influence the development of the lives of individuals and give people the opportunity to change their lives for the better.
Reference
Pullen, D., Swabey, K., Carroll, A., Lombard, S., Heath, A., Isreal-Cohen, Y., O’Grady, P., Gárate, M. P., Brown, A. (2017). Lifespan development in an educational context: edited book. John Wiley & Sons.
Development is progressive physical, mental/cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Traditionally, development was thought to occur only in childhood. However, changes occur throughout life. This paper will discuss lifespan development perspective, theories of lifespan development, and the interaction between heredity and environment.
The lifespan perspective of development states that human development begins shortly after conception and continues throughout life (Boyd & Bee, 2009). The development manifests through physical and cognitive changes. Lifespan development looks at all changes that occur in an individual’s lifetime.
Previously, only changes that occur in childhood were emphasized. This view tended to omit social and cognitive changes that occur throughout life. Culture and the context in which the changes occur must be considered when analyzing the changes.
Plasticity is a term that is used to describe changes that occur throughout life. People of all ages experience their surroundings and adjust their behaviors accordingly (Boyd & Bee, 2009). People can learn from the environment regardless of age. Therefore, learning is not restricted to childhood only. This implies that growth continues throughout life.
Changes occur in several contexts. In turn, groups that an individual belongs to modulate context. Friendship, work, family, culture, and place are some of the settings in which change may occur (Boyd & Bee, 2009). These settings form an important part of lifespan development. Change does not usually occur outside these contexts. The settings act as both the triggers and modulators of development.
Development occurs in periods and domains. The periods of development include prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. All humans go through all these stages in their lifetime. Domains group all changes into physical, mental, and social domains. Physical domain describes all the physical changes occurring in an individual. The mental domain is concerned with cognitive development. Social domain covers all social changes an individual experiences.
Attachment Theory/ Bowlby’s attachment Theory
The attachment theory states that human infants need an adult with whom they feel secure. Attachment provides the infant with emotional, physical, and psychological security. Attachment is an instinct that develops to ensure the safety of the infant. Body contact and familiarity strengthen attachment.
Various types of attachment exist; secure, anxious-avoidant, and anxious-resistant. Secure attachment is a desirable form of attachment. It is founded on trust. Anxious-avoidant and anxious-resistant forms of attachment are characterized by detachment. Healthy emotional and psychological development depends on attachment. If an infant’s ability to attach to parents or caregivers is restricted, the infant may develop feelings of anger and anxiety. These individuals may become overly aggressive during adulthood.
Theory of Perceptual Development/Gibson’s Theory
The theory of perceptual development states that infants are born with functional perceptual systems (Slater & Lewis, 2006). This implies that touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste sensations are present at birth. The perceptions play an important role in an infant’s survival. For example, infants are born with an innate preference for mother’s milk. The senses undergo age related changes and by the age of two years, most senses have fully developed. However, at birth touch appears to be the most developed.
Heredity and the environment
Heredity is a term used to describe human characteristics inherited from parents. Heredity also refers to nature. This includes all aspects of a human being controlled by genes. The genetic composition of an individual plays an important role in growth and development. Genes control all the metabolic processes that produce physical development. Genes influence height, weight, and physique. Genes code this predetermined traits.
However, the environment undoubtedly influences the expression of these genetic traits. For example, obesity may be common in places where food rich in fats and calories is regularly consumed. An individual may be genetically predisposed to certain cardiovascular diseases but in the absence of environmental modulation, the diseases do not develop. In most cases, some diseases are managed using lifestyle modulation. This indicates that environmental factors play a role in their development.
The environment modulates the effects of genes. The environment modifies all the genetically controlled processes. This produces unique traits that are not shared between individuals. However, the genes may also exert a modulating effect on the environment. The interaction between genes and the environment is complex and to some extent, the product is not predictable. Genetic makeup may influence people to prefer some environments. This implies that genes influence the choice of the environment.
The effect of the environment on identical twins has been studied and it revealed that some aspects of development are not greatly influenced by the environment. Related individuals share these aspects. Aspects that may be modified by the environment include learning and interests. Some environments facilitate quick acquisition of knowledge while others hinder it.
This paper discussed lifespan development perspective, theories of lifespan development, and the interaction between heredity and environment. The lifespan development perspective contends that development is continuous. Development is physical, emotional, or psychological change. The attachment theory states that infants need adults to feel secure. The perceptual theory states that perception plays an important role in developed.
