Category: Labor

For most of Americans, Labor Day implies grill. To be exact, 62% of individuals take an interest in a cook-out on this occasion, as indicated by the Hearth, Patio and Barbecue Association. In any case, as the name proposes, Labor Day’s history notices back to something less scrumptious. While a great part of the strain among work and capital that offered ascend to the American work development is still with us today, much has changed. So while you’re celebrating with a barbecued food thing, it merits glancing back at the occasion’s starting points.

The primary Labor Day festivity was held by the Central Labor Union on September 5, 1882, in New York City. Who precisely merits credit for the thought isn’t clear, however he most likely had a precursor in Ireland named Mag Uidhir. Some contend that the mechanic Matthew Maguire first proposed the thought, others that it was the craftsman and American Federation of Labor fellow benefactor Peter McGuire.

Whichever way the thought got on, and inside several years mechanical urban areas the nation over were holding pre-fall marches to honor the work development. Oregon turned into the primary state to make it an open occasion in 1887, and when it turned into a government occasion in 1894, 29 different states had formally received the festival.

What were they dissenting?

In the first place, we should take a gander at work itself. As per MIT’s Dora Costa, the normal specialist during the 1890s worked six 10-hour days out of each week. Conditions, especially in businesses, for example, mining, could be troubling. The compensation was insignificant. Endeavors to sort out were met with threatening vibe and infrequently savagery by managers and governments. (See likewise: The History Of Unions In The United States.)

In 1886, not long before Labor Day picked up its first official acknowledgment in Oregon, 200,000 Union Pacific and Missouri Pacific railroad laborers took to the streets in Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri and Texas. The railways’ proprietor, Jay Gould, was the ninth-most extravagant American ever to live, as indicated by Michael Klepper and Robert Gunther. In view of portion of gross national item (GNP), he possessed what could be compared to $67 billion out of 2007 dollars. Conflicts with strikebreakers and harm quickened as the strike extended on for quite a long time, and a few laborers were shot in discrete occurrences.

On May 4, the day the strike was canceled, when somebody tossed explosive at officials who were attempting to scatter an exhibition for the eight-hour work day in Chicago. The Haymarket revolt, as the episode is called, saw 11 slaughtered, seven of them police officers.

The Pullman Strike

Work Day turned into a national occasion because of the Pullman Strike, which started in May 1894. The impromptu strike came in response to the maltreatment of the industrialist George Pullman, who housed his laborers in an organization town he expected to be an idealistic network. Laborers lived in organization possessed lodging, paying rent – they were not permitted to purchase their homes – and service bills to the organization. Liquor was disallowed. At the point when a downturn hit the U.S. economy in 1893, Pullman laid off several laborers and cut compensation, however didn’t bring down lease. At the point when the laborers struck, he would not arrange.

The strike spread to other railroad laborers, making trade come to a standstill. President Grover Cleveland got a court order to stop the strike, situated to some degree on the way that railways conveyed the mail. (He purportedly stated, ‘On the off chance that it takes the whole armed force and naval force of the United States to convey a postcard in Chicago, that card will be conveyed.’) Strikers overlooked the request. Government troops were dispatched to break the strike, and 30 specialists passed on in resulting conflicts; 57 were harmed.

The foundation of Labor Day didn’t end clashes among laborers and supervisors. The Lattimer slaughter, in which 19 excavators were killed by a Pennsylvania sheriff’s group, followed three years after the fact.

Organization proprietors started to acknowledge that laborers’ interest for better treatment was genuine in the twentieth century. In 1914 Henry Ford dramatically increased wages to $5. At the point when his benefits multiplied more than two years, rivals acknowledged he may be onto something. In 1926 he slice laborers’ hours from nine to eight. New Deal enactment would secure 40-hour weeks for some specialists, with additional time pay commanded for longer moves. By the 1940s, as per Costa, the normal week’s worth of work had tumbled to five 8-hour days. Today, in an inversion of the old game plan, it’s even lower for lower-talented workers – not generally by decision – while cubicle laborers put in longer weeks.

Work questions proceed with today however laborers’ carries on with commonly improved in the 21st century, and it merits thinking about how history got to that point.

Introduction

Establishing rights for workers has created global problems. Every country has different priorities when it comes to industry, since exports tend to be a major component in their economy. To keep up with demand, corporations pressure their employees to work long days for little compensation, knowing most are struggling to support their families. Laborers have struggled to gain rights because business thrives off profit, which increases with cheap labor. Globalization has created strong connections between countries, promoting exportation of goods and workers to maintain economic growth, which can result in the number of workers outweighing available jobs. Since many countries have not legalized unions, workers are forced to tolerate low wages, unsafe working conditions, and abuse because outsourcing threatens the security of their employment. International efforts have encouraged the protection of worker’s rights through the development of labor rights standards, but many changes are still necessary.

What is the global problem identified?

Labor rights violations are a serious problem in our global society. Many workers in third world countries and isolated regions have become victims of these violations in the workplace. Some of the worst labor rights have come from developing countries in Asia. According to the International Labor Organization, reports of these violations include wages below living wage, excessive hours and days worked per week, discrimination, verbal and physical abuse, suppression of trade unions, and preventable disasters that result in death. These problems are not only prevalent in Asia, similar issues have been reported around the world.

Trade Unions in particular have received the worst violations of labor rights. In 2016 and beyond, workers in Bangladesh, Brazil, Columbia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Italy, among others have been killed for their involvement in trade union activities. In Guatemala, a union leader was murdered. Not only did the government fail to give adequate protection of the leader. But they also didn’t even investigate who murdered the leader. Union leaders in Turkey have been attacked, jailed, and arrested.

Another big issue that has been brought attention to is child labor. Many young children are seen as valuable assets to businesses because they are cheap, easily manipulated, and less likely to strike against the employer. Children in the workforce has been proven to affect the child’s mental and physical health. Children in the workforce have been subjected to abuse whether verbal, physical, or sexually. A lot of times kids will end up with serious health issues such as HIV and has been reported that experience behavioral disorders.

What theories are likely to explain and indeed examine this problem?

Much of these problems can be explained because a lot of the developing countries do not have modern labor laws. A lot of these countries are without a stable government that tells businesses not to treat workers in this way. Also, a lot of the factories or places of work are not as up to date like a factories that are in the United States. They simply do not have enough money to create an adequate working environment.

Why is this global problem?

The exportation of work from the first world countries, such as the United State and Great Britain, to the developing countries and nations is not an uncommon occurrence in today’s modern global climate. Much of the exportation of the labor has gone to countries “whose governments offer tax and other incentives to other foreign investors” (Young, 2004). The global factories that produce cheap products for the developed nations have violated basic human rights and used labor practices that violate many of the moral ethics that most consumers are unaware of. It is difficult to place blame on who has caused these violations of labor rights in the global community, whether it be the countries who export the work or the factories that produced the goods. Therefore, global labor rights have become a huge global labor problem due to the violations of workers’ human rights.

Who is affected by this global problem?

The people that are affected by the violations of global labor rights can be viewed through a broad scope and through a narrower lens. In the broader lens of global labor rights, the entire country that allows these rights to be violated are affected. They sell the humanity of their workforce to produce cheap goods for the first world countries for money.

