Category: Language

As it has been claimed by Agheyisi and Fishman (1970), language attitudes have been the most indispensable concept in sociolinguistics. Ryan (1982) has defined attitude as “a learned disposition to think, feel and behave toward a person or a class of objects in a particular way”. This interpretation emphasizes the positive and negative emotional responses that attitude embodies, and thus, language attitudes consist of an affective component, and extend to thought and behavior as well. In addition to this, Oppenheim (1982, cited in Garrett 2010) also incorporates cognitive and behavioural elements, but encompasses in his definition more elaboration of the ways in which attitudes are exemplified: a construct, an abstraction which cannot be directly apprehended. It is an essential component of mental life which expresses itself, directly or indirectly, through much more apparent procedures as stereotypes, beliefs, verbal statements or reactions, ideas and opinions, selective recall, anger or satisfaction or some other emotion and in disparate other features of behaviour.

It has been declared by Bauer and Trudgill (1998) the language attitude, that “everyone has an accent except me”. It is supported that accent defines and communicates who we are. Therefore, the differences in speech sounds that the speakers utilize can be perceived in the notion of “own-ness”. As it has been advocated by Bauer and Trudgill (1998) accent is the vehicle which listeners discern through their ears rather than through their eyes to “read”, for instance, where the speaker was born and raised, their gender, and where they might have moved during their life. Thus, it is an undeniable fact that everyone has an accent, which conveys information about the identity and individual history and that implies the case that there are some potential forensic applications. Furthermore, it is supported that the national standard language of a country is considered to be accentless and that non-standard speakers, on the contrary, have accents. Nevertheless, the standard languages have their roots in language varieties that already exist in distinct social groups. (Bauer and Trudgill, 1998) Therefore, there is the assertion that Standard languages represent individuals with more economic and political competence than people who use another accent. The principle of the “co-construction of reality” points out that the differences can be claimed not to occur until people build them. One result of this principle reveals the language attitude that some varieties of languages are socially superior and have more social prestige. In contrast, accents that individuals have heard merely occasionally and do not know very well have been stereotyped and prone to stigma. This is associated with the people’s interpretations of a language’s “correctness” and their attitudes towards language variation of what sounds more pleasant or intelligent. This can be illustrated in a comparison of standard and accented English; in which Ryan (1982) found that Mexican and Anglo- American children downgraded the accented speech relative to Standard English, and strongly preferred the Standard English showing more favorable attitudes towards it.

As it has been advocated by Ryan (1982) there is the language attitude that some languages are more aesthetically pleasing than others. For instance, Italian sounds are considered to be sophisticated, elegant and lively, and hence, conjure up positive emotions in listeners and generally more pleasing moods in their speakers. On the contrary, German, Arabic and some East-Asian tongues are deemed to be harsh, dour and unpleasant-sounding. The belief which exemplifies this fact is called “inherent value hypothesis”. Proponents of this position support that some languages and accents of them, are inherently more attractive than others. In other words, it is not due to the historical predilections or social conditioning, rather because certain ways of speaking “nicely” are biologically equipped with us. It is for this reason that certain language forms reflect prestige over others and that other languages could not possibly ever gain predominance or become the standard since they are too unpleasant. One of the language scholar and historian has stated that if one were to compare every vowel sound in Standard British English with the corresponding sounds in non-standard accents, any unbiased observer would apparently prefer the former as being the most pleasing and sonorous from. In a previous survey, British people were asked to rate how pleasant it would be to live in various cities and then to rate the pleasantness of the accents of these areas. It has been demonstrated that there was a high correlation between these two evaluations. As it has been supported by Ryan (1982) peoples’ aesthetic judgments and positive or negative language attitudes towards language variety are built on cultural norms and social connotations.

Language attitudes can be examined in both direct and indirect techniques. Direct methods such as interviews or questionnaires measure consciously and deliberately constructed and expressed attitudes. Such direct techniques, however, have been criticized to be susceptible to social desirability or self-flattering strategies. Indirect desirability, conversely, obtain information that is more implicit and less easily accessible through introspection which makes indirect attitude evaluation less subject to the problems mentioned above.

Undoubtedly, the most well-known and commonly used in the indirect measurement tool in language attitude studies is the matched-guise technique. (Agheyisi and Fishman, 1970) The MGT strategy involves the presentation of various audio fragments which are recorded in different language varieties by one and the same speaker. The main idea is that the recorded accents reveal impressions of personality characteristics, which are in fact impressions of different language varieties; to listeners who are unaware of the fact that solely one speaker is involved. The value of utilizing the matched-guise technique rather than more direct measures is that it “appears to reveal judges’ more private reactions to the contrasting group” (Agheyisi and Fishman, 1970). This is valid, however, only if the misleading is successful: that is if participants actually believed that they were reacting to what they thought were different speakers. Nevertheless, the matched-guise technique has attracted a great deal of controversy. It is argued by Garrett (2010) that providing respondents with the repeated content of a reading passage presented by a series of voices may exaggerate the language variations and, make them more salient than they would normally be outside the experimental environment. Moreover, the mimicking – authenticity shortcoming arises here. In some studies, the audio recordings are of just two varieties by bilingual or bi-dialectal speakers. But in studies where speakers produce numerous varieties, the accuracy of the renderings is likely to be reduced. As Preston (2002) has found, there can be many inaccuracies when people are asked to imitate accents, and even if respondents are able to “validate” the voices, they might, however, perceive the voice to be different in some way (p.65). Additionally, the labels used for the audio-recorded regional speech varieties in published reports could sometimes be more specific. For instance, language attitude studies in various areas in Wales have sometimes referred to audio-recordings representing “Welsh English”, and the findings, therefore, demonstrating attitudes to “Welsh English”. Where studies have produced results that differ from those of other studies in Wales, some attention needs to be given to community factors such as the particular regional variety of Welsh English utilized in each study, as well as which communities the respondents are drawn from. Furthermore, another weak point of the matched-guise technique is the differences in meaning between the labels in different languages for the ends of semantic differential scales. Since it is often difficult to find exact or even close equivalents, there will inevitably be some imprecision in comparing responses made by monolingual speakers of different languages in different guises.

To continue with, recent developments in perceptual dialectology have provided a further set of procedures for gathering data on language attitudes, and these procedures are incorporated under the direct approach rubric. In Preston’s view (2002), to study adequately the attitudinal component of the communication competence of ordinary speakers, at least some attention needs to be given to beliefs concerning the geographical distribution of speech, beliefs about standard and affectively preferred language varieties, the degree of difference perceived in relation to surrounding varieties, imitations of other varieties, and anecdotal accounts of how such beliefs and strategies develop and persist. A large proportion of studies have focused on folk perceptions of dialects, using various kinds of map tasks which are known as “draw a map” procedure. Respondents are given a blank map of a country and are asked to draw dialect boundaries around areas where they believe regional speech zones exist. For instance, Montgomery (2012) adopted a perceptual dialectology approach to investigating the North/South divide in the UK. Participants were asked to divide the country into a linguistic North/South and they placed speakers on a map corresponding to where they thought speakers were from. As it is claimed by Garrett et al (2003), this kind of perceptual dialectology study provides into what and where dialect regions actually exist in people’s mind. With regards to the shortcomings of this technique, geographical knowledge is needed. Hence, if participants have not at least the basic geographical information required for this study, then the results would be inaccurate. Furthermore, forced categorization studies, in which listeners are given categories instead of maps, require less reliance on geographical knowledge. However, perceptual categorization task guarantees merely 30% accuracy when dividing speakers into 6 areas. Another drawback is concerned with the notion of “deindividuation” the tendency of respondents to report socially desirable attitudes rather than their own private attitudes, in order to show acquiescence in attitudinal responses by giving the response they assume the researcher wants. In other words, although there may be a gap between what we know to be their behaviour on the other, it may be the case that there is no discord whatsoever between their behaviour and their “real” or dominant attitude is.

On reflection, as it has been declared by Allport (1954 cited in Ryan, 1982), “an attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related”. The significant aspect of this definition is that attitudes influence individuals’ responses to attitude objects or situations, not that they determine them. This integrated discussion has outlined some language attitudes and some ways in which they can be studied, as well as their shortcomings.

Language is one of the most powerful things that we need to survive in this world; without language, we could never be free enough to speak and to express what we want to say in our daily lives without using it. One way we can apply this is by code-switching. Code-switching as a concept is really interesting by definition it is what happens when people who speak multiple languages alternate between two or more often times within the same phrase or sentence. In a more colloquial sense, code-switching is what happens when people reflexively or subtly change the way they express themselves. We should code switch because in a way of code switching we could express easily the message we want to convey and also to feel more comfortable speaking in any situation that we are in. In addition to that code switching can help us for self defense or survival. In a real world scenario, millenials have many barriers that have to be overcome. This involves how we work when we are in our work environments, out with our colleagues, and even just being at home. We need to keep ourselves at adequate standards or desires that are laid out for us. It is not simply utilizing an alternate language, yet additionally blending in dialects for addressing to suit the audience.