References
Boyd, D. & Bee, H. (2009). Lifespan Development (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Slater, A. & Lewis, M. (2006). Introduction to Infant Development. Oxford: OUP.
Every stage of human development is significant and unique as people develop, acquire new knowledge and adopt new behavioural models.
Thus, in infancy (up to one year), the child is dependent on its parents; in childhood (1-10 years old), children rapidly develop physically, mentally and socially; adolescence (12-18 years old) is characterised by numerous transformations and adulthood is the period of functioning of fully developed individuals, though there can also be certain mental and behavioural transformations (Shaffer & Kipp 2009).
Notably, adolescence stands out as this is the period of considerable emotional turmoil and physical transformation. Adolescents learn how to function in the society and fully develop their behavioural models.
During this period, people have to make a lot of choices and are in search for their selves. From theoretical perspective, this period provides new insights into the attachment theory, which will be discussed below. It is also necessary to note that adolescents are the most vulnerable group in the contemporary society as globalisation and rapid development of technology provides numerous challenges for these young people. Therefore, adolescence is a period which requires special attention.
It is necessary to note that adolescents have to cope with rapid transformation of their bodies. This physical transformation affects psychological development of adolescents to a great extent (Swanson, Edwards & Spencer 2010). Birnbaum and Linver (2013) stress that this is the period when people become active in all respects, i.e. need extra physical activity and are active in forming relationships.
This is the period when young people experience their sexuality and often have their first sexual experience, which can affects further development of their personality (Tolman & McClelland 2011). It is noteworthy that their behaviour often changes and they form new attachments.
Apart from physical development, adolescents acquire an important skill which helps them function in the society. Hence, they develop self-regulatory tools which shape their behaviour (Gestsdottir & Lerner 2008). Self-regulation is important as adolescents learn how to live in the world of adulthood.
As has been mentioned above, adolescents face a variety of challenges. Apart from experiencing their physical transformation (which is quite a serious challenge), adolescents make attempts to become a part of a larger group. Clearly, young people try to understand who they are, but they also feel the need to fit in (Schwartz 2008). This is the period when their attachment to parents decreases and they search for new relationships (Smetana, Campione-Barr & Metzger 2006).
This period is often associated with neglect of rules and desire to break them. Researchers note that this process is often guided by parents, schools, religious institution. For instance, Morris et al. (2007) claim that the family plays a substantial role in development of self-regulation in adolescents. At the same time, Trommsdorff (2012) notes that religious values also shape the way adolescents behave and develop their self-regulatory tools.
Apart from the search of their identity, adolescents have to face challenges brought by globalisation. Thus, adolescents pertaining to minorities are often marginalised and face additional challenges as it is harder for them to fit in due to their cultural, ethnic and/or religious peculiarities.
Thus, French, Seidman, Allen and Aber (2006) note that African American and Latino American adolescents have to cope with numerous issues as they are often neglected. It is also acknowledged that these issues are especially vivid in school settings as adolescents are bound to interact and their otherness comes to the forefront (Fuller & Coll 2010; Lam 2007). Furthermore, globalisation is also associated with economic issues which have a significant impact on the development of adolescents.
Hence, Hempel, Wuermli and Lundberg (2012) note that economic difficulties families have to face put more pressure on adolescents. First, they are exposed to their parents’ arguments. Adolescents can also feel they cannot become a part of some groups due to lack of money. This makes adolescents search for other ways to find their selves. This new search can lead to some subcultures and substance abuse. However, there are many ways to help adolescents to find their identity without violating laws and becoming outcasts.
This is where attachment theory can be applicable. The most critical argument of the theory is that “child’s relationship with a primary caregiver during infancy is critically important to later development and serves as a prototype for the child’s relationships throughout the lifespan” (Washington 2008, p. 8).
Therefore, the closer parents (or a caregiver) and an infant are, the closer tight they will form in the future. In other words, according to this theory, parents can help their child develop strong attachment to them and this will help them avoid numerous issues in their child’s adolescence. This can be true as there are many examples of families where adolescents remain attached to their parents.
However, some researchers have claimed that the theory is out-dated and the period in question is the brightest examples for that. Thus, Smetana (2010) stresses that adolescents tend to alienate themselves for their parents or older relatives as they try to become a part of a group of peers.