In the narrow lens there are generally two groups of people that are affected, women and children. Child labor is generally the most common form of illegal and immoral labor that these developing countries are using. The International Labor Organization estimates that 211 million children, or 18 percent of children 5–14, are economically active worldwide” (Edmonds & Pavcnik, 2005). Though not all the labor these children are doing are harmful, such as working in factories or mines, it includes working on family farms. These children are skipping into adulthood missing important developmental stages to go to work. Women are also affected by global labor rights. In apparel sweatshops much of the labor are woman. The woman are subjected to horrible working conditions and are beaten or subjected to sexual harassment if they oppose their employers.

What are its effects to humanity?

The effects of poor labor laws goes far and wide. Workers are abused, beaten, overworked, and underpaid. Because these workers aren’t making much money, if any at all, they are stuck under the poverty line living ration to ration. People get stuck in this never ending cycle of poverty.

Humanity can greatly benefit from global labor laws. They can help to limit the amount that workers are getting exploited. Implementing laws, requiring monthly audits, and major repercussions can help to minimize this issue. The protections can help to minimize the implications that this issue has on humanity.

Why is it important to understand this global problem?

It’s important to understand global labor rights, as it is a serious problem still prevalent today. There have been strides in the past to help to resolve this issue, but yet it’s still a major issue. Exploiting workers with long hours, unsafe working conditions, abusive conditions, no living wages, etc. are just a few of the problems workers are facing across the globe. Understanding these issues can help people be aware of what’s going on, and people can stop supporting companies that are partaking in these practices.

In a broader sense it’s also important to understand these issues, to make sure you’re employers are not violating your local/national labor laws themselves. According to the United States Department of Labor, every worker has the right to fair and safe working conditions. This includes, the right to form unions, no forced labor, no child labor, the elimination of discrimination in the workplace, and much more (What are worker rights).

What can be done to address this global problem i.e. what do you propose as the means of resolving it?

It is easy to identify a problem and think of potential ways to tackle it. The challenge is finding a solution that is realistic and universally supported. This is difficult because the global population is influenced by different cultures, values, and types of government, varying by country, which shapes the laws and policies they are willing to implement. Political instability is also a large barrier because no government/leader will have the power to enforce any proposed changes. Before working to change labor rights, it is essential to address global issues with human rights. It will be nearly impossible to persuade someone to give power to their employees if they do not value or believe their workers deserve certain opportunities and rights.

Even if there is positive change in legislation, “the distance between law and practice is wide,” due to the lack of enforcement of both international and national standards (Caraway, 2009). During a factory inspection in Cambodia, DiCaprio (2013) discovered some owners were surprised to hear legislation protecting labor rights existed, though it had been implemented over a year prior. She also noted that the owners did not seem to care when informed of their violations, indicating they probably would not change their practices. Employers can also take advantage of the vague writing in labor laws, finding loopholes that make it ineffective. There are many ways to violate a worker’s rights, but some that many activists focus on are inadequate wages, unsafe working conditions, and discrimination. As globalization has grown, violations of labor rights have gained attention around the globe. This has sparked international organizations like the United Nations or the International Labor Organization to develop policies to enact and provide aid to fragile states in support of protecting worker’s rights.

One of the strongest ways to encourage the creation and protection of labor rights is advocacy. Local social movements will spread awareness as well as motivate individuals to become educated on labor rights and support widespread change and better enforcement. Individuals can also think about the supply chain of their goods and choose to buy from corporations who are socially responsible, or compliant with international labor standards. Pressuring corporations by decreasing consumption and putting their reputation at stake by exposing unethical practices may force them to reevaluate their practices and the benefits they offer their workers. With so many types of media available, this pressure will hopefully force corporations to implement ethical practices, even if their only motivation is protecting their brand.

Conclusion

The concept of laborers working in harsh conditions with little compensation is not new, but the ways employers take advantage of their workers has changed over time. Slaves suffered through forced manual labor and long work days, little to no compensation, and abuse. Factory workers were frequently injured because of machinery, women had difficulty finding employment, once it became acceptable for them to work outside of the home, and children faced disease, injury, or possibly death while working in the coal mines. Over time, we have worked to protect laborers, establishing things like minimum wage and overtime, and continuing to expand labor rights by fighting for equality and safety in the workplace. While developed countries have embraced protecting workers, developing countries have continued to violate the labor rights that have been accepted internationally. Since corporations seek cheap labor, workers are exploited because they need to provide for their families. Even though advocacy and legislation has increased internationally, labor rights are still a very prevalent issue across the globe, with slavery and child labor still in existence and some workers barely surviving off the money they earn.

References

1. Caraway, T. L. (2009). Labor rights in East Asia: Progress or regress? Journal of East Asian Studies, 9(2), 153-186. DOI:10.1017/S1598240800002976
2. DiCaprio, A. (2013). The demand side of social protection: Lessons from Cambodia’s labor rights experience. World Development, 48, 108-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.03.008
3. Edmonds, E. V., & Pavcnik, N. (2005). Child Labor in the Global Economy. Journal of Economic Perspectives (p. 199-220).
4. International Bureau of Labor Affairs. What Are Workers’ Rights? https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/our-work/workers-rights.
5. Robertson, R., Di, H., Brown, D., & Dehejia, R. (2016). Work Conditions, Work Outcomes, and Policy in Asian Developing Countries. Asian Development Bank, 497, 1-35. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/198551/ewp-497.pdf
6. Young, I. M. (2004). Responsibility and Global Labor Justice. Journal of Political Philosophy (p. 365-388). Chicago: Wiley-Blackwell.

Affordable Care Act(ACA), enacted back in 2010, has great impact on health benefits, taxes, and employment. Since health insurance subsidies that the act provides to some people will be phased out as their income rises, thus creating an implicit tax on additional earnings. Some provisions may imply higher effective tax rates on earnings from labor, thus reduce workers’ willingness of supplying labor. From the view point of health benefits, massive expanding public health insurance can decrease the employment rate, as people previously get insurance through their employers, now they have access towards public health insurance with less requirements to be eligible. ACA is tightly connected with labor economics in many ways, which is why it is a good topic to focus on.

The studies that I choose on ACA are as follow:

1. Labor Market Effects of the Affordable Care Act: Evidence from a Tax Notch, written by Kavan Kucko, Kevin Rinz, and Benjamin Solow. Authors focus on “coverage gap” for states refusing to raise their medicaid income eligibility cutoffs to 138 percent of the FPL. Since ACA provides refundable premium tax credit, when lacking access to subsidized health insurance, civilians of these states will have strong incentive to a large increase in post-tax income at the FPL level, in order to increase their income and obtain the premium tax credit. Authors used tax return to study the relationship between labor income and the implementation of ACA.
2. Effects of the Affordable Care Act on Part-Time Employment: Early Evidence, written by Marcus Dillender, Carolyn Heinrich, and Susan Houseman. ACA mandates employers with minimum number of 50 full-time employees to offer equivalent affordable health insurance to those who work 30 or more hours per week; otherwise there will be a penalty. To avoid such penalty, employers attempt to reduce weekly working hours below 30 hours, by using temporarily workers, small or independent contractors. Authors study the effect of ACA on part time employment by using monthly CPS data, since mandatory health insurance for full-time employees is a financial loss to some extent for employers.
3. The Effect of Public Insurance Coverage for Childless Adults on Labor Supply, written by Laura Dague, Thomas Deleire, and Lindsey Leininger. Authors provide causal estimates of medicare expansion on childless adults. By regressing discontinuity and propensity score with difference-in-difference methods to look at the enrollment cap, authors discover that enrolling in public health insurance lead to a statistically significant employment reduction up to 9 quarters later minimal.
4. Public Health Insurance, Labor Supply, and Employment Lock, written by Craig Garthwaite, Tal Gross, and Matthew J. Notowidigdo. By looking at the largest medicaid disenrollment in the history of the United States, TennCare, authors try to predict the effect of expanding ACA on labor supply. They suggest a “employment lock”, that workers seeking for jobs are mainly looking for health benefits through jobs. With implemented ACA, authors expect a fall in employment rate in the future.