As I follow my new path of learning a new language, it became more diverse for me to understand English with deep words and complex sentences. That is the reason why code switching became my way of seeing that language can change to different scenarios in a conversation. As Gloria Anzaldua reflects from one of her experiences, she stated “With Mexicans I’ll try to speak either Standard Mexican Spanish or the North Mexican dialect. From my parents and Chicanos living in the Valley, I picked up Chicano Texas Spanish, and I speak it with my mom, younger brother (who married a Mexican and who rarely mixes Spanish with English), aunts, and older relatives. (Anzaldua 79) It’s clear that Anzaldua agrees to the Code Switching and that it is normal for her to Code Switch. On the other hand, According to Vershawn Ashanti Young the author of “Nah We Straight” “There’s enough cultural, educational, and linguistic evidence to challenge and hopefully end code switching.” (Young 63) In my opinion, language can make a big difference in code switching in different situations. I therefore conclude that Code Switching is the key in helping someone who is struggling to learn a new language.

To begin with, I have always found it easy to give due respect to my Mom when communicating with her. Every time I asked her for something, I would say the word “paki” in Tagalog which means “can you”. I Code Switch to use the word “paki” in Filipino to display respect. It demonstrates how respectful I talk to her. In return, my mom would check on me every time I leave the house. For instance, whenever she send me a text message, I always make sure to type in “Ma” at the end of our conversation. I find this to be helpful in showing respect to her even when we’re chatting. So I guess, Code Switching is present everywhere, even in the social media. However, there are times whenever I fail to respond to her questions. This certain action doesn’t imply disrespect in any way. Sometimes, I maybe just too tired to respond whenever she asks me how my day was or a lot has happened that day for me to tell her in detail, about how it really went. The formality of language applies not only in being formal to people you give respect but it changes how the situation is for a conversation.

As for my dad, it feels very intriguing for me to share how I talk to him. Everytime we go into a conversation, I always remember to use the word “Po”—which is usually affixed at the end of a sentence or a phrase. The word “Po or Opo”, in Filipino, is the word we use to address an elderly person with respect. Strangely, I became accustomed to talking to him informally, which I believe emphasized the fact that we’re not only Father and Daughter but best of friends as well. For instance, I would tell him “Kupal, ginagawa nyue Daddy?” whenever I would catch him doing something funny. The word “Kupal”—which refers to a funny way of saying “what happened?”— and “ginagawa nyue”—which means “are you ok?”. In this type of conversation, these informal words coming out of my mouth are all common for me and my dad. This example shows how Code Switching can be a part of developing bonds between two people who have constant relationships like father and daughter. As my father, I would say he uses Code Switching too because other dads would not let their daughter use informal language to talk to them. But in our case, he is aware of the fact that even though I use some informal language to address his mistakes, he knows that I still respect him. That’s the reason why we’ve established a comfort in talking to each other, because he also Code Switches.

When talking to my best friend, Christian, I would use informal or slang language. In every way I would talk to him, he would always call me “Bes” in short for “Best Friend”. Moreover, every-time he has a question which he will ask me in a formal way, “Hey Crissa, did you do the homework?” And I would always respond in a rude manner “Ewan ko sayo” which refer to as, “Mind your own business”. He would get the code which interprets to “I did the homework”. He would look at me in a sarcastic way and say “ano ba yan” which means “stop it”. The use of informal language or slang words in this conversation identifies how code switching is used in the everyday life of a bilingual person. Such as those times when he would annoyingly tell me, “Stop messing around” and I would say, “Eto na nga” which refers to “alright”. He would get the idea that I will stop messing around but, in reality, I was just setting a bait. I would pull off another joke and he would say, “Ha-Ha” in a sarcastic way. And with that, I would tell him “sira” which refers to “you’re crazy”.

However, for my uncle whom I talk to in a formal language, there are times when he would call me and ask for help. He would say “Oi Neng, can you lend me a hand here?” I would respond, “Sige ho kuya”. The word “Sige” refers to agreeing or obeying that person. The words “Ho Kuya” which means “Big Brother” and “Ho” for something that is used to show respect to elders. Although he was not my real brother, I was accustomed to using the word “Kuya” in addressing him. My aunties call my uncle “kuya” that is why we, as their nephews, got used to calling my uncle “brother” instead of “uncle”. For this example, we can see how code switching can change someone’s thinking on how a person should be called. In various details, to code switch to make words which are not designated to a particular thing happen to assign to it and make it a new word for that particular person or thing.

Most importantly, I am more formal when speaking to my professors and academic advisors. I address them using their highest position such as Doctor or Professor. For instance, when I talk to my academic counselor Ms. Lee in particular, I start by saying, “Good morning Ms. Lee, is it ok if you help me on choosing the right courses because I need to complete my IGETC?” I use the word “Is it ok?” to be more polite in asking a favor from an academic counselor. In addition, the way I call her “Ms” is my way of saying that I respect her with what she was intended of teaching me. She will reply “Yes, I would be happy to help you” from then on I know that the Code Switch worked already because if a student would be rude she would not be happy to help. It shows that politeness can be associated to Code Switch depending on how it was used on match by the situation. Another example of how I formally talk to a professor’s, every-time I want to ask a question I will always wait to ask at the end of the class. After the class, I would approach the professor by saying “Professor Meena, about our next assignment, when do we have to turn it in?” I start the sentence by addressing him as a “Professor” in a respectful way I would now start my question by saying the word “about” instead of asking my question right away. As for me, I naturally do this kind of Code Switch to people who are older than me. As I continue to Code Switch, I noticed that it became natural for me to sound respectful to everyone I believe who deserved to be respected.

To sum up it up that I discuss in this topic, I realized that language can really be a big influence on how to Code Switch in different situations not only to people who speak English as a second language always had a hard time on getting the humorous sense of English which can lead for them to be bad at conversations. That is where Code Switching can be useful for people who are getting a hard time adapting to the new language. Therefore, code switching must can be the key to fulfilling the inadequacy of a person who struggles to learn a new language.

Most of the time, we have always considered that the way we view the world is the same between cultures. There’s up, down, left, right, past, present, and so on. But what if that wasn’t the case? What if the language we were raised speaking changes the way we think, and how we view reality? This is the question posed by linguistic relativity. Linguists have long been interested in answering this question. The problem is, nobody knows how to properly go about answering this question. Studies have been done before in the past, but there hasn’t been anything that can be truly improved on without getting past the major hurdles necessary to answer this question. This question is very interdisciplinary, linguists alone cannot answer this question. Answering this question also comes with some consequences that make it hard for some to study. If we are able to answer this question, the basis of the social sciences may be changed as a whole. It also brings to light that linguistic determinism, the idea that language limits human thought, may in fact be true. And beyond that, the approaches to studying linguistic relativity all have strengths and weaknesses, none are perfect.

There are three approaches to studying linguistic relativity, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. The first of these is a structure centered approach. This approach begins with “an observed difference between languages in their structure of meaning.” (Lucy 296), or essentially how words combine differently in their language to form meaning. After finding a difference, the researcher would then go on to find evidence to see if this different structure causes different behavior, either implied through the way their language is spoken, or something else. These structural differences are the basis of how other languages might perceive the world differently. This approaches’ strength lies in its openness to new interpretations of reality, and the minimal assumptions it makes about meanings in the studied language. This approaches’ weaknesses start with it’s unwillingness to draw comparisons, as drawing comparisons brings at least one language in as a frame of reference, this makes it very hard to characterize the language. On top of this, “complexity and specificity of the linguistic analysis can make comparison be-yond the initial languages difficult.” (296).

The second of these approaches is a domain centered approach. The domain centered approach starts with finding a common thing between all languages, something that almost all languages should have words for, such as color. This is the ‘domain’ that shall then be compared between languages, to see how each language treats this domain. This approach leads to good comparisons between languages and is highly controlled. There are multiple problems with this approach. One is that that there is pressure for the domain chosen to be easily defined, however, this leads to the possibility that domain chosen may be of little of significance to the language at hand and may just be an outlier in the language. This focus can also lead to a very distorted view of the language’s rules and how they would approach a situation in their language. The other issue is that when a domain is chosen, they are most likely choosing it from a point of view in their language. When they choose what to include or not in the domain, their language puts a bias on the criteria immediately. Finally, it’s common for studies adopting the domain approach to have difficulty showing what effects on behavior the chosen domain causes, as they are likely to find a domain that is not often spoken habitually, just a domain that is possible to use.