Adolescents often find models among their peers and tend to think that older generations simply try to restrict their basic rights. This is one of the major limitations to the theory as it is clear that although some children can be attached to their parents, they can change during their adolescence. A number of transformations (both physical and mental) often shape adolescents’ personality. However, even though this trend is also common, it does not mean that the attachment theory is totally out-dated.
Admittedly, there are certain limitations, but they show that the theory should be considered from a slightly different angle. Thus, it is doubtless that the way caregivers treat children has a significant impact on the child’s development. However, transformations taking place during adolescents can diminish this effect.
At the same time, adolescents do not lose all ties with their parents. Attachment does not disappear, but transforms into new forms. During adolescence, young people tend to form new attachments as they interact with their peers. Thus, the theory can be applied and it can help parents, adolescents, educators, social workers and psychologists assist adolescents find their selves and learn how to live in the society.
In conclusion, it is possible to note that adolescence is one of the most meaningful and difficult periods in people’s lives. This is the period of great physical and psychological transformation. This is also the period when adolescents find their selves and learn how to be a part of the society. Contemporary adolescents often face numerous challenges which are related to globalisation. However, the use of the attachment theory can help researchers find ways to better understand this period.
Reference List
Birnbaum, AS & Linver, MR 2013, ‘Adolescent physical development and health’, in G Creasey & PA Jarvis (eds), Adolescent development and school achievement in urban communities: resilience in the neighbourhood, Routledge, Oxon, pp. 53-65.
French, SE, Seidman, E, Allen, L & Aber, JL 2006, ‘The development of ethnic identity during adolescence’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 42. no. 1, pp. 1-10.
Fuller, B & Coll, CG 2010, ‘Learning from Latinos: contexts, families, and child development in motion’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 46. no. 3, pp. 559-565.
Gestsdottir, S & Lerner, RM 2008, ‘Positive development in adolescence: the development and role of intentional self-regulation’, Human Development, vol. 51. no. 1, pp. 202-224.
Hempel, K, Wuermli, A & Lundberg, M 2012, ‘Adolescence: protecting and promoting human development in times of economic shocks’, Labour Markets and Youth, no. 13, pp. 1-4.
Lam, C 2007, ‘Towards a Chinese conception of adolescent development in a migration context’, The Scientific World Journal, vol. 7. no. 1, pp. 506-518.
Morris, AS, Silk, JS, […] & Robinson, LR 2007, ‘The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation’, Social Development, vol. 16. no. 2, pp. 361-388.
Schwartz, SJ 2008, ‘Self and identity in early adolescence’, Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. 28. no. 1, pp. 5-15.
Shaffer, DR & Kipp, K 2009, Developmental psychology: childhood & adolescence, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.
Smetana, JG 2010, Adolescents, families, and social development: how teens construct their worlds, John Wiley & Sons, Oxford, UK.
Smetana, JG, Campione-Barr, N & Metzger, A 2006, ‘Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 57. no. 1, pp. 255-284.
Swanson, DP, Edwards, MC & Spencer, MB 2010, Adolescence: development during a global era, Academic Press, London, UK.
Tolman, DL & McClelland, SI 2011, ‘Normative sexuality development in adolescence: a decade in review’, Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 21. no. 1, pp. 242-255.
Trommsdorff, G 2012, Cultural perspectives on values and religion in adolescent development. Web.
Washington, KT 2008, ‘Attachment and alternatives: theory in child welfare research’, Advances in Social Work, vol. 9. no. 1, pp. 8-16.
Development among children is an issue of nature against nurture, that is, it depends on the environment as well as the hereditary factors the child gets from the parents. The genes are some of the heredity factors that affect the human development. Gotten from both parents, they define the physical features.
The gene that a child gets from the parents depends on the most dominant gene among the parents. For example, if one of the parents had black hair and the other one brown, the child will take the hair colour of the parent with the dominant gene. Environmental factors also affect human physical development; the environmental climate the child is exposed to affects his/her growth. A parent who smokes and subjects the children to such pollutants is likely to have children who are poorly developed physically (Leo, 2006).
Cognitive development among children is focused on the brain development: the brain development among children is affected by many factors. Among them are the following: education is one of the physical factors that affect the cognitive development; qualities like the esteem and self-confidence of the children are developed through getting involved in other children and socializing with them (Leo, 2006).