The last study, Public Health Insurance, Labor Supply, and Employment Lock, is the one I mainly focused on. Previously, public health insurance mainly focused on disabled, low-income parents, and those who are over 65 years old. ACA mainly targets childless adults, who used to be not eligible for public health program. Similarly, TennCare shares same demographic features as ACA. Following by the disenrollment of TennCare starting in 2005, within two years, the number of enrollee fell from 1,337,000 to 1,170,000. Authors discover a immediate increase in labor supply and job searching behavior after the disenrollment, thus providing a good predictor of effects of ACA: there will be a decrease in employment rate and labor supply after the implementation of ACA, as expanding public medical care provides benefits that people used to get through their employers with private insurance.

Authors first compare the TennCare with ACA, showing similarity between two programs, so it would be plausible to predict effects of ACA by TennCare. They use data from the Current Population Survey(CPS) on health insurance coverage and labor market outcomes, from 2000 to 2007. Then restricting people from age 21 to 64, and looking at whether they are employed or not, what type of insurance they have, and how many hours they work per week.

The key method to study the causal effect of the disenrollment is a state by year difference-in-difference regression: [image: ], with variable “yst” representing outcome of state s and in year t, such as the share of the population with public health insurance coverage. This model includes state fixed effects(α) and year fixed effects(δ). Authors give out a comparison of Tennessee and other southern states, showing their similarity in summary statistics, so Tennessee can become the “treated group”, with disenrollment being the “treatment”, and other southern states being the “untreated”. β is the difference-in-difference estimate of the effect of the disenrollment. By comparing outcomes in Tennessee before and after the disenrollment to outcomes in other southern states, assuming outcomes in Tennessee would not be different with other states without the disenrollment.

To further implement this regression, also concerning other potential national policy changes and recessions, authors use triple difference regression model: [image: ], this is based on the difference-in-difference model above, and is used to control for any unobservable common shocks that may affect childless adults in Tennessee and other Southern States. This model includes a new demographic group fixed effects (γ), and all two-way interactions between each fixed effects. Again, β is the triple-difference estimate of the effect of TennCare disenrollment on childless adults relative to other adults, and the key assumption is that inside Tennessee, the two demographic groups would have be similar without the disenrollment. A “triple-difference” analysis is used primarily to eliminate potential bias.

For results, authors first provide a comparison of share publicly insured between Tennessee and other southern states, and a triple difference comparison between childless adults in Tennessee and other adults. In 2006 following the disenrollment, there is a massive decline in share publicly insured, about 4 percent, both for Tennessee residents and childless adults, which other southern states and citizens with children do not experience. For the effect of TennCare disenrollment on employment, there is a 4.6 percent decrease in public insurance coverage for Tennessee residents, a 7.3 percent decrease for Tennessee residents with no children, and at the same time employment rate raise by 2.5 percent and 4.6 percent respectively. This effect concentrates on people working over 20 hours a week, implying an increase in childless adults seeking private health insurance through their employers.

From labor supply’s perspective, authors anticipate an increase in labor supply would lead to decrease in wages, as they find out that log wage and residualized log wage decreased by 2.3 percent and 1.8 percent respectively, which support the idea that labor supply has increased after the disenrollment. To check robustness, since disenrollment mainly focus on childless adults, people over 65 years old who are almost fully enrolled in medicaid programs, should have little impact on insurance coverage and labor supply. They find a 0.1 percent increase in insurance coverage and 0.2 percent increase in labor supply, which is quantitatively and statistically insignificant.

Lastly, authors even provide Google Trend for phrase “job openings” searched, during disenrollment period, the searches reaches its peak. Data from Local Area Unemployment Statistics and Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System also suggest an increase in share employed by month and a decrease in share insured by month. By looking at TennCare, authors predict that there will be 4.2 million people switching from private insurance to public insurance after ACA is implemented. There will be a decline in employment of 530,000 to 940,000 people, which is a decline in employment rate of 0.3 to 0.6 percent from ACA itself.

This study is the most credible, due to its well constructed model, and concrete evidences. A triple difference model is used to complement difference-in-difference model, there is robustness check, and authors use results from various aspects: including share insured publicly and privately, wage changes, employment rates, and even Google Trends. Although in study: Public Health Insurance, Labor Supply, and Employment Lock: Effects or Data Artifacts? Written by Elena Gouskova, author critiques the inaccuracy of data, as during the time of study, CPS underwent a series of changes to its data, including calculation weights, sampling scales, etc. Using the same diff-in-diff method and adjusted data, Elena comes up with statistically insignificant effect on labor supply. Author also claims that the increase in employment rate is due to the decline in total population in Tennessee rather than the increase in workers employed. However, this study cannot explain the reason behind the Google Trend for increase in job seeking behavior. It could not be simply a coincidence that people suddenly start to look for jobs after the disenrollment.

My critiques about this study is that, it does not include any demand side factor in the labor market, as it only mentions labor supply. TennCare and ACA can be similar enough, but is Tennessee representative enough to predict effects of ACA in the entire nation? I would also like to see some analysis on crowdout effect influencing the insurance market, does it has anything to do with employment rate? How would private vs public insurance affect labor market? ACA is one enormous policy to study, as it covers too many aspects of the society, there is no perfect way to study this policy, all we can do is to consider as many aspects as possible to avoid potential bias.

References

1. Public Health Insurance, Labor Supply, and Employment Lock Craig Garthwaite, Tal Gross, Matthew J. Notowidigdo, NBER Working Paper No. 19220, Issued in July 2013 https://www.nber.org/papers/w19220
2. Labor Market Effects of the Affordable Care Act: Evidence from a Tax Notch Kavan Kucko, Kevin Rinz, Benjamin Solow, United States Census Bureau, Issued in July 13, 2017 https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2017/adrm/carra-wp-2017-07.html
3. The Effect of Public Insurance Coverage for Childless Adults on Labor Supply Laura Dague, Thomas DeLeire, Lindsey Leininger, NBER Working Paper No. 20111, Issued in May 2014 https://www.nber.org/papers/w20111
4. Effects of the Affordable Care Act on Part-Time Employment: Early Evidence Marcus Dillender, Carolyn Heinrich, Susan Houseman, Labour Economics 43(2016): 151-158, Issued in June, 2016 https://research.upjohn.org/up_workingpapers/258/
5. Public Health Insurance, Labor Supply, and Employment Lock: Effects or Data Artifacts? Elena Gouskova, November 10, 2015, Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2688582

America has not always been as free as it is viewed today. Events occur in the United States constantly many view as unjust. A big portion of this started when America began to industrialize. The farming in society slowly became less of the most popular job. Many factories were built, and started requiring more hands on workers to get things produced. There were no laws put into place to protect who worked, so many kids were placed into factories to work for little pay and long hours. People began to recognize the treatment of workers, so labor unions begun to form to try to prevent and overall protect workers.