The third approach is a behavior centered approach. This done essentially by observing a strange behavior and coming to find that it is cause by thoughts formed through their language. The strength in this approach “lies in the significance of the behavior, which typically has clear practical consequences either for theory or to native speakers.” (302). The problem with this approach is that it is very spontaneous and is very likely that while the observer or speaker finds this behavior noticeable, it may not be all that important to the function or structure of the language. On top of this “Often no formal analysis of the language is undertaken and no comparison with other languages is attempted.” (302).

Trying to prove linguistic relativity is a hard task for those studying it. The sheer number of problems with forming a study, and the possible ramifications society as a whole if it is proven are sure to stop many of those who have any interest in studying it. However, if somebody succeeds, the result will be seen throughout the social sciences, and our understanding of human language and culture will be elevated.

Bibliography

1. Lucy, John A. “Linguistic Relativity.” Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 26, no. 1, 1997, pp. 291–312., doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.291.

Introduction

Human achieves language by being in a culture, it is passed down to generation and the next. This is what Yule (2010.p.14) described as cultural transmission. Humans do not inherit language they achieve them which means that language is not transferred through genes of the parents it is obtained by being with other speakers. Furthermore, Yule states that a human child is not a fully articulate language-user, the human child only starts being an active language-user during what Yule (2010.p.165) described as the critical period. In this period, this is when a child begins to build language acquisition at such a young age which last until puberty, after that the child will be a full language user.

Although, there are other basic requirements for a child to highly developed the general language capacity. An infant makes “cooing” and “babbling” sounds during their first year, but a deaf infant stops after about six months. (Yule,2010.p.171). In a case discovered by Moskowitz (1991) ‘deaf parents who gave their normal-hearing son ample exposure to television and radio programs, the boy did not acquire an ability to speak or understand English. What he did learn very effectively, by the age of three, was the use of American Sign Language, that is, the language he used to interact with his parents.’ Therefore, it seems that crucial preconditions such as sending and receiving sound signals in a language are openings to interact with others via language. (as cited in Yule,2010.p.171).

There are a lot of languages spoken and used in Brunei (Martin & Poedjosedarmo, 1996, as cited in Deterding & Salbrina, 2013, p.5). Although, the common language use in Brunei is Brunei Malay, the variety of Malay in its pronunciation, lexis, and syntax (Clynes,2001, as cited in Deterding & Salbrina, 2013, p.5) Despite having seven subgroups of indigenous people in Brunei each with a diverse set of language, which are Brunei Malay, Kedayan, Dusun, Bisaya, Tutong, Belait and Murut as argued by Asmah (1983). (as cited in Azam, McLellan & Deterding, 2016, p.11)

The majority of the Bruneian people still spoke Brunei Malay, which is the official language of the country and the lingua franca of Malaysia. (Clynes & Deterding, 2011, as cited in Azam, et al., 2016, p.11).

My Family

My family is consists of five people my father, my mother, me and two of my younger sisters. We live in Kampung Ayer (water village), Brunei Darussalam. My father’s name is Haji Ahmad he is Bruneian and he speaks Brunei Malay, Standard Malay, and English but his origin language is in Brunei Malay. As mentioned by Clynes (2014) Brunei Malay is spoken by those who generally lived in Kampung Ayer, which is in the heart of the capital of Brunei. My mother’s name is Nur Aisyah she is Indonesian and she speaks Brunei Malay, Standard Malay, Bugis (Buginese language) and Indonesian but her origin language is Indonesian. Two of my younger siblings Erin (fourteen) and Rina (ten) and I speak Brunei Malay, Standard Malay, Indonesian and English but our origin language is Brunei Malay.

My family and I live near my grandmother’s house in Kampung Ayer (water village). My father is raised in Kampung Ayer. While my mother is born and raised in Kalimantan Balikpapan, Indonesia. She married my father and moved to Brunei and have been living in Brunei for 20 years.

Language Use by my Family

My family and I speak Brunei Malay. We send text messages and have a conversation in Brunei Malay. Since it is the Language that is being used by most of the people in Brunei.

Although, My father and mother would sometimes switch Brunei Malay to Standard Malay and English whenever they are talking to their colleagues or in government offices such as the bank. But my mother would switch between Brunei Malay and Standard Malay only since she does not speak any English. This is highlighted by Ferguson (1959) in his study of the concept diglossia where Standard Malay is the high variety because it is being used in formal settings such as government offices, radio stations and even in newspapers. while Brunei Malay is the low variety, as it is often used by Bruneians in the home, family, and friends. ( as cited in Azam, McLellan and Deterding, 2016, p.12) Moreover, Blom and Gumprez (1972) also argued that there is a wide range of code-switching in government offices. ( as cited in Conrad and Ozog, 1996, p.164 )

However, My mother will only speak Indonesian when she is with her Indonesian friends and speak both Indonesian and Bugis when she is speaking to her family in Indonesia.

Whereas my younger siblings and I speak Brunei Malay regularly to our family and friends but when we chat on social media such as Instagram or Twitter most of the time we would use English instead of Brunei Malay. English also applies when I communicate with my friends on social media and also face to face interaction, but I often mix English and Malay whenever I have a conversation with my friends since it is quite normal to mix English and Malay in Brunei as mentioned by Deterding and Salbrina (2013) , But I never initiate a conversation in English or speak mix English and Malay when I am with my parents or other family members.

My Attitudes towards Language Use

My attitude toward Malay, in general, is positive because it creates a sense of belonging and unity in Brunei and most of Brunei’s population uses Bahasa Melayu (Malay) to communicate with one another since it is also considered as Brunei’s official language and is superior in any formal context such as education. (Conrad & Ozog, 1996). As for English I also have a positive attitude towards it, since it is also being used in formal context such as the law, where it is regarded as the prestige language and written statuses (Conrad & Ozog, 1996) and informal setting such as with communicating with friends especially the youths in higher institutions such as A-level and University students.

However, there is some stigma attached to mixing English and Malay in Brunei despite it being a norm in Brunei. As mentioned by Saxena (2011,p.278) in a speech given in June 2007. By the minister of culture, youth and sports in which the minister argued that mixing English and Malay are treated as a ‘polluted language’ that is confusing and destroying the value of the people and the culture itself. Even though there is Stigma attached to it, I still use it today and I consider it normal to mix English and Malay when I speak to my friends and that it is much more fun to talk to my friends in both English and Malay. Moreover, the reason why I mix is simply that I can and because I am coping with my friends in which I consider mixing as a trend when I am with my friends. The stigma attached to mixing is probably the reason why I do not speak mix English and Malay to my family members and also because I might feel bothered by their English pronunciation.

Despite being bilingual learning a completely different language in university is a challenge. Learning Mandarin Chinese at University Brunei Darussalam is quite confusing and exciting at the same time. Being able to talk to a friend in a different language other than English and Malay makes me look smarter than usual. Learning mandarin tones is quite interesting where a single word for example “ma” can mean more than 2 or 3 meaning depending on the tone.

In general, my attitude towards all of the language that I use is quite neutral and normal especially when mixing English and Malay. Because as the world starts to globalize the use of English is getting more widely spread across the countries and mixing them with local language is getting quite popular among Asian countries such as Brunei, Malaysia, and even Singapore.

Conclusion

Above all, there are a lot of languages that can be learned and used by anyone but with terms and conditions apply. My Family, for example, speaks more than one language. Which makes it interesting when my father and mother switch their language in a formal and informal situation. Although my attitude towards each language that I speak is quite neutral between Malay and English and also mixing it becoming the norm in Brunei, the fact that I only speak mix English and Malay to my friends shows that there is still stigma attached to it. Moreover, as bilingual education increases, there is no denying that the use of English will increase in the future. (as cited in Conrad & Ozog , 1996 )

References

1. Azam, Mclellan, J. , & Deterding, D. (2016) The Use and Status of Language in Brunei Darussalam : The Language Situation in Brunei Darussalam. Singapore : Springer.
2. Conrad, A. & Ozog, K. (1996) The Unplanned use of English : The case of Brunei Darussalam : The Domain of Use. Ohio : Ohio University Center for International Studies.
3. Conrad, A. & Ozog, K. (1996) The unplanned use of English : The case of Brunei Darussalam : Conclusion. Ohio : Ohio University Center for International Studies.
4. Deterding, D. & Salbrina. (2013) Brunei English a New Variety in Multilingual Society : Introduction. Dordrecht : Springer.
5. Deterding, D & Salbrina (2013) Brunei English a New Variety in Multilingual Society : Attitudes towars Mixing. Dordrecht : Springer.
6. Yule, G. (2010) The Study of Language : Animal and Human Language. (4th ed.) United States of America : Cambridge University Press, New york.
7. Yule, G. (2010) The Study of Language : Language and the Brain. (4th ed.) United States of America : Cambridge University Press, New York.