The minds of the children are also stimulated through some activities like jigsaws and book reading to achieve a high level of development. The culture the child is subjected to also pose an effect on the way the brain develops. A child who is brought out in an environment where succeeding is given much of a priority will tend to develop a mindset that only strives to achieve.
Hereditary factors that are genetic also affect the way the child mind develops. In case a child is born with a chromosomal abnormalities like a mental illness, it is likely that it is going to affect him or her cognitive development. In the same way, the genes that a child gets from the parents also affects the way development of the mind. The most dominant genes that the child gets from one of the parents may define the way the child cognitive development will be.
Human development among children is affected by several factors. The trait theory of development has one of its reasoning of this effect. Family is one of the factors that affect the way a child develops morally, socially and the personality. The personalities of the parent and the style they use in parenting them have great effect on their development.
A shy parent is likely to have children that are shy. However, the personality may be affected in future by such factors as socializing with their peers once they grow up. In the same way an authoritative parent is likely to have children who are self-confident (Damon, 2006).
The environment has a great effect on our social, moral, and personal development. According to the humanistic theory of personality development, our development is determined the externalist. Our moral life is determined by things around us, as well as the choices we make.
The decisions we arrive at are a combination of how one is brought up and manipulation of the people around us (Damon, 2006). For example, a child gains the confidence to do activities in front of people due to the self-confidence instilled in him by the parents/guardians, and in school. To a child, this is the environment known to him, and continuous growth will expand the environment around him.
List of References
Damon W, R. M. (2006). Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.
Leo, J. H. (1996). Child Development: Analysis and Synthesis. New York: Psychology Press.
Adolescence is the age in life when most of a person’s development occurs as they are transforming into adulthood. The transition period is marked by emotional upheaval which may be released on parents due to novel cognitive ability and hormonal imbalances. Their brain development leads to developed reason, which may lead them to feel superior and acquire a sense of individualism.
At this time, there is a need for them to be aware of the changes they are experiencing, how they affect them and what to do about them. The development entails physical and cognitive. Cognitive development is characterized by growth in information processing, thinking and application of new skills.
Physical development
This is portrayed by speedy adding of height and weight boys gain muscles and shoulders broaden, acquire ample skeletal muscles, which strengthens the vital organs such as the heart and lungs becomes larger. The girls acquire body fat and hips broaden with more settling around the legs and arms. This is as a result of the secretion of Thyroxin and Growth Hormone which aids in skeletal development. Moreover, secondary sex traits begin to appear controlled by estrogens in girls and androgens in boys.
These are marked by hormonal changes which triggers the developments of these traits. The traits that are visible includes; development of hair in the pubic and armpits, onset of menstruation (Menarche), enlargement of breasts, endometrial development for females due to estrogen and penis enlargement for males and spermarche or initial ejaculation due to the hormone testosterone, the voice deepens and facial hair appears for males due to release of testosterone and increased oil and sweat production which causes acne.
Onset of puberty is a hormonal process that is controlled genetically and comes earlier for girls. Other characteristics of physical development entail mass brain growth which dictates their capability to reason with emotions which may at times be judgmental and may cause psychological distancing from close people. It could be also the result of engagement of teens in drugs, eating disorders, promiscuity (Rathus, 2008).
Physical development is determined by a number of factors such as heredity, nutrition, physical fitness, health. It does not only show physical traits growth but also internal organs growth e.g. brain, heart, and kidney. In nutrition, a child requires a balanced diet with mineral, fruits, carbohydrates, vegetables, and plenty water in the right doses.
Malnourishment due to poor nutrition may cause prematurity and neural flaws. To avoid unexpected illnesses such as high blood pressure, coronary artery destruction, cardiovascular illnesses and obesity which may affect the children, they require sufficient elements in their diet.
Culture also may play part in determining physical development since it may enhance or deteriorate gross motor skills. These are the skills that entail utilization of large muscles such as walking. For instance, in the U.S, children exercise both fine and gross motor skills while playing sports such as baseball. The chance of exploring recreational activities to learn more e.g. swimming as well as having plenty rest and sleep is essential. Thus new activities exposure is crucial.
Moreover, if a child is exposed to contaminants during particular developmental stages, mutations in their DNA may occur thus affecting the growth of the child. It is also not right to expose a child to violence or other stressing surroundings as it may delay their development through biochemical alterations communicated to the brain and cause disorders.
These are environmental processes that may allow or deter a child’s development. Hereditary factors are the most important in determining the extent of physical development. Every person bears different genes that are inherited from the parents, thus, traits like height, eye color, are determined by these genes.