Labor unions defined are simply groups, “created in an effort to protect the working population from abuses such as sweatshops and unsafe working conditions” (Cussen 2019). During the industrial period of America, many children were put to work. Since they were small and could not advocate for themselves, children were walked on. They were required to work from dusk till dawn. They received the bare minimum payments. They were given little to no breaks, they were treated very poorly. They didn’t get to be kids. Not just children, but many adults were treated the exact same, with poor conditions. If you got hurt at work, you were required to get fired. You may have had a work related accident, but you’d still be dismissed from work, without pay. It started to become a realization to people that this was not the way workers should be treated. People began thinking of ideas to stop this treatment.

Many strikes were made in an effort to stop this treatment. One in particular was the railroad strike. A paycut was made, so workers began to protest. They paralyzed railroad traffic throughout the country. The troops fired on the workers, killing twenty of them. So the workers went and burnt the city railroad yards. This gave people in the United States the feeling that national power was more focused on protecting property, not the citizens. Unions started to be formed, people were ready to start trying to receive the working conditions they deserved.

In the late 1800s labor unions grew rapidly. Everyone was working to get the rights they deserve, no matter what it took. Strikes, protest, ads, pictures, many different methods were put into place trying to get these rights. The groups worked hard, and their proof is still evident today. Many schools today read about the forming unions and their achievements. After some time the Fair Labor Standards Acts were put into place, these acts, “specifies at which times workers are ‘on the clock’ and which times are not paid hours. There are also elaborate rules concerning whether employees are exempt or non-exempt from the Fair Labor Standards Act overtime regulations. The FLSA requires overtime to be paid at 1.5 times the regular hourly rate (‘time-and-a-half’) for all hours worked in excess of 40 hours during a seven-day workweek” (Kenton 2018). In simpler terms, it created laws on child labor and the amount of hours people are allowed to work daily.

The work of the labor unions was very successful. Now, in America many children are not even allowed to work until the age of sixteen, and even then, children can only work a certain amount of hours. Adults are given shorter work days and weeks. The work of the unions was a positive to America, and proved itself to help in many cases dealing with labor during the Industrial Revolution period.

Works Cited

1. Cussen, Mark P. “The History of Unions in the United States.” Investopedia, Investopedia, 29 Jan. 2020, www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0113/the-history-of-unions-in-the-united-states.aspx.
2. Kenton, Will. “What Is the Fair Labor Standards Act?” Investopedia, Investopedia, 29 Jan. 2020, www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fair-labor-standards-act-flsa.asp.

When the pregnancy is coming to an end, around gestational age of 40 weeks, the body prepares for labor. The fetus has grown and is prepared to survive outside of the uterus. Labor represents the end of the pregnancy and it is divided into four stages. During these stages, it is at the utmost importance to closely monitor both mother and fetus, watching for any signs of distress or complications. The labor process is divided into four main stages which are then divided into phases.

The Four Stages of Labor

The first stage of labor begins when the first regular contraction is felt until full dilation of the cervix. Many women, especially those who are expecting for the first time, have difficulty of determining the onset of labor, as they might feel false labor or Braxton Hicks contractions. According to Women’s Health, the first stage is the longest stage of labor, usually lasting about 12 to 19 hours (Womens Health, 2018). Stage one is furthermore divided into three phases, latent, active and transition. Latent, or early labor, is the first phase of stage one. The latent phase lasts until the cervix is dilated to 3cm. Most nulliparous women seek immediate admission to the hospital because they do not know what the right time is to come in as this is their first pregnancy. Contractions in the latent phase should last 10-30 seconds every 5-30 minutes apart. (Perry, 2014) The next part of this stage is the active phase. This is when multiparous women come in the hospital. The have experience from previous birth and are less anxious. (Perry, 2014). This phase lasts approximately while the mother is dilated from 3cm-7cm. This phase requires more energy as the contractions increase from moderate to strong lastingn30-40 seconds and are coming at 3-5 minutes apart. At this time the cervix is rapidly dilating, and rupture of membranes can occur. The last phase in the first stage of labor is the transition phase. This is when the cervix dilates rapidly from 8cm-10 cm. Contractions are very strong, and they are on top of one another, every 2-3 minutes and they last 45-90 seconds. Many women find this phase as the most difficult part of labor. Women may feel irritated, tired, and may think that they are not able to make it through (James Greene, 2019).

With the end of transition phase of the first stage of labor, the second stage of labor begins. This is the stage when the infant is born (Perry, 2014). This stage begins with full dilation of the cervix, 10 cm, and it ends with the baby’s birth. The second stage lasts about 50-60 minutes for nulliparous women and about 20-30 minutes for multiparous women. The second stage is also broken down into two phases, the latent phase and the active pushing phase. The latent phase is calmer and there is a little bit of rest for the laboring mother. During this phase the fetus continues to descend through the birth canal as a result of ongoing uterine contractions. During the active pushing phase, the mother has strong urges to start pushing. The urge to bear down intensifies, and the woman may be more vocal about her pain level. Once the baby’s head is born, most of the hard work is over, and the rest of the baby’s body is born quite quickly. (Perry, 2014)

The third stage of labor begins immediately after the baby is born and lasts until the placenta is expelled (Perry, 2014). This is the shortest stage, as it takes anywhere between 5-30 minutes for the placenta to be expelled from the uterine cavity. Immediately after delivery, small contractions begin again, signaling that the placenta is separating from the uterine wall, ready for delivery. Women may experience some discomfort, even pain during this stage, as the provider applies pressure to the uterus and tugs gently on the umbilical cord to expel the placenta. The delivery of the placenta is also called the afterbirth (William’s Obstetrics Twenty-Second Ed. Cunningham, n.d.).

The first 1-2 hours after birth is called the fourth stage of labor. This is the recovery time for both mother and newborn. This is also a time where both the mother and the newborn become acquainted of each other, and maternal organs readjust to the nonpregnant state (Perry, 2014). The fourth stage is the most important and crucial for the new mother and the newborn. Assessment of the new mother, such as vital signs, fundus, bladder, lochia and perineum are all assessed and observed to avoid any postpartum complications. This is the stage that most parents/families enjoy holding, exploring and bonding with the newborn. (Perry, 2014)

Fetus distress during labor

Labor is a very stressful period for the fetus and frequent monitoring of the fetal status is necessary during labor. Fetal oxygen and heart rate are closely monitored during labor and it must be maintained to prevent fetal compromise and allow for a healthy baby after delivery. Fetal distress occurs when the fetus is nor receiving adequate oxygen during pregnancy or labor (HIE Help Center , n.d.). Fetal distress is usually diagnosed based on fetal heart rate which is monitored by fetal heart rate monitor. Fetal heart rate should be maintained between 110-160 beats per minute during the third trimester, as well as during labor. One of the ways we can identify fetus destress is there is tachycardia or abnormally fast heart rate present during labor. This is when the heart rate is greater than 160 beats per minutes. This can indicate maternal or fetal infection, or it is responding to certain medications (Perry, 2014). Also, if the fetus is bradycardic or abnormally slow heart rate, it is an indication that the fetus is in distress. This is when the heart rate is less than 110 beats per minute and is often caused by fetal cardiac problems (Perry, 2014). Another indication of distress would be variable and late decelerations on the FHR monitor. Variable deceleration is when there is an abrupt decrease in heart rate. Late deceleration is the late return of heart rate to the baseline after a contraction.