According to me, surnames or last names are really important for an individual. By this I mean surnames provide a background history and knowledge about our family and ourselves too as it is very important to know where we came from and who our ancestors are. If I talk about my family, I am a single child of my parents but I have a joint family with a lot of cousins. My grandfather was the eldest of his brothers and sisters. From the information I have from my grandfather, from my seventh great grandfather to my father, they were all born in village Padda in Punjab in India. My surname is also Padda as my ancestors are from the village Padda. This a small town with total population 1557 (male and female population 1053 and 736 respectively) from the census data. Although the population has been rising but not rapidly. This small town mostly has indigenous people and they mostly do farming for their living.

Padda is a Srihargobind Pur Tehsil village in Punjab State’s Gurdaspur District, India. It is located 51 KM south from the Gurdaspur district headquarters. Padda Pin code is 143514 and the post office Ghoman (Padda). The ancestors that my grandfather know are living in this area from about 300 years. They are native to this place and before coming to Padda they lived in a nearby village known as Bhol. From my ancestors there were two brothers who both lived in Bhol village and because of some reason they had a family fight and my ancestor came to village Padda because of that fight and lived there forever. But my ancestors are indigenous people as they are living in this for many years. My ancestors are categorized as Sikhs and Jatts ( Farming and agricultural community in Punjab). It is truly significant regarding the ascent of the Sikh Alliance. The entire of the Punjab was then conveyed among the Sikh ruler who triumphed over the Supreme Mughal governors. Now I would like to reflect history on Gurdaspur district of my ancestor’s village. Over the span of a couple of years, in any case, Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Punjab) gained all the domain which those had held. Pathankot and the neighbouring towns in the plain, together with the entire of the slope bit of the region, shaped piece of the region surrendered by the Sikhs to the English after the First Somewhat English Sikh War in 1845. In 1862, in the wake of accepting a couple of augmentations, the area was brought into its present shape. In 1901 the populace was 940,334, indicating a slight reduction, contrasted and an expansion of 15% in the earlier decade.

Gurdaspur was established by Sahib Profound Chand and was named after his granddad Guriya in the start of seventeenth century. In his respect, this city was named Gurdaspur. He purchased land for Gurdaspur from the Jats of Sangi Gotra. Guriya a Sanwal Brahmin of Kaushal Gotra originated from Paniar a town arranged 5 miles north of Gurdaspur. The progenitors of Guriya originated from Ayodhaya and settled in Paniar. Guriya Ji had two children Nawal Rai and Pala. The relatives of Nawal Rai settled in Gurdaspur and Nawal Rai’s child Baba Profound Chand was a contemporary of Master Gobind Singh. It is accepted that Master Gobind Singh gave the title of Ganj Bakhsh (Proprietor Of Fortune) to Baba Profound Chand. The relatives of Baba Profound Chand are called mahants. (Gurdaspur)

My history reflect a lot of ups and downs too as for a long period of time, firstly it was ruled by Mughals and then by Britain. I remember my grandfather told me many stories about the time Britain was ruling India, he told me how they treated them badly and Britain ( abroad people) came from outside to rule their country and treated people of their own country ( Indian people) in a miserable way. My grandfather told people were not able to get justice and they were not able to represent their country in Sports and other things too like language. Even my ancestors Sikhs fought in two world wars supporting Britain and many died serving them. Approximately 1.2 million Indians volunteered to battle for the English Indian Armed force in WWI, making them the biggest volunteer armed force in the Incomparable War. While Sikhs just make up 2% of India’s populace, 22% of the English Indian Armed force were Sikhs. In World War I and II, 83,005 Sikhs were murdered and 109,045 injured battling for the associated powers. Sikhs keep on serving gladly in the Australian Safeguard Power today. (World War 1 – The Anzacs and the Sikhs) This shows that, they did their duty as a soldier and as civilians and helped an another country, even this was not their fight. My third great grandfather’s brother also fought WW1 in Singapore and died there. He was not married and was a young man. This shows that they were brave and were not frightened to fight because they gave their word that they will fight and help Britain because they were ruling India. A huge number of Sikh and Commonwealth fighters were slaughtered in the war. Known for their courage, respect and loyalty, Sikhs were named the ‘Lions of the Great War’. (Leicester Mercury, 2014)

My ancestors spoke the Punjabi language and till date this the main language of my hometown Punjab. Punjabi is an ancient language, yet like Punjabi, began its abstract vocation entirely late. The content is Gurmukhi dependent on Devanagri. This Eastern Punjab vernacular formed into an abstract language around the start of the seventeenth century though Hindki still stays a gathering of tongues. (Punjabi Page, Punjabi Language, History of Punjabi language) Since the Sikhs in India communicate in Punjabi as their overwhelming language, their sacred book Master Granth Sahib, utilizes Punjabi language, written in Gurmukhi letters in order. The Gurmukhi letter set is gotten from the Landa letter set that has establishes in the Brahmi letter set. Second Sikh Master Angad (1539-1552) improved the Gurmukhi letter set to its present state for the express motivation behind composing the heavenly book, offering ascend to the trademark ‘Master’s mouth.’ Punjabi isn’t the main language utilized in Sikh sacred texts; the GGS has a few different dialects scattered with Punjabi, including – Persian, Sanskrit, Brajbhasha and Khariboli – all composed utilizing the Gurmukhi letter set however. (History of the Punjabi Language)

Even before the colonization of Pakistan and Punjab, there was a common language which was Punjabi. Language is without a doubt a basic field for the activity of pilgrim power, and this was as valid in frontier India as in other pioneer contexts.1C. A. Bayly has contended further that language is key to setting up pioneer control. In his Domain and Data, an investigation recently eighteenth-and nineteenth-century India, Bayly persuasively contends that the pilgrim state’s capacity to get to indigenous net-works of data and adjust them to its very own finishes was basic to its prosperity. This entrance laid on pilgrim authorities’ semantic capacities in Persian, Sanskrit, and nearby vernacular dialects. (Mir, 2010)

Its been two years, I’ve been living in Canada and the most spoken language here is English. Although, there are native people living on this land for so many years yet their language is not mandatory or spoken now on this land. The government tried to finish language of native people by different techniques, for example, native children studying in schools or universities with the English language, not by their native language even that is their land. Also, it is very important for me to know about the ancient language of native people as I am living on their land and I should have knowledge about the culture and language.

The land I’m living on was the land of first nations that include Katzie, Kwantlen, Kwekwetlem, Qayqayt, Semiahmoo, and Tsawwassen. The language of the land is Halkomelem. The term Halkomelem is a term utilized by language specialists to bunch various firmly related vernaculars spoken in the lower terrain and southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The lingos can be partitioned into three general groupings: Hul’q’umi’num’ or ‘Cowichan’ (Vancouver Island, the domain incorporates the urban areas of Duncan and Nanaimo); Hǝn̓q̓ǝmin̓ǝm̓ additionally called ‘Musqueam’ (around the mouth of the Fraser River); and Halq’eméylem or ‘Stó:lō’ (along the Fraser waterway from Matsqui to Yale). If you don’t mind note that the language names in ‘cites’ are in like manner use in English, however may erroneously speak to the countries being referred to. I will utilize the English expression Halkomelem to speak to each of the three dialects together. Every language has its very own unmistakable orthography and sound framework. One can see the sorts of sound changes that different the dialects by their names. Notice in the sound diagrams beneath that specific sounds present in one language might be absent from the others. These missing sounds are demonstrated by runs. (Halkomelem)

There is a connection of my ancestral history to the history of land where I am living now. The land I am living on is the land of native people same like Punjab was the land of my ancestors who were native. Due to political and other democratic issues both lands were taken by the people who were not a part of the land. This effected most of the native people of the land because they did not wanted any outer people to come at their home land and treat them badly. Moreover, they imposed many hard rules on them. It was like someone coming to your own house and telling you what to do. This kind of behaviour was intolerable but native people were not able to do anything because of government and political powers. For indigenous people groups, the study of history isn’t new, despite the fact that it has now been guaranteed by postmodern hypotheses. Contested stories and various talks about the past, by various networks, is firmly connected to the legislative issues of ordinary contemporary indigenous life. (Smith, 2012)

Furthermore, there are also problems created by governments like education of first nations children. Insights Canada says there are roughly 260,000 First Nations children of school age. At the point when conveyed more than four years, Trudeau’s responsibility adds up to an expansion of $2,500 per youngster every year, in this way crossing just 65 percent of the hole and leaving nothing to spend on post-optional or grown-up instruction. (Macdougall, 2015) The expression ‘Indigenous’ is a word perceived in the seventeenth century that stems from the Latin root ‘indigena,’meaning ‘sprung from the land.’ 2 As the Latin language developed, the importance came to be characterized as ‘conceived in a nation, local.(Monchalin, 2016) It is very important to know about our history because our history and our ancestors is a mirror to us.