These however are physically manifested through the aspect of whether the gene is recessive or dominant. The dominant gene inherited from the parent always manifests as phenotypic while the recessive one determines the genotypic composition. Both or one Parent may transmit defective genes to the children that may because conditions such as spina bifida, cystic fibrosis and cerebral palsy. Genetic factors may also have a role to play in linking –personal skills in a certain area (Glasper & Richardson, 2006).
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is marked by increased reasoning ability with an open, critical mind. This includes logical thinking with a hypothetical perspective and developing answers for such. Other than reasoning skills, abstract thoughts also develop. Adolescents develop such level of thinking which is followed by such traits as trust, love and spirituality. They also realize meta-cognition where they are able to evaluate their thoughts, feelings and others perceptions of themselves.
By doing so, adolescents exhibit a high degree of self consciousness where they think that others are always concerned of their welfare and that they are unique. According to the psychologist Jean Piaget, adolescents lie between the formal operational stages of cognitive development in which intelligence is portrayed by abstract thoughts that allow them to be egocentric. Independent thoughts are adapted in this stage which increases their ability to grasp complex concepts such as philosophy.
That way, their learning ability is enhanced in which they apply to given scenarios such as occupation and education. Cognitive transition from childhood to adolescents shows a higher degree and intricate of advancement. This is manifested through unlimited and realistic thinking. Their abstract thoughts are also enhanced as well as their meta-cognition to display advanced introspection and personal realization.
This arms the individuals to become intellectuals but may also result to egocentrism. Finally, adolescents become multidimensional to critically evaluate situations in a complex sophisticated manner which is essential in aiding them to see things from a compound perspective while weighing all possibilities. This is important in helping them weigh things relatively and avoids taking then as absolute facts although this aspect may lead them to always question authorities (Steinberg, 2005).
Cognitive development is determined by various hereditary and environmental issues. When it is impaired there are psychological conditions that results like Autism. Learning disability is also another condition where an individual is unable to interpret facts because they cannot transmit it to the appropriate brain sections.
It is illustrated with inability to become conversant with languages, loss of concentration and lack of coordination which is manifest in declined studies. These individuals may also lack hearing abilities or being subject to emotional distress. Interaction of the environment and genetic factors are the prime cause of learning disabilities. Consequently a child may be bearing genes for such inabilities inherited from the parents but the problem only manifests when there is interplay with certain environmental factors.
For instance, parents may expose a child to appropriate experiences such as talking to them and allowing study materials as he or she grows which is essential in arming the child with necessary tools for self realization. Parents may also offer a challenging and supportive environment for a child to become confident and be aware of their strengths in relation to the society. If a disruption to cognitive developments in early stages may lead to a permanent damage on a child (Steinberg, 2005).
Theoretical perspectives
Social relationships are crucial for adolescents since they determine the extent of brain development. Children are able to formulate moral judgments as they interact socially. Emotions such as empathy, aiding and regarding others are part of moral development of a child.
The theoretical perspectives that explain child development are psychodynamic and maturational perspectives. A maturational perspective points out that the extent of neurological growth and the physiological growth are linked to hereditary factors that have a direct consequence on the advancement of a child’s physical potentials.
This deduction can be made in the instance when a child’s writing skills advances as he or she continues learning in school. This is due to enhancement of neurological factors that evidently proceeds and most significantly, as a child hits puberty where he or she physically develops. Besides, another theoretical perspective is the psychodynamic, which points out that a child such as an adolescent is subject to social judgments as determined by desires granted by violence and sexuality.
However they are also prompted by the requirement for a social involvement and recognition. To various developmental stages, a child is able to grasp how to apply their impulses in a socially productive manner. It is notable when an adolescent questions a teacher or a guardian’s authority or even punch a fellow student. As he gets the response due to his or her deeds he is able to find out how to handle the impulses in amore positive manner (Rathus, 2011).
References
Glasper, A. E. and Richardson J. (2006). A Textbook of Children’s and Young People’s Nursing. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Rathus, S. (2008). Childhood and Adolescent: Voyages in Development. 3rd Ed. Belmont: Thomson Learning Inc.
Rathus, S. (2011). Childhood Voyages in Development.4th Ed. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and Affective Development in Adolescence. TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.9 No.2. Web.