When there is an indication that the fetus is in distress during labor, close monitoring and further assessment will aid the nursing personnel and provider of the safest way to deliver the fetus. The main goal would be to return the fetal heart rate to normal as soon as possible to avoid injury (HIE Help Center , n.d.). When a fetus is in distress medical personnel must quickly assess and intervene. The first intervention includes administration of oxygen by nonrebreather face mask for approximately 15-30 minutes. Assisting the woman into a side lying position will also relieve pressure and aid in the heart rate returning to baseline. IV fluids should be increased to increase maternal blood volume, aiding in more blood volume to be delivered to fetus and increasing the heart rate of the fetus. Many times, and in many cases the best way to alleviate fetal distress is to deliver the fetus via C-Section. (Perry, 2014).

Umbilical Cord Prolapse

Prolapse of the umbilical cord occurs when the cord lies bellow the presenting part of the fetus (Perry, 2014). This may be due a long cord, malpresentation of the fetus or an unengaged presenting part. Early detection of cord prolapse is quite crucial in a delivery, because the outcome can be very dangerous for the fetus. One of the signs of cord prolapse is a change in the fetus heart rate, or variable decelerations. These changes in heart rate, as well as lack of oxygen to the fetus, can also cause fetus blood pressure changes. This occurs because the compression in the cord also compresses the vein in the umbilical cord leading to carbon dioxide accumulating in the fetus heart, causing respiratory acidosis (American Pregnancy Association , n.d.). Prolonged cord compression for longer than 5 minutes will result in central nervous system damage, risk of brain damage, fetal hypoxia, or death to the fetus (Perry, 2014).

When a prolapse of the umbilical cord occurs, the goal is to relieve the pressure of the cord, allowing more oxygen flow to the fetus, and safe delivery of the fetus. If the woman is not fully dilated and the provider has been notified, the next most important thing is relieving the pressure by assisting the client in a Trendelenburg position as well as insertion of two gloved fingers into the vagina to the cervix, pressuring against the presenting part, not moving the hand until the client is sent in for a cesarean delivery. Oxygen should be increased and administered to the client by nonrebreather mask at 8 to 10 L/ min until birth is accomplished. Fetal heart rate must be continually monitored, and education to client and support person should be provided during this time. If the client is fully dilated, a forceps or vacuum assisted birth can be performed for the fetus in a cephalic presentation, or an emergency cesarean birth will be performed.

Meconium in the amniotic fluid

While the fetus grows in the womb, the liquid that surrounds the fetus in the placenta is called amniotic fluid. Meconium is the sticky, thick, green first stool that the baby passes after birth. Sometimes this could happen inside utero, within the amniotic fluid, staining the amniotic fluid green, which helps the provider to determine if the fetus has aspirated meconium stained fluid and intervene. The major risk associated with meconium stained amniotic fluid is MAS or meconium aspiration syndrome (Perry, 2014). It causes severe form of pneumonia, which can cause death.

Before birth the amniotic fluid, if membranes have ruptured, is assessed for the presence of meconium. If the amniotic fluid shows presence of meconium, equipment is gathered, and the neonatal unit is informed. After the delivery of the infant’s head, the oro-nasopharynx should be suctioned by the provider before the delivery of the shoulders. If the newborn shows signs of depressed respirations, bluish skin color, grunting sounds when breathing, the provider will proceed with intubation immediately after suctioning (Stanford Childrens Hospital , n.d.). In the nursery or NICU the infant should be closely monitored for respiratory distress, cyanosis, tachypnea, and labored breathing. In the meantime, arterial blood gases and pH should be monitored for evidence of either metabolic or respiratory acidosis. A chest x-ray may be obtained to rule out any air trapping in the alveoli.

Benefits and adverse effects of epidural

During labor one of the most popular choice of drug for pain relief is the epidural injection. Epidural anesthesia is administered between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae, providing analgesia or pain block, as well as pain relief, which then would lead to a total lack of feeling in that particular area. There are many benefits of using epidural block during childbirth, but one of the most important that women find during this period is that it allows them for a more pleasant and less painful birth experience, while allowing them to be fully awake and aware of their surroundings. Another benefit of the epidural is that it can help the laboring woman deal with exhaustion, allowing for rest, and giving strength to the mother in being active in the childbirth process (Perry, 2014).

Of course, like many other medications while it has great benefits, the epidural can have adverse reactions as well. One of the few adverse reactions is that epidural can cause a sudden drop of blood pressure of the laboring mother. Blood pressure is routinely checked and if any changes, client is treated with IV fluids, medications or oxygen. Another side effect of the epidural anesthesia is that for few hours after delivery, lower limbs might feel limb. Nursing assistance for ambulation, assistance to use the bathroom and frequent check for edema should be performed by the assigned nurse or assistive personnel. One of the major complication or side effect that can happen from an epidural block, is headache. This is caused by aspiration or leakage of spinal fluid where the epidural block is injected. If the headaches are consistent, a blood patch into the fluid gap can be administered to avoid pooling of spinal fluid into the empty space, causing the headache (Epidural Anesthesia, n.d.).

Internal fetal and uterine monitoring

During labor it is very important to monitor both fetus and laboring mother to prevent any complications. If the provider is unable to get good results from external fetal monitoring, to closely monitor the fetus, the provider will use internal fetal monitoring. If the membrane is ruptured and the cervix dilated at least 2-3 cm, the provider will use intrauterine pressure catheter and spiral electrode near the head of the fetus. When the catheter is compressed during a contraction, the pressure is converted to measure frequency, duration and intensity.

Most common monitoring during labor is the external mode, which uses external transducers attached to the laboring woman’s abdomen, assessing fetal heart rate and uterine contractions. The transducer works by reflecting high frequency sound waves. To monitor uterine contractions a tocotransducer is placed over the fundus above the umbilicus and is held in place by an elastic belt. As monitoring of the fetus and contractions are very important during labor, they can indicate fetal distress or intensity of contractions, presenting that it might be time to prepare the woman for birth (Perry, 2014).

Fetal Auscultation

When a provider is periodically listening to the fetal heartbeat during labor, it is called intermittent auscultation. This is done with a Pinard stethoscope or a doppler transducer placed on the client’s abdomen. Fetal auscultation is checked at set times during labor, and more frequently if there are any risk factors present. Fetal auscultation is done to document the fetal heart rate, as well as any accelerations and decelerations, and their timing and duration. Interchangeably while auscultating the fetal heartrate, the provider can also assess the contractions of the laboring mother by placing the hand on the abdomen, feeling the intensity, frequency and duration of the contractions. Intermittent auscultation is usually done for at least a full minute, and every 15-30 minutes during the active stage of labor, and every 5-15 minutes during the pushing phase of the second stage of labor. Fetal hear auscultation is done at the first assessment when the client is admitted in the labor and delivery department and should continue every hour during early labor. By doing so, the provider can avoid any complications, and assess and intervene if a complication might occur during the labor process (Holschuh, December 2018).