They are the only reason we have a name and a history. History is important because it tells us about our culture, language and our ancient things such as religion, art, etc. While exploring my ancestors, I was very excited because I came to know so many things about my family and blood. I came to know that my ancestors fought for their land at many times and they definitely lived a harder life than me. This gave me confidence ,courage and also a lesson that never forget your ancestors, culture and also the culture and language of the people on whose land you’re living on.

REFERENCES

1. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Gurdaspur/Srihargobind-Pur/Padda.
2. Gurdaspur. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from https://www.jatland.com/home/Gurdaspur.
3. World War 1 – The Anzacs and the Sikhs. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from http://www.australiansikhheritage.com/world-war-1.
4. Mir, F. (2010). The social space of language: Vernacular culture in british colonial punjab (1st;1; ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. doi:10.1525/j.ctt1pns3g
5. Punjabi Page, Punjabi Language, History of Punjabi language. (n.d.). Retrieved
6. November 6, 2019, from https://www.nriol.com/indian-languages/punjab-page.asp.
7. History of the Punjabi Language. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from https://www.outsourcingtranslation.com/resources/history/punjabi-language.php.
8. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from http://www.languagegeek.com/salishan/halkomelem.html.
9. Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). London;New York;: Zed Books.
10. Monchalin, L. (2016). The colonial problem : An indigenous perspective on crime and injustice in canada. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
11. Sikh soldiers’ role in first world war celebrated. (2014, ). Leicester Mercury
12. Macdougall, K. (2015, ). Fixing first nations education. Leader Post
13. http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Gurdaspur/Srihargobind-Pur/Padda
14. https://www.jatland.com/home/Gurdaspur
15. http://www.australiansikhheritage.com/world-war-1
16. https://www.nriol.com/indian-languages/punjab-page.asp
17. https://www.outsourcingtranslation.com/resources/history/punjabi-language.php
18. http://www.languagegeek.com/salishan/halkomelem.html
19. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/

The language of soccer is very different from the body language of soccer. Body language in soccer is very important in order to have a good game. Actions on the football field relate to the different national teams and countries cultural understanding of football and how these actions become spoken dialects within a language of football. The cultural analysis showed some unity between the national football cultures and the national teams, which suggested a national language of the game. Sports is all about the body, movement and nonverbal communication. Teammates have to read each other’s cues, while competitors have to stake their claim and show nonverbal prowess.

Soccer is the universal language often does not require a verbal language. It is a game that is spontaneous and understood if you are a professional soccer (football) player. Each national dialect seemed to be based on different basic assumptions and to some extent specific symbolic actions on the field while the players were playing. Therefore, take Christiano Ronaldo, he is a professional Portuguese soccer player. His English is not up to the speed of his foot work and skills on the soccer ball and he needed assistance to communicate. It depends on the league and the country they are playing in. Still, English remains the official language for communication. However, there are some players who does not speak English well, but they can understand the spoken language because their native language is near to the another one. For example, Lionel Messi and Neymar Jr. don’t speak the same language, but they can understand each other, because Spanish is near to Portuguese, and also because one of the players might know a little bit of the other one. So, clearly the language depends on the situation, just like how Cristiano Ronaldo speaks English with the referee and Portuguese with his friends. The referees in the game they have to be fluent in four official soccer languages, English, German, French and Spanish.

Consequently, football can be characterized as a language that contains a system with standardized, specific rules of the game across national boundaries and users with actual choices and actions within the game. Everyone who participates in the game of football such as players, coaches, spectators and media can be considered multiple language users embedded in different collective social institutions such as national cultures that can and have affected their choices in game-playing situations on the field “in action”.

Inner assimilation creates unity among group members with respect to values of the organization. For example, when young footballers are integrated into any respective football culture they are taught to both play and perceive football from a certain cultural understanding. External adaptation on the other hand relates to the cultures required ability to adapt to its surrounding. For example, when a national team loses in the game, the playing style may be revised leading to basic assumptions of playing that results to changing the culture.

Sports is all about the body, movement and nonverbal communication. Teammates have to read each other’s cues, while competitors have to stake their claim and show nonverbal prowess.

Body language of defeat

Sadly, losers also have a unique body expression. We do not learn this expression by observation, we are innately” programmed” to do this when we lose. Losers roll their shoulders in, hang their head low, make a pained or sad expression and clench their hands into fists of defeat along with rolling their eyes.

Body Language in Action

When a player misses a goal, makes a mistake or feels embarrassed they often do the body language of shame. This is when someone puts the tips of their fingers up to the side of their forehead. It’s as if the player is trying to shield himself from the insults hurdled upon him from the crowd. In a true moment of devastation, a player will cover both her eyes with her hands or her entire face to block out the shame.

• The eyebrow flash is something that humans do instinctively when they want to attract attention. Players do this for teammates when they want to initiate a pass. It is a nonverbal way of saying, “You ready?”
• Torso tilting is another thing that players do when they want another player to engage with them. You will notice basketball players sometimes will aim their torso at a player a split second before they pass to them.
• The chin salute is a more subtle way we point. When players want to point towards an opening, a goal or a player they often use their chin as a substitute finger. Watch players chins as they move down the court and you will see how their chins nod directions at each other.

The Body Language of Shame

When a player misses a goal, makes a mistake or feels embarrassed they often do the body language of shame. This is when someone puts the tips of their fingers up to the side of their forehead. It’s as if the player is trying to shield himself from the insults hurdled upon him from the crowd. In a true moment of devastation, a player will cover both her eyes with her hands or her entire face to block out the shame. This is called eye blocking and we do this subconsciously because we hope by covering our eyes we will stop seeing what makes us feel so bad or hurts our feelings.

The Body Language of a Winner

Across countries, across cultures, across sports, there is universal body language of pride. All athletes made the same body language expression when they won a race—even blind athletes who had never seen anyone do it before. The body language of a winner is classic. Arms and hands above head, mouth open, face pointed up towards the sky exclaiming in triumph with a huge smile on his or hers face.

So, there for in conclusion Soccer and cultural identity share many aspects, such as Its Cultural, Social and Political Aspects. Along with its winning, shameful, defeating and in action behavior.

Last but not least, poor language proficiency is the final reason why language shaming should not be normalised in Malaysia. In his article, Galmiche (2018) reveals that group dynamic, teachers and peers are significant in sustaining and boosting learner’s motivation and positive emotions. For this reason, emotions have been acknowledged as an important aspect of learning a certain language. Even in the educational psychology literature, emotions are treated as obstacles to achieve a certain task of teaching (Walker, 2017). Thus, it can be said that without motivation and emotions, a learner cannot overcome a language and this will lead to poor language proficiency. Even though there are many other factors that can lead to poor language proficiency such as learning environment and student personality, but motivation and emotion are really much needed in learning a certain language. Due to this, language shaming should not happen as it can affect one’s motivation and emotion and this will directly lead to poor language proficiency.

Similarly, Santa Singh (2014) also stresses the significance of motivation as the major contributor in learning a second language or a foreign language. Motivation is said to be the backbone of someone’s success in acquiring and using language to become a good communicator. In this case, the practice of giving motivation is not only useful for the new languages, but also for people who are in the process of mastering their native language. Usually, the positive vibes given by surrounding people can make smaller changes in the way they talk which will gradually bring a bigger impact. However, motivation is shifted to discourage as the people started to shame to those who are unintentionally using the language incorrectly. So, the one who experiences language shaming will feel helpless to talk again as they already feel the mixed emotion of being the centre of humiliation. This situation will lead to difficulty in mastering a language as they are not given a chance to even make a mistake.

Apart from that, when language shaming happened, people will eventually have the fear of making a mistake in their life. Kayaoglu and Saglamel (2013, p. 152) commented in his study that ‘a considerable number of learners stated that they were afraid of making mistakes while some believed that it was worth experimenting with mistakes as they were opportunities for learning’. Indeed it is true that through mistakes, people are able to improve themselves better. However, in another scenario, the mistakes are treated as something to be made fun of. So, the involved people will feel embarrassed and it will lead them to distance themselves from people who used to laugh at them. They will avoid communicating with the public as they are afraid that they might make a mistake. Hence, this situation might lead to low level of proficiency as they stop to indulge and talk to other people. Certainly, those people will grow up with poor ability to master a language.