Nature versus Nurture debate reflects two contrasting approaches to understanding the specifics of the factors influencing the lifespan development of a person. The first one is based on the belief that humans acquire most of their traits from nature, which means that the hereditary factor is the one determining the development of the personality.
The second approach is based on the assumption that people acquire their traits from the environment, which means that the child is born with no specific characteristics and his/her behavioral patterns develop from the external influences throughout different life stages. While there is a vast amount of literature exploring both of the approaches, the modern sources mainly claim that both internal and external factors shape the personality.
In his article, Sameroff (2010) presents a view that unites the achievements of investigations in both nature and nurture influences on the development and calls for considering the two approaches as interrelated and complementary to each other. The author presents a well-developed reasoning for the claim that determining the influence of inner and external factors should not be regarded as opposing approaches and bases his assumptions on the data from relevant studies.
Sameroff uses a considerable number of scholarly references to support his point of view. The information he presents is clear and detailed, and the assumptions he makes are logical and well-grounded. The article can be considered credible and serve as an illustration to the inappropriateness of contrasting nature and nurture, as the knowledge about the interaction between the hereditary factors and environmental influences is the key to understanding the complex process of human development.
Though Sameroff and many other scholars regard to nature and nurture as the approaches that should be integrated, many scientists still view them as contrasting to each other. Within the theoretical framework of nature approach, the development is regarded as the result of the combination of hereditary factors given to every person from the birth. The advocates of this approach consider studying the genes the key to understanding the origins of the traits developed by people.
Cool (2014) analyzes Galton’s study on twins and comes to a conclusion that the stories of twins show the prevalence of nature over nurture. The adherents of nurture approach view environmental influences as the main factors shaping the development of a person and value the family and social environments as the main predictors of the personal traits the person develops throughout the life.
However, as it was mentioned previously, the majority of modern scholars insist on the importance of studying the personality development by integrating nature and nurture approaches (Kandler 2014; Robinson 2004).
Many scientists support such integration by presenting the evidence of the fact that even epigenetic factors are susceptible to the influence of environment, which means that nature and nurture are not opposing but impacting each other (Tammen, Friso, & Choi, 2013; GadjeV, 2015). Therefore, only the integration of both approaches can provide the modern science with an opportunity to understand and predict such a complex process as personality development across a lifespan.
Contributions of Theory to Practice
Operant learning theory would predict that Karen will search for the opportunities to express herself and receive empathy from the members of the group in the next group session. Such behavior is stimulated by positive reinforcement Karen received during the previous session from the group members who supported her and the counselor who reflected her emotions with concern and sensitivity.
Erikson’s developmental theory suggests that the negative outcomes of the crisis experienced by Karen might include the development of the feeling of loneliness and angst and considering oneself incapable of loving and being loved. The positive outcomes might include Karen’s motivation to learn to make compromises and sacrifices necessary for long-term intimate relationships.
Social learning theorists would predict that the group will be ready to support Karen again, as its participants observed the positive result of demonstrating empathy to the person suffering from the crisis in the relationships.
Multidimensional or systems view can be applied to solutions for Karen’s developmental concerns by suggesting that the assessment of various internal and external factors influencing the woman’s personality should be conducted to reveal what factors have a negative impact on the development of her mature personality and eliminate them.
The knowledge of theory contributes to our understanding of lifespan development significantly by revealing that this is a complex process influenced by numerous factors and teaching us that no single approach can be considered as the most righteous one. Instead, the integration of various approaches is the key to understanding the specifics of different stages of lifespan development better.
Such knowledge is essential for the work in counseling psychology, as understanding the origins of traits and behavioral patterns of the person is the key to finding the methods to eliminate negative factors and help the person to deal with disturbing problems or overcome crisis. Theoretical knowledge is the key to successful practice in profession aimed at providing psychological assistance for people facing problems at different stages of the development of their personalities.
References
Cool, A. (2014). Twins, nature, and nurture. BioSocieties, 9(2), 225-227.
Gadjev, I. (2015). Nature and nurture: Lamarck’s legacy. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 114, 242–247.
Kandler, C. (2014). Personality development between nature and nurture. Keynotes / Personality and Individual Differences, 60, S79–S82.
Robinson, G. (2004). Beyond nature and nurture. Science, 304(5669), 397-399.
Sameroff, A. (2010). A unified theory of development: A dialectic integration of nature and nurture. Child Development, 81(1), 6-22.