Conclusion

Waiting for nine months for labor to be initiated, women get anxious, prepare a birth plan, but can never be sure of what the outcome would be. Starting from the first stage, when labor is initiated, down to the last stage of labor when a new mother holds her infant for the first time, the labor process can be a scary and at the same time a pleasurable experience for many women. One can never be sure that the labor process would be a smooth ride, as there are many complications that can happen during this period with the mother as well as the fetus. Patient centered care and evidence-based practice is very important aspect of the labor and delivery process. Knowing the status of the patient and the fetus, frequent monitoring, frequent assessment will prevent any complications as well as prevent fetus mortality.

Every country’s workforce attempts to showcase the very best the country has to offer by performing to the best of its ability. The workforce of Singapore is no different. Over the years, Singapore’s workforce has done much to elevate the country to its current status of an economic powerhouse and corporate hub within the Asia-Pacific region. Certainly, the workforce of Singapore deserves much praise for all they have done.

However, not everything related to labor in Singapore is free of problems. Just as is the case in any other country, there are certain issues related to labor and employment in the country which have proven to be somewhat difficult to handle. Singapore’s companies and government have been doing all that has been possible to keep these problems in check, though the outcome of their attempts at solving the problems remains to be seen.

Labor Shortage

Many companies across Singapore have encountered a shortage of labor. This is the case for three reasons. The first reason is the rapidly aging population. As the average age of the Singaporean population increases, there will be fewer youths who will be seeking to enter the job market for the first time. The number of people who are of working age in Singapore is expected to reach its maximum in 2020, then be in a constant state of freefall after that. Thus, the aging of the population is expected to intensify the country’s shortage of labor.

Another reason why Singapore’s labor shortage is expected to continue is the fact that the laws regulating the entry of workers from abroad have been tightened. The earliest of these new, stricter measures were imposed in 2010; several more have since been added. Among the measures that made it more difficult for foreigners to work in Singapore included stricter requirements for one to receive an S Pass or Work Permit, as well as the introduction of a law that required all businesses in Singapore to prioritize locals when hiring workers. These stricter regulations made foreigners less inclined to move to Singapore to work. Thus, they also contribute to the labor shortage.

A third reason for the current labor shortage is that for many job seekers, there is a mismatch between skills possessed by most job seekers and skills in demand. It is unfortunate but true that the skills most sought by the job market are not always the most common. Such appears to be the case in Singapore at the moment. Although there have been measures introduced such as upskilling programs and increased emphasis by universities on courses that teach in-demand skills, the fact remains that this problem is yet to be completely solved. It therefore also exacerbates Singapore’s labor shortage.

Gender Inequality

Another labor-related problem that exists in Singapore today is that of gender inequality. Just as is the case in the vast majority of countries around the world, the average woman working in Singapore earns less money than the average man who works there. According to the latest statistics, the average woman who works in Singapore full-time earns just 87.5% of what her male counterpart earns for the same job and working hours. The income inequality between women and men in Singapore has increased; the previous set of statistics had women’s earnings in Singapore at 90.8% of men’s earnings. The largest wage gaps in the country exist in the following industries: manufacturing, accommodation, health, social services, information and communications, and food services.

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Women who work in Singapore must also deal with the fact that they are likely to have fewer opportunities for career advancement. The latest statistics showed that just 15.2% of board members in Singapore’s leading companies are women. To put this figure into perspective, a woman who works in the United Kingdom is almost twice as likely to obtain such a position, while a woman who works in France is nearly three times as likely to do so when compared to her Singaporean counterpart.

These forms of gender inequality that exist in the Singaporean workforce are also related to the prior point about the country’s labor shortage. This is because Singaporean women might choose to work abroad in countries where they are statistically more likely to be better paid and have more opportunities for career advancement. Foreign women might also become less likely to choose to work in Singapore after they learn about such inequalities. Thus, the government and companies of Singapore ought to work to reduce the level of gender inequality so as to improve the overall quality of, as well as increase the number of people in, the country’s workforce.

Lack of Social Support for Foreigners

Many foreigners who work in Singapore also do not experience an acceptable level of social support. Due to the fact that the country’s government has historically failed to place proper emphasis on this area, social support for foreigners who work in Singapore is generally low. Although there may be instances in which they receive unjust treatment from employers or experience unsafe conditions while working, many embassies, high commissions, and government agencies often do not have the ability to address these issues. Furthermore, many foreigners are not properly informed about their rights as an employee in Singapore. Therefore, they are unaware of the functions of embassies, high commissions, and government agencies during the instances in which these bodies are indeed able to be of assistance.

Although the Singaporean government has been taking steps to adjust its policies to avoid such problems in the future, the fact that these issues have occurred before may dissuade some foreigners from coming to Singapore to work. This again contributes to the labor shortage because the lower the number of foreigners who come to Singapore to work, the smaller the size of the workforce of the country. Thus, a significant number of job vacancies which may otherwise have been filled by foreigners would remain unfilled.

Nevertheless, if you are a foreigner who would like to work in Singapore, we at Paul Hype Page & Co can be of assistance. We will set you up with our team of specialists. They will work with you so that you can receive the necessary work permits and all other required documents in due time.

Conclusion

Despite all the issues that have been mentioned, Singapore is nevertheless a good place to work. It boasts a thriving economy, active business scene, and vibrant corporate culture. For these reasons, people from all over the world have chosen to live and work in Singapore.

However, it is also clear that Singapore is currently experiencing certain issues related to labor which it needs to successfully handle in order to further strengthen the country’s workforce and economy. Of course, most pressing of these problems is the ongoing shortage of labor. The problems of gender inequality and lack of social support for foreigners also need to be addressed. They also indirectly contribute to the labor shortage.

In spite of these issues, there are ways in which they can be tackled. If all the authorities involved can successfully work together to address and overcome these problems that threaten to weaken Singapore’s otherwise thriving workforce, the country will receive tremendous benefits.

Introduction

The national labor policy began during the 18th and 19th century. Entering into World War 1 the labor movement had risen up to three million members. There are several events that have led to the National Labor Relations Act. Labor relations have been around for a long time, but the policy was never put in place. “In 1778, New York journeyman printers won a wage increase through collective action.” (Fossum, 2015 p.29)

After this took place, the union movement never grew as fast as the nation. There were many factors that influenced this. Some of the reasons were due to unfavorable legal decisions, rural areas, and unskilled immigrants competing for jobs at lower wages. At the start of the 1850s national trade unions began to form. Before the Civil War, the word union stood for a certain trade or industry which began in the United States. However after the Civil War the word union began to increase around the world, without crafts or industry distinctions. This had a lot to do with the public policy issues. There was a big debate on whether or not immigration should be open. In 1866 the National Labor Union was formed. “Its goals were largely political and reformist rather than economic or immediate.” (Fossum, 2015 p.31)

The goal of the National Labor Union was to introduce the eight hour work day, establish consumer and producer collaboration, reform the currency and banking laws, limitations on immigration, and establishment of a federal department of labor. The National Labor Union was open not only to skilled trade workers, but others interested in a skilled trade that do not have one.