Curwin (2014) believed that fear of making mistakes can be lessened if the condition are motivating them in the process of learning. He wrote about the importance of changing perspective about students’ mistakes might help in boosting the capability of learning language. This can be supported by Gilmiche (2017), as he mentioned about the struggle faced by students. One student named Emilie explains that she feels liable to face shame in a tense atmosphere compared to the time when the classroom is in a relaxed mode. This is the time that she would answer the questions with less feeling of shame if she happened to make any mistakes. Although making mistakes is viewed in a negative light, but it actually pushes forward their ability to learn a language. People are scared of making mistakes as they are afraid of getting a bad treatment from people around them especially the one who called themselves as ‘language saver’. This group of people claim that they are giving a hard time for someone who is trying to improve their language just for the sake of protecting the language itself. However, not all mistakes are done intentionally. So, they need to help by helping them to know their mistakes in a proper manner in order to avoid them from having poor language proficiency. Thus, language shaming can be reversed with motivation and positive emotion that can help to improve language proficiency.

In conclusion, the failure to stop language shaming can lead to greater break down of someone’s future such as having low self-esteem, involving in social alienation and possessing poor language proficiency. In any event, self-esteem can influence a person’s life, whether good or bad. Due to this, the relationship between people’s views of themselves including self-esteem and their success of learning are pretty much related. Because of that, by blocking any means of language shaming, the self-esteem of a learner can develop and with this, they can simultaneously improve their language proficiency at any time. Not only that, by doing so, people also can escape from social alienation with no fear in making any mistakes at the idea of social interaction.

At any cost, any kind of language shaming that includes harsh comments, constant negative feedback, mocking, and too much focus on mistakes should be reprehensible to avoid any greater harm in the future. In fact, not only Islam teaches their people to learn as many languages as they can but also, upholding a good manner in learning a particular language is completely encouraged. English may seem easy to learn compared to others, but that is not always the case. When it comes to speaking it perfectly, it is common when people do not have English as their native language to mispronounce words. In this case, Islam forbids people to belittle others for their incompetence as the prophet saying ‘it is enough evil for a man to look down on his Muslim brother’.

Last but not least, language shaming should not be normalised in Malaysia and need to be stopped immediately. Hence, there are a few suggestions that can be done in order to minimize language shaming. Firstly, an advice can be given but in a good manner to avoid touching other’s sensitivity or feeling. It is the nature of human beings to prefer good over bad things just like preferring good advice rather than harsh advice. So, people can improve their communication and interaction skills as well as aware about the implications brought by the practice of language shaming. Next, people should realize that mistakes can always happen in learning language as no humans are perfect and free from any mistakes. So, these mistakes should be a stepping stone for people in order to become fluent speakers. Hence, language shaming should not happen as it can be a barrier for people.

Language is a complex system of communication that connects people to one another in the means of both verbal and written displays. The language and discourse that society participates in is a product of social construction. From the time when we are born, we are labeled by pronouns “he” and “she” associated with the gender binary of being either a boy or girl and with that label, the language that surrounds either gender is vastly different. The study of gender is correlated with the study of language. When we describe little girls the discourse often used is sweet, cute, pure, innocent, etc. However, the discourse that surrounds little boys is tough, strong, manly, aggressive, etc. This dialogue is a representation of the descriptions that children embody to conform to their assigned gender. When we participate in gendered communication it derives powerful connotations in reference to one’s own development.

With language, we come up with labels, stereotypes, characteristics, descriptions, etc. This plays a role in the construction of our society to be socialized and characterized by gendered roles. The language we use becomes so common that it characterizes our perception of both men and women ascribing to certain “masculine” and “feminine” traits. The linguistic forms of verbal communication enforce the continuation of the social hierarchy (Strand, 1999). Where discourses surrounding gender comes in and describes males to be “dominant” and females to be “submissive”. The creation of language is a product of social construction that reinforces certain ideals placed on each gender.

By using anatomical sex to differentiate between people into two gender categories has been the foundation of society. Revolving around the fundamentals of varying genitalia as a source in creating a dichotomy within society. This enables the construction of a hierarchical system that supports this idea that one gender is more dominant than the other therefore allowing for inequality to take place between these genders. Therefore two different scripts are meant to be followed which constitutes the way a person is supposed to behave and be accepted within society. When one is socialized through gender-specific language it is easier to conform to a specific gender. The language that is associated and embodied by each gender allows for this to become inherently natural.

The way we develop this language starts off when we are younger when we are taught by parents, teachers, friends, etc. to categorize. Often times with children from a young age they begin to stereotype people and behaviors in order to differentiate. They tend to follow along with the discourse they hear and the gender displays seen to embody them and distinguish which role they play. When boys are reinforced they learn that being a girl or anything associated with “femininity” is bad so they follow along and conform to a more “masculine” identity. It goes the same for girls who may try embodying what’s considered “masculine” characteristics they are disciplined by being told that “it’s not ladylike” in efforts to conform to more “feminine” qualities (Meyerhoff, 2013). During early childhood years, the language and discourse that surround children are highly influential through their development. It showcases what is considered to be “right” from “wrong” and what role they should be disciplined into playing based on society’s idea of gender.

The language we use is a powerful tool and the way we use it is derived from a hegemonic system valued within society. It can be said that the “male” language is the ideal form and “women” language is not creating a dichotomy (Coates, 2016). This dominating male language is seen even when describing girls from the words “fe-male”, “wo-man/men”, “ s-he”, “he-r”. Having these identificatory words include the opposite gender within its own context shows the impact of the dominating gender being interlinked with language in society. The social difference between male and female roles affects communication and the use of language. The way that men speak is often direct, powerful, entitled, assertive, etc. However, the opposite can be said for women who are more reserved, timid, indirect, compliant, etc. This comes from the socialization of boys and girls where these ways to interact become learned (Coates, 2016). Therefore it inherently becomes natural to conform within the binary. Gendered-specific language is normalizing these ideologies that encompass socially constructed gender differences.

Feminists have argued that gendered language contributes to sexist views and ideologies. This can be seen when we use masculine pronouns as all-encompassing such as when we reference “mankind ” to mean all of humankind or stating that something is “man-made” to mean artificially or machine-made (Cottier, 2018). This shows there is a value placed on the social hierarchy of gender itself. Even when communicating to a whole group when saying “ladies and gentlemen” this automatically assumes there is a gender binary system (Cottier, 2018). This way of speaking reinforces the ideologies already in place in society unconsciously affecting the way we perceive gender. Our speech indirectly is correlated to how we think and behave. It shapes our perception and this notion of gendered language is influencing our reality.

The speech patterns associated with males and females differ when they communicate. This can be seen through paralinguistic features which are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words such as nonverbal cues. Women tend to be more engaged in conversation and are more likely to use paralinguistics more than men. Women tend to use descriptive words especially when it comes to color words such as lavender, periwinkle, mauve, etc whereas men do not (Xia, 2013). When it comes to swearing it often is more common for men to do so rather than women who are socialized to embody feminine qualities of being docile and gentle. Women more likely to use words that show politeness, such as please and thank you and they use more euphemism (Xia, 2013).

When women engage in conversation she takes others into consideration rather than directly imposing her ideas onto others. Women would often use phrases or words such as “well, you know…, I think…, I suppose…..kind of, maybe I am wrong but…, etc.” (Xia, 2013). Where men are more direct and state what they think and want during conversations. Interruptions during conversations are more displayed by men rather than women they are eager to be heard and play an active role when communicating. Even the topics of the conversation differ from both genders men will focus on sports, politics, current news, etc. where women will focus on family, education, fashion, etc. This association is derived from the gender role and displays that are attributed to both genders where women are talking more on topics relating to the home and domestic activities and men’s topic revolves around with the outside world and economic activities (Xia, 2013).

There is a popular opinion that women talk more than men, it is not necessarily true. Both men and women participate in conversation however it’s the type of conversation that is directed to either gender. Men are more interactive during formal situations such as meetings while women are more interactive during an informal conversation (Xia, 2013). These fundamental practices of language that are directed to both gender differ based on the impact of societal influences. By upholding the patriarchy men have the power over everything and that includes women. Women’s social status impacts their voice to appear unassertive being that they are inferior to men within society. “They tend to discuss, share and seek reassurance. On the contrary, men tend to look for solutions, give advice and even lecture to their audience” (Xia, 2013). This reinforces the secondary status that women have in society and allows this kind of language to continue to influence the inequality between men and women.