Tammen, S., Friso, S., & Choi, S. (2013). Epigenetics: The link between nature and nurture. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 34, 753-764.
Although a strand of existing literature demonstrates that research on human growth and development is a relatively recent endeavor, particularly in reference to the fact that studies involving children did not begin until the late ninetieth century while those involving adult development and ageing only emerged in the 1960s and 1970s (Lerner et al, 2009), a myriad of theoretical perspectives and standpoints have evolved over time in a focused attempt aimed at shedding light on underlying issues related to human growth and development (Adams, 2006).
This paper aims to demonstrate reasons why the stage theories seem to be best suited, in my view, to explain human growth and development. In addition, the present paper will aim to explain how the stage theoretical framework relates to principles that guide the rehabilitation process.
Using the stages theoretical framework, life span development is divided into various phases, which include: Prenatal stage (conception to birth); infancy and toddlerhood (birth to 2 years); early childhood (2-6years); middle childhood (6-11 years); adolescence (11-18 years); early adulthood (18-40 years); Middle adulthood (40-65 years), and; late adulthood (65 years-death (Adams, 2006).
Each of these stages has its own developmental paradigms, needs and demands.
Academics and practitioners rightly points out the study of human growth and development is best understood when intraindividual and interindividual changes are described, explained and optimized in terms of the different phases that individuals undergo, from childhood to adulthood (Adams, 2006).
Although various studies have shown that human development is life-long (Lerner et al, 2009), explaining the various changes that individuals undergo in terms of clearly cut developmental phases of life provides a pattern through which various issues and challenges can be addressed in relation to the phase of development.
More importantly, explaining lifespan development through stages enable parents, educators and other interested entities to provide the right conditions for individuals in a particular stage with the view to enable them achieve their full potential.
The above explanations are in line with my philosophy of human growth and development, which is informed by the fact that human beings are affected and influenced by common factors that are best captured when physical, cognitive and emotional variables of human development are outlined in terms of invariant stages or phases of life.
For instance, it becomes easy to use these stages to explain the refinement of motor skills in children, the development of logical thought processes, sexual maturity and career ambitions of individuals though the life span.
Additionally, the stages perspective to human development best explain why individuals must follow a particular trajectory or order for maturity to be reached: that is, individuals must progress from a simpler and immature phase of behavior and experience toward a more complex level for maturity to be achieved (Adams, 2006).
The practice of rehabilitation is governed by a wide allay of principles, which inarguably relate to numerous theories of human growth and development. It has been explained in this paper that the stage theories of development are intrinsically aligned with the cognitive, physical, and emotional levels of human development.
These levels will ultimately influence the directions taken by counselors in terms of conducting rehabilitation assessment and implementing case management techniques as individuals will only positively react to these interventions if they clearly understand what is required of them based on their respective stages of development (Hartung, 2010).
For instance, a counselor cannot use empowerment strategies in rehabilitation to treat an individual in early or middle childhood since his or her cognitive abilities may not be in resonance to the intervention strategy.
Reference List
Adams, M. (2006). Towards an existential phenomenological model of life span human development. Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 17(2), pp. 261-280.
Hartung, P.J. (2010). Practice and Research in Career Counseling and Development – 2009. Career Development Quarterly, 59(2), 98-142.
Lerner, R.M., Schwartz, S.J., & Phelps, E. (2009). Problematics of time and timing in the longitudinal study of human development: Theoretical & methodological issues. Human Development, 52(1), 44-68.
Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.
These levels include childhood and adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). This paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development and two major theories of lifespan development. In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed.
The lifespan perspective of development
The lifespan perspective examines the changes that take place at each level of human development relative to the environmental (Society and culture) factors that influence these changes (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 84). Moreover, the lifespan perspective can be defined in many ways.
For instance, the lifespan perspective can be a progressive and lifelong process of development that is not limited to any single level in human development. On the other hand, there are three major aspects of the lifespan perspective of development, which include the cognitive, social, physical dimensions of change (Sugarman, 2000, p. 59).
Furthermore, other studies claim that the perspective is plastic in nature because some domains of lifespan development increase while others decrease. This plasticity of the lifespan perspective occurs in response to various environmental factors that influence human development.
In addition, the perspective is embedded in the lifelong events that occur in the life of an individual. Thus, this perspective is studied by scientists, anthropologists, and psychologists, which brings out its multidisciplinary nature (Sugarman, 2000, p. 63). On the other hand, the perspective has different contextual implications. Therefore, human development is determined by biological, cultural, social, and physical environmental factors.