In 1869 the Knights of Labor was formed in Philadelphia. The members and goals of the Knights of Labor were on the same path of the United States Labor movement than the National Labors Union. City after city, the Knights of Labor would go around and recruit members. The idea was to recruit enough people where it would be self sustaining. The members of the Knights were way more determined than the National Labor Union ever was. The Knights saw the short term of capitalism and used arbitration as a tactic rather than striking. Striking was used only when needed as a calm way to show their disappointment. It took some time, but the Knights of Labor was growing. During the 19th century, the depression on labor unions had taken effect. There were several railroad strikes and the Knights had won. “In 1885, financier Jay Gould attempted to break the union by laying off its members.” With this aggressive action the union went after the Wabash Railroad and refused to handle its rolling stock on other lines, which forced Gould to stop the attack on Knights members. During this time the members were growing. Newer members joined with the intention of having the same concession Gould had given. Its members grew up to 700,000 people. New members were in for the strike and pressuring the employers to get what they wanted, but the Knights did not want that, rather study what was happening. This conflict what new members wanted and what the Knights stood for got the best of people. By 1893 the members dropped to only 75,000 people. As time went on the organization began to shrink. This was not the end of national organizations, in 1886 the American Federation of Labor was formed.

The American Federation of Labor was created in Columbus, Ohio with frustration over craft unions and mixing people who were skilled with the unskilled workers in Knights of Labor assemblies. There were 25 national labor groups representing 150,000 skilled trade workers. The members of the American Federation of Labor had to give up the authority in order to settle disputes among them. They wanted to gain more physical gains by entering into collective agreements with employers. The idea was to justify the workplace through labor contracts. At the beginning of the American Federation of Labor, Samuel Gompers became the first president. Gompers was also a member of the New York Cigarmakers. Joining as a member gave him great experience on what goes on. During his time as president he had paid close attention to the workers he represented. As president, his biggest accomplishment was his influence on the business orientation of the United States unions

During the 1870s, a financial crisis had occurred. The owners were being bold by refusing to recognize or negotiate with unions. Labor unrest had occurred in all areas in an industry. Company owners did not want unions and get government support. During this time, Immigrant Irish miners went on strike against the owners who had cut their wages below the agreed minimum. This lead to people that formed a secret organization called the Molly Maguies which were out to terrorize owners by sabotaging mines and threatening owners. In 1877 there was another incident where railroad employees took strike to protect against a cut in wages, and seizing rail property. The federal troops had to step in to retake property and ended up killing 25 people in the process. This caused widespread rioting, arson of rail property and looting of local business.

Throughout time, workers and managers had very restricted assets on their assets. Owners did not want people to form unions and willing to do whatever to stop them from happening. Many times the workers had no choice but to live in company owned housing. Workers were obligated to because it they wanted to leave their job then that also meant that they lost there place to stay as well. In the end the socialists left their unions for the Industrial Workers of the World. This caused confusion with the Industrial Workers of the World and the Western Federation of Miners. In 1906 the Western Federation of Miners came to an end. Most of the conflicts had to do with wages and hours, but the ultimate goal was to abolish the wage system. The Industrial Workers of the World would go on strike until their demands were met.

Even though striking was the most commonly used method to get what they wanted but also to boycott. As local members would strike, the national unions insisted that union members should boycott unfair products. The Danbury Hatters is a boycott case where the union was charged with conspiracy to restrain trade in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Sherman Antitrust Act is a federal law prohibiting organizations from fixing prices or a single organization from becoming and acting as a monopolist. Another case is the Bucks Stove, where Samuel Gompers was held who was an American Federation of Labor leader. By 1914 the Clayton Act was passed. The Sherman Act was an amendment to the Sherman Antitrust Act that, among other things, removed union activities as possible restraints of trade. Even though unions were removed, it was still open to debate that allowed justical interpretations that disappointed labor.

At the end of the 1920s the United States transitioned from an agricultural society to an industrial. The invention of the assembly line reduced skill requirements for employees. According to the textbook, the attempts to organize industrial unions were unsuccessful until the 1930s. (Fossum, 2015 p.42)

There were no laws that facilitated bargaining or organizing until the Railway Labor Act. The courts prohibited unions from striking, The Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) was formed by Lewis and Phillip Murray. In order to form the committee, Lewis and Phillip had to meet with the leaders of many unions. Some being Mine workers, textile workers, and refining workers. Organizing the industrial workforce was

Congress enacted the NLRA, also known as the Wagner Act, to protect the employee’s rights, to encourage employees of collective bargaining, and to restrict certain private sectors and management practices. This act can harm the general welfare of workers, businesses, and the overall U.S. economy. The Wagner Act established the NLRB (National Labor Relations Board), the boards major duties were to determine what union was the employees’ choice to represent them. Another major duty was to hear and rule against alleged unfair labor practices. Overall, the Wagner Act states that the union that represents the employee would represent all in the unit in bargaining over issues of wages, hours, and conditions of employment. The NLRA did not apply to every employee or employer.

Major Components

The National Labor Relations Act consists of several major components. The act promises to protect the rights of employees. The act was designed to provide people with collective bargaining. This allows people to collaborate with others, respect the people you are working with, and gain other interpersonal communication skills. It gave commercialized businesses the ability to conduct business without interruption from strikes and protect the business, the economy and workers. According to the balance careers, the wagner act prohibits five unfair labor practices. The first one that is mentioned is interfering with workers rights. This is talking about the working conditions and employee pay. The second point mentioned is the controlling or interfering with the administration of a labor organization. Organizations are set to achieve something or to get something done without one disrupting or stopping it. Discrimination is another point that the National Labor Relations Act protects. This has to do with discouraging someone or even people who file charges or evidence under the Wagner Act. The final thing that is mentioned is refusing to bargain collectively with employees. According to nlrb.gov, the National Labor Relations Act grants employees the right to form a union, engage in protected, concerted activities to address or improve working conditions.

Improvements

The National Labor Relations Act set regulations to manage and regulate the rights of the employees and employers. It has made things easier for the people to not have to worry. It has created a peaceful situation by amending the workers right and allow collective bargaining with federal workers. It has created and developed workers rights. It has given people the right to bargain and provide a secure income for all workers. Overall the National Labor Relations Act has done it all, but there is a few things that could be improved. The Emory Law Journal expresses that the National Labor Relations Act has failed to express the concerns with command and not expressed by making them goals. The Emory Law Journal expresses it as a living reality. This would help to make these commands into national labor policies, as this is what the National Labor Relations Board was supposed to do. The board was probably relying on the courts to get feedback, but never happened. On a union aspect, the employers have the opportunity and ability to make a case against unions to make a case to speak to employees.

Conclusion

When the National Labor Relations Act was just forming, then unions should have disbanded. The unions did not have regulations in governing these unions. The pay rate was not well established and the amount of work they had to do was insane. There was no ethical values or norms in the way organizations were ran. The National Labor Relations Act was missing all of the guidance to help these companies in these issues. Today, unionization has helped unions to become more successful. Employees have better pay with other benefits. As long as the union is willing to give in a little and work with their employees then unions will continue to improve. Unions might not necessarily expand but improve to find common ground.

Labor Market Segmentation

The exertions marketplace is one of the most essential sectors of our market financial system. It has a very direct effect on our lives due to the fact, at some level or any other in lifestyles, nearly anybody will participate in it. thus, governments have to examine key labor market signs that influence one of the economic system’s foremost troubles, the level of unemployment, which in turn is motivated via the participation rate.