Language is so gendered in that there are specific words that are exclusively used to describe men and women. This can be said for most derogatory terms that are used to reference either gender. Derogatory terms that are primarily associated with women tend to be slut, hag, bitch, airhead, tease, etc. For men, on the other hand, they are assholes, wuss, dick, pussy, loser, etc. From these offensive terms, men and women tend to be evaluated differently (James, 1998). Most insults regarding men are to make them feel powerless by being labeled as a pussy and weak involves being incompetent. This incompetence is interlinked with the status of women being the weaker and submissive gender within the social hierarchy. Most insults for women are based on sexuality and being sexually available versus unavailable. The evaluation for women is also on the idea conforming to the desires and needs of heterosexual men. This reflects that language is associated with a male-centered view of the world (James, 1998). The male point of view is an indication of being valued by other men not to be seen as weak or be categorized with women.

There are also indications of the way intelligence is viewed between males and females. The connotations that are referenced for females is that there is nothing relevant in a woman’s head when they are described as airheads, ditz, bimbo, brainless. The connotations that are associated with men is that there is something there that shouldn’t be when described as shitheads, meathead, bonehead, stupid (James, 1998). This implies that it is more common for women to unintelligent when compared to men. The way these words are used is a reflection of how impactful they are during a conversation between genders. Those insults used for men tend to imply a heavier demeaning sense of criticism. Whereas for women it is lighter and tends to be said in a joking fashion rather than implicating a serious tone. This suggests that it is a flaw for a man to be unintelligent which coherently goes along with the male gender role of being successful, powerful, and competent (James, 1998).

Males are also seen to mistreat others more than women when they are described as assholes, pricks, bastards, motherfuckers, etc. Men’s socialization of being “masculine” encourages this behavior of acting aggressively. Those who are taking these masculine gender roles too far and violating rules are often associated with these insults. These terms such as bastard and motherfucker can also be used as affirmations from other men who admiring one’s authority and power which reinforces these gender roles. Men hold more power than women and are in positions where they seek entitlement which can lead to the misuse of that power they have within social situations (James, 1998). However, when women mistreat others it is typically associated with words like bitch, ballbuster, pushy, bossy, etc. The connotations of these words are different compared to men. This implies that women are violating basic social rules while also violating their gender roles of being submissive, docile, and passive (James,1998). Having dominance over men is considered to be out of the norm and having this assertive behavior is considered to be unfeminine.

There are also those offensive terms that link men to women who appeared to be more strongly derogatory than terms linking women to men (James, 1998). This indicates that the worst thing a man can be called is being called homosexual implying that they are displaying feminine qualities. The worst thing a woman can be called are terms like bitch and slut rather than a term relating to masculine qualities. Men lose status when they are compared to being like a woman and are seen as not abiding by their assigned gender roles. For women being compared to being more masculine heightens their status because they are displaying dominating qualities. It is less insulting for women to be deemed as masculine rather than where it is more insulting for a man to be deemed as feminine. The social hierarchy that is in place contributes to this notion of power and what it seemed to be the ideal gender.

In general, both female and male derogatory terms are a reflection of the construction of gender. Males are primarily evaluated by how competent they are by functioning within their masculine roles which are upheld by gaining and maintaining their male status from the approval of other male figures. Females, on the other hand, are primarily evaluated from the heterosexual male’s desires and needs and how well women can conform to their standard of femininity. These include being attractive, supportive, submissive, having average intelligence, being faithful, quiet, etc (James, 1998). This is a reflection of how much value is placed through a male’s perspective within society. “The power these labels can wield constitutes an important way in which language pressures individuals to conform to these gender roles” (James, 1998).

The growth of social awareness changes this notion of prejudicial language. By changing the dialogue it is becoming easier to be more inclusive in the way we speak and combat that divide created by gendered language. This new age of looking into our deeply rooted societal norms is influencing change. Instead of following this gender binary system that has been ingrained into our lives since the beginning of becoming more gender-fluid and seeing gender on a spectrum is changing the way we use our language. The importance of creating gender-neutral language is about denouncing gender roles but respecting gender identity. Instead of using terms such as mankind, policeman, chairman, etc. we now use humankind, police officer, chairperson and so forth (Gender-Inclusive, 2019). The result of gender-neutral language is changing the dialogue to benefit all groups of people and tear down the patriarchal norms.

This also goes for including gender-inclusive pronouns like they/them/ theirs and ze/zim/zir. In providing a holistic view of gender by breaking down these scripts it changes the conversation. Allowing everyone to be represented and not be confined to the binary of gender. Our cultural norms shape the hierarchy of our identity and the way we behave to be embodied by the language that surrounds us (Gender-Inclusive, 2019). Our discourse is ever-evolving and is continuously changing over time. With this new direction in our language, it gives us the opportunity to see how gendered our language is and the restriction it has on the expression of identities. By incorporating gender-neutral terms it avoids bias against a particular person or social group. By having gender-specific terms it confines one to either female or male roles.

However, this gender-neutral language is difficult to be placed within other languages such as Spanish, French, German, etc. where everything is labeled in either a feminine or masculine context (Cottier, 2018). English, however, can be modified into a different context of the gender-neutral form rather than gender-specific. For other languages around the world having gender-neutral language can not be done without stripping the entire language and creating a new language altogether. Although as for most languages the masculine gender overpowers the feminine and most words are used in the masculine form. Therefore by having more words used in the feminine form, it can create a balance within the language which is a step to being more inclusive.

Throughout history, language itself and how we use language have changed over time. It was more common for women to have less of a voice before women made a contribution for themselves to fight for their right to change the script. Language has come a long way since then and the way we use language is a reflection of the world and people around us. In the context of today, we are seeing gender as a spectrum and how those who are LGBTQIA are contributing to the dialogue and fighting for their voices to be represented. The discourse has evolved and it has expanded and will continue to expand as we see various perspectives. Creating more communication in order to give voice to the voiceless. To the point where our language can benefit all people and not just to mankind but to all of humankind. Having an equally balanced system in place to those who are accustomed to privilege within the society based on the discourse that surrounds them can reflect on how language has shaped their reality.

Language and gender are both a product of social construction and those within society are the ones who can change the dialogue. What is produced by society can also be changed with society and how we start a conversation and communicate on the issue with a gender-specific language. It is through language that we can instill new ideas and transform the way we speak and how we speak. Every language is built off of a framework and guidelines to follow. With that, the creation of gender-inclusive language is a developing framework of including all people. Taking the context that we have and creating a new way of thinking in order to break the binary and instill fluidity.

This essay will examine how individuals acquire language. While this is something that comes naturally to the vast majority of individuals several have very different relationships with language. As a result, this essay will Include how feral children who have had minor interactions with language deal with their experiences and if they manage to acquire language along with how and why we learn language at different rates and Chomsky’s theory of an innate knowledge of language including theories to accompany any theories mentioned.

Language development as a whole is an extremely varied subject which has been studied widely. In addition, it is a vital skill that humans acquire to increase their chance of survival and allows them to communicate with others. For this reason, Noam Chomsky decided to focus on individuals who had experienced minimal levels of language but still managed to develop their language. Therefore, suggesting that humans are born with an innate knowledge of language. If this was the case then a Japanese baby adopted by a British family would eventually begin to blabber Japanese words, even when given no/little interaction with any Japanese individuals. Research by Rena Krakow and Jenny Roberts (2009) showed that children aged between seven and eleven months of age had developed their ability of English vocabulary, even when having months in China beforehand. The children also showed to have a larger vocabulary on average than their native-born English-speaking peers. Therefore, both supporting Chomsky’s theory of an innate knowledge of language and also suggesting that language is not necessarily learnt since the children had learned English even when having had minimal experience around English-speaking individuals. (Davis, Steven, 1992) Not only this, but as mentioned they displayed a larger vocabulary compared to their native-born English-speaking peers suggesting that being surrounded by more than one language may have a positive effect within our language development.

Similarly, there has also been cases studying feral children which focussed on their ability to acquire language. These children have previously had little to no interaction with any language, a similar situation to the Japanese babies previously mentioned. This is interesting since we know that humans learn language during their development however, this cannot be achievable when a child is feral due to their severe lack of social interaction. A study by Skuse, D.H. (1984) revealed that two sisters who had both experienced drastic social and emotional deprivation throughout infancy had both recovered very differently. One completely recovered while the other sister remained handicapped, especially within her language skills. She also appeared to have a variety of autistic features and be microcephalic. This research shows that individuals develop and recover at very different rates, including when the individuals are related and therefore sharing genetics. It also reveals that suffering social and emotional deprivation can cause drastic negative effects on how we develop language.

Another case surrounding feral children includes a boy named Victor, also known as ‘Wild Boy’. He was found in woodlands during early January, 1800. At this time Victor had no knowledge of language, was believed to be death and had been surrounded by animals up until the finding of him. Itard, a young unknown physician decided to help Victor with the attempt to develop his language. Throughout their encounter Itgard managed to learn Victor how to read and write very simple noun-verb sentences and also identify letters by organising metal cut outs laid out, essentially creating a reading board. (Wayne Cayea, 2006). This research goes against Chomsky’s theory of individuals holding a ‘innate knowledge of language’ since if this was true Victor would have known language despite having no experience of it.