The three aspects of the lifespan perspective are also implicated in different developmental changes. The physical aspect of development involves changes in weight, height, shape, and the changes in individual experiences with the external environment (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86).
On the other hand, the social aspect of development involves changes in different phases of human development, which are directly influenced by the social environment such as social skills and relationships. Lastly, the cognitive domain of human development entails change in an individual’s thinking capacity, memory, and decision-making (Sugarman, 2000, p. 64).
The changes characterizing the lifespan perspective of development can also be divided into eight stages of human development. The first stage also known as the Trust vs. Mistrust stage occurs during the period between birth and one year.
Here, development of trust depends on the relationship between the toddler and the care-giver (Sugarman, 2000, p. 66). The second stage also known as Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt period occurs during the early childhood stage. During this stage, the child is capable of making choices relative to the individualized willingness.
The Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in development, which occurs during the middle childhood stage. During this stage, children develop a sense of purpose through engaging in goal-oriented activities (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 88). The fourth stage also called the Industry vs. Inferiority period occurs at the late childhood period. Here, children develop competence through learning social norms, basic education, and culture.
Additionally, the adolescence stage signifies the Identity vs. Role Confusion period. Here, individual values and choices develop because individuals are able to account for their actions. The Intimacy vs. Isolation period occurs during early adulthood and it is characterized by development of intimate relationships, marriage, and families (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 90).
The Generativity vs. Stagnation period occurs during the middle adulthood stage. Here, individuals are committed with providing for their families and developing their careers. Lastly, the Integrity vs. Despair stage occurs during the late adulthood stage. The elderly individuals are self-contented and they are full of life experiences and advice.
Theories of Lifespan Development
There are many theories that attempt to explain the process of human development from different perspectives such as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory posits that an individual encounters several conflicts during the development process, which depend on the type of relationship existing between this individual and the society.
Therefore, as an individual moves through the eight stages of development discussed above, he/she must solve the conflicts involved in one stage before moving to another. This ensures that one develops a sound personality; otherwise one may encounter difficulties in addressing conflicts in subsequent stages if the previous ones were not sufficiently resolved (Sugarman, 2000).
On the other hand, Freud’s theory states that the process of personality development occurs at the early childhood stage. Subsequently, the behavioral changes observed in developing individuals are influenced by the childhood events. Here, personality development occurs through several stages during the early childhood stage.
During this stage, the pleasure-oriented capabilities of an individual become focused on specific areas in one’s body. These capabilities also known as sexual libido or psychosexual energy play a major role in the subsequent behavioral changes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).
Thus, if all the issues involved in the psychosexual stages of development are adequately resolved, then an individual develops a sound personality. However, if the psychosexual issues remain unresolved, the person involved is trapped in a particular stage until all the issues are resolved.
The Interaction of Genes and the Environment in Lifespan Development
A child inherits the genetic information of both parents through the information carriers known as genes. The genes are made up of DNA, which is found on chromosomes. On the other hand, the environment in the context of lifespan development refers to the total social and cultural factors surrounding a developing human being (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86). Therefore, lifespan development in children depends on two major factors; the genetic make-up of a child and the environmental factors.
However, the two factors can play a mutual role in influencing the development of different individuals in the society. Here, the epigenetic framework of development posits that the genetic make-up can be turned on and off relative to the internal and external environmental feedback (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 89).
This gives the process of lifespan development the flexibility and plasticity described in the discussions above. For instance, the learning process in children follows a specific pattern of adaptability, which depends on the internal and external factors.
Therefore, during the early childhood stage, individuals use the environmental experiences in reasoning and acting. However, as the environmental factors and experiences change along the period of lifespan development, so does the emotional, reasoning, and social attributes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 91).
Conclusions
The paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development, the theories of lifespan development and the interaction of heredity and environment to produce individual differences in development.
From the discussions above, the lifespan perspective of development examines the changes that occur in different individuals, which occur due to the interaction of the genetic make-up and the total circumstances surrounding an individual. On the other hand, this perspective is also reinforced by Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which are summarized in the discussions above.
Reference List
Sigelman, C. K. & Rider, E. A. (2008). Lifespan human development. New York: Cengage Learning Publishers, Inc.
Sugarman, L. (2000). Lifespan development: Frameworks, accounts and strategies (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.