Comparably, many individuals suffer from learning difficulties which can disrupt their language development. A study investigating this comes from Jane W. Blalock (1982) who studied 80 young adults. She found that 63 of these individuals suffered from oral language and/or auditory processing deficits. Therefore, if language was innate, as suggested by Chomsky (Davis, Steven, 1992) these individuals should still develop their language through their ‘innate knowledge’ however, they instead struggled with this skill.

A theory crafted by Vygotsky’s named ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) focusses on the relationship between instruction and development (Alex Kozulin, Boris Gindis, Vladimir S. Ageyev, Suzanne M. Miller, 2003). This theory includes helping individuals to learn as much as possible through pushing individuals away from their ‘safety’ points such and focussing on information someone may already know and into their ZPD which is the space In which we learn new information. This usually takes place alongside a more knowledgeable other who uses a ‘scaffolding’ technique. A study by Roberta A. Ferrara, Ann L. Brown and Joseph C. Campione (1986) found that when lower level IQ children who required assistance during their learning and required scaffolding were found to accomplish identical mastery level on the original problem types therefore supporting the idea of scaffolding and Vygotsky’s theory.

Introduction

Language is essential human life. Malinowski, father of social Anthropology says “It’s an indispensable instrument for creating the toes of the moment without which unified social action is impossible.” As man is a social animal, he lives in community, where misunderstandings are common. Language is that core which can eliminate this misunderstanding and let man evolve.

What is a language? A system of communication using sounds or signs to convey objects, ideas or actions. It is primarily spoken. It evolved as man evolved. Written language appeared much later, around ca. 3200 BC. Why language is important? According to Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, man is a rational animal. This means, he has the ability to reason. And reasoning without language is not possible. The sounds which bear meaning use rational power of man, are constructed with the use of his physiological organs. This differentiates man from other animals.

Thus, the role of language is primordial for human life.

Language and its link to human perception

A man’s feelings and activities are tied to a language. It encompasses the feeling of self, bound by nationality and religion. It is used in every action of man, be it work, worship, play , argument etc. It is used by every man, both rich or poor, educated or illiterate, savage or civilized. Apart from reflecting the reality, language also helps man to perceive and understand the world. It creates a questioning mind. It develops critical thinking.

Critical Thinking enhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. Critical thinking skills can bring about a big positive change in one’s life, by improving the quality of one’s thoughts and ones decisions. Hence, it is impossible to envisage a society without language, as it is the basis to man’s progress.

Language is an acquired skill

Chomsky, an American linguist believes “Humans acquire language through an instinctive knowledge”. However, even though it is instinctive, man has to still learn to speak and write a language. In addition, reading and understanding are skills that have to be acquired. Walking and eating are instinctive skills. Language learning is not. For example, a child which is brought up isolated from society will learn to walk, run, eat, etc, but will never learn to talk. It will only learn when it will first hear the language around it and acquire the necessary skills to imbibe it. It can only happen in a community we live in.

The social structure may either influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behaviour . For example, a foreigner who is born and brought up let’s say in Karnataka, will eventually learn Kannada, as the environment he lives in facilitates such learning. The environment we live in is reflected in our language.

One of the evidences is that young children speak differently from older children and, in turn, children speak differently from mature adults. The varieties of language that speakers use reflect such matters as their regional, social or ethnic origin and possibly even their gender. It is also seen that particular ways of speaking, choice of words, and even rules for conversing are in fact highly determined by certain social requirements.

Language is the mirror of a society

The value system of a society, its beliefs are all reflected in its language. One way in which this happens is through taboo words. Taboo is concerned with behaviour which is forbidden, or regarded as immoral or improper. Every language has taboo words and if the particular

rules regarding the use of taboo words are not adhered to, it can lead to

punishment or public shame. However, these taboo words also evolve and what was considered taboo earlier, may no longer be considered so, as societies evolve. Social changes take place.

Through this mirror, one can see these social changes arriving from time to time. For example, in today’s times, the SMS and whatsApp language are a reflexion of this social change. Today’s generation has adapted aggressively to this new language, which has revolutionized the process of communication.

Language is evolutionary and the vocabulary and phrases which are used depend on a number of factors like place of residence, age, education level, social status etc. Through human interactions new words and phrases are picked up and integrated into human speech. Hence it is often seen that teenagers and young adults speak differently from their parents or elders.

However, for man’s evolution, understanding of man’s past is essential. Language contributes in a large way in forming ideas and storing them for future. Therefore, the basic function of language is to communicate information of some kind or other. In accordance with the different purposes it serves, language is used in different ways. For example, there is the language of science, journalism, advertising, political oratory, prayer and worship. In these instances language is used as a multipurpose tool and put to various uses as and when required.

Language and Culture: inseparable entities

Stalin, leader of Soviet Union states thus about language “It arises and develops with the rise and development of a society. It dies when a society dies. There is no society without language”. Man is born in a society, where he is nurtured and he grows. And he is also born with an ability to speak a language. Because of language, man is called a social animal.

Language is a social product. It arrives with a community, where it develops according to the needs of culture and civilization, and disappears when that society disappears. Therefore, we can assume language to be the index of progress of a society. The longer a society exists, the richer the language. Thus, we can say that the role of language is much bigger than just been a means of communication.

Language is a social institution. It carries culture and culture carries language through art and literature, and all the body of values through which men perceive themselves and their space in this world. Duranti, an American Anthropologist defines culture as ‘something learned, transmitted, passed down from one generation to the next, through human action, often in the form of face-to-face interaction, and, of course, through linguistic communication’.

David Crystal, and English linguist says “ Language is the repository of the history of a people. It is their identity. Oral testimony, in form of epics, folktales, rituals, proverbs and many other practices, which provide us with a unique view of our world and a unique canon of literature.” It becomes evident from this that language plays a crucial role in culture transmission.

Culture preservation takes place through different forms too , like architecture, painting, music, etc. However language is the most dynamic of them all. Facts about language are handed down from person to person and from one generation to another through cultural transmission. The capacity of man helps him to master the unique features of a particular language.

Thus it is seen that language is the outcome of evolution and convention. Like most human institutions language also change and die, grow and expand. But, as language is acquired by human beings, it is believed that due to language man became man.

Social and cultural roles are assumed by man by the very act of talking. However these processes are so deeply rooted in men that they go almost unnoticed. One cannot separate culture and communication , because culture not only dictates who talks to whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how people put in code the messages, the meanings that are derived from these messages, and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or understood. In this perspective, culture becomes the foundation for communication.

Language and Indian society

India is a multilingual society, where one learns more than one language on an average from school level onwards. Protagoras, a Greek philosopher says “Were it not for a language, a civilization would not be possible”. India being one of the oldest civilizations in the world, has witnessed the growth of various languages. This is also due to the fact that India is a multicultural society. And it is believed that whoever controls language, controls the culture. Hence, the multilingual and multicultural nature of Indian society has helped Indians evolve and sustain over thousands of years.

Further, this multilingual and multicultural nature of Indian society adds to a large extent in developing global communication and helps promote tolerance and intercultural awareness. Today, India being a global player, the boundaries of language and culture have gone beyond geographical boundaries. Hence, knowledge of foreign languages becomes important, if we want to be globally competitive and contribute to the world as a global citizen.

However, there is the other side of the picture. The fear of homogenization is becoming evident especially with regard to local culture and customs. One of the serious consequence of globalization today is the rise of popular culture , which can potentially destroy the local culture in the long run, if controlled measures are not taken.

But, language or languages are essential to man, because, they have a major role to play in helping a multicultural society to evolve into an intercultural society. This is the only way which can ensure the survival and evolution of human species.

Conclusion

Language is a gift to mankind. It clearly shows the perseverance of man to survive and evolve. It is such a powerful tool which can either build or destroy societies. Today, man is empowered because of language. Without it, he would be unable to deal with decision-making, conflicts and arguments: Ills that can annihilate mankind

Language can have a persuasive effect on man. Persuasion can change attitudes, motivate, help to comply, behave and help to develop a different, positive outlook towards life. All this however requires critical thin king which only man possesses. Therefore, communication is more than just wants and needs. It is that powerful means through which development and subsistence of human societies is possible. And language gives us that power to communicate.

Just like air, water and food are required for man’s survival, communication also is vital for continuity of mankind. Thus, Language is the prerogative of man and distinguishes him from animals, without which he would not be able to evolve or move forward. He would be like apes, doing mimicry.