A simple definition of the labor marketplace is given via Derek Bosworth, Peter Dawkins and Thorsten Stromback (1996) who nation that the hard work marketplace is the location wherein deliver and demand meet, working to determine the charge and amount of the paintings achieved. Michel Didier (1997) defines the marketplace as a means of communication via which dealers and customers will tell every different about what they’ve, what they want and the charges that they ask or endorse, before closing the transaction. This definition has high-quality applicability at the labor marketplace. The hard work market is the marketplace wherein the range of services that correspond to duties properly hooked up within the activity description, are offered for a charge or remuneration (Boeri, Van Ours, 2013), that is, to exist on the hard work promote it is necessary for the paintings to be rewarded. The labor market reflects the main trends in employment dynamics.

In the West’s economic capabilities, only one of the labor market-production resources is marketed. Here are four main conceptual approaches to analyzing the performance of the modern labor market. The first is the postulates of the classical political economy. Supporters of this concept believe that the labor market operates on a price basis. Investing in education and qualifications (human capital) is similar to an investment in machinery and equipment. According to the price equilibrium model, the individual has at that time invested in ‘professional investments’, which reduces the rate of income. The cost of the workforce responds quickly to market demands, and decreases or increases depending on the demand.

Unlike neo-classics, key people and monetarists view the labor market as a permanent and fundamental equilibrium. Based on the Keynesians model, the value of the workforce (the right) is determined and does not change (it does not decrease). This concept should be included in the regulatory framework, even if the price is not the market regulator. This regulator is a state. The state may disrupt the balance provided by reducing the amount of demand. Hence, according to this model, the demand for labor force is regulated not by the market price fall, but by the total demand, ie, the amount of production.

To regulate the market, monetarists are proposing to use monetary policy instruments. Most of the conceptual concepts are based on the inadequacy of the labor market with other market resources. They believe that the qualifications of the workers are achieved before they arrive at the labor market, which is not always the case since in most cases the worker gets acquired after graduation. This means that it is difficult to assess its potential in the market.

In addition to demographic factors, one of the most important factors of market dynamics is the economic activity of the able-bodied population of different demographics and ethnic groups. The fact that the inclusion of women into the most labor force, linked to the activation of the social role of women, has led to an increase in the supply of labor.

One of the most significant factors affecting the dynamics of the labor force is immigration and emigration. The most serious impact on the labor force demand also reflects scientific and technical progress. The nearest workers were not considered as commodities. Surely, in real life, thousands of people have worked and worked as hired workers.

The primary sector consists of two floors:

• The paddle – these jobs are for professionals. For example, a lawyer, teacher, doctor, corporation director, etc.
• The downstairs is for the ‘blue skies’. These floors are traditionally occupied by women (‘jackals’). Although these jobs have a larger status than the third-class workplace, their value has been dropped, and labor costs are not fully met. Second-degree jobs usually do not require special training. There are unskilled workers working in these areas. There are mainly women working in the burrow.

The Third Thousand Tendency is the most important employment for many women, especially for IDPs. Salary is very low and labor conditions do not meet accepted standards. Professional does not allow progress in development and service ladder. However, in a relatively developed country, there is a new type of labor market segmentation:

• Marketplace with fast-growing scientific-production and lower-middle-class concentration.
• The market of ancient, traditional sectors of the economy that is important in the recent past.

The international division of labor

The modern economy depends on the ability of people and firms to deal with one another in a broader trading network. Western countries have experienced rapid economic growth, with the increase in specialization helped workers increase productivity in certain areas and change their products to the products they need.

One of the laws of the economy is that it is necessary to organize a division of labor, rather than forcing everyone to see the job. The division of labor allows the tall men to work as a basketball player, a good economist and accountant for those who know the account and work with sellers.

The term ‘international division of labor’ on the one hand traditionally means the natural division of production duties between nations and nations, and specialization of commodity n species in certain countries. On the other hand, production tasks are planned inside and distributed among firms. Specialization within the field is widespread.

Intensive development of cooperation between firms of various countries – the initiator of the creation of which led to the emergence of a large international manufacturing and investment complex with transnational corporations (TMK). On this basis, the openness of national economists is also high. The open economy is formed on the basis of the country’s joining the world economic relations.

‘International specialization’ and ‘production cooperation’, which are the basic concepts for production cooperation, are interconnected.

The result of production cooperation is international economic integration, which, in turn, is a deeply fixed relationship between the national economies of the two countries and the process of political and economic unity on the basis of division of labor, the operation of production structures at various fiber levels and forms. In microeconomics, this process involves the use of separate economic entities (enterprises, firms). The formation of the system of contracts, and the coordination of capital through the creation of branches abroad. At the interstate level, the integration takes place on the basis of the formation of economic associations and the coordination of national policies.

The rapid development of inter-agency relations – the need for intergovernmental regulation aimed at ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor within the economic, scientific-technical, financial and foreign, social, foreign and defense policies. The simplest form of economic union is the creation of a free trade zone: within the framework of which trade restrictions, first of all, customs duties, are canceled between the participating States.

The relatively complex form of economic union is a common market. The general market provides its participants with free trade and unified foreign tariffs, as well as the free movement of capital and labor and the coordination of economic policies. But the most complex form of intergovernmental economic union is economic (and financial) union. This type of union incorporates all of the above forms and requires the implementation of a common economic and monetary-financial policy.

It is also important to note the work done at home, which is another type of employment and particularly involves women. Although this labor is paid at minimum prices, it also allows children to look at and see their homework.

Labor supply and demand for work

The need for work that determines the level of employment depends on many factors, including:

1. Changes in the structure of the economy, the organization of labor at the firm or industry;
2. New technological discoveries and other management methods of the workforce;
3. International competitiveness;
4. Firms, industry strategies, as well as revenue criteria and market prices;
5. In comparison with the labor norm, labor productivity;
6. The level of security of social and labor rights;
7. The flexibility of labor relations (eg, how easy it is to dismiss or recruit employees based on subcontractor time);
8. Education, professional knowledge and skills required for the company’s production;
9. Trade unions’ activity;
10. Government actions;
11. Monetary policy.

In the last century, the wars of wages, labor wars and the creation of alliances between labor and capital were noticeable; Today, in many countries, women are struggling for their well-being and the right to work for men equally. According to the law of demand, if the supply of labor resources decreases or if the supply increases, wages will increase as well. The demand for the production factor reflects the final productivity of this factor and is defined as additional revenue from the use of the additional unit of this factor. According to the declining coefficient law, each additional unit of labor increases the product at least. There are two main ways to increase the productivity and the wages of the worker. First, if the employees are provided with good quality and quantitative welfare, the end product will increase. Secondly, if the workers are more educated or experienced, their end product will be increased. In developed countries salaries are so high that these countries can accumulate sufficient capital resources over the years, generate a large number of automotive and railway lines, telecommunications, a large number of factories and equipment for a worker, and inventory of additional parts. After the Second World War, the average capital per capita has increased more than twice. In addition, technical improvements, radio, television, computers, etc. capital reserves were more efficient. At the same time, specialization of labor resources has also improved. Differences between countries are high in the payment of employment rights. For example, in developing countries such as the United States, Japan, and England, developing countries, Mexico, India and other countries, salaries are substantially higher. This difference is driven by demand and dependency on the economy and depends on the fields of the economy. For example, salaries in agriculture and trade are considerably lower than in the manufacturing and communications industry. An experienced worker-woman can get low wages from a novice worker.

Many apparent differences in employment depend on the unequal quality of the workplace. Different tasks vary in degree of attractiveness, so salaries can be increased so that it is possible to attract the worker to a less attractive area (for example, the garbage collector’s job is more than the office clerk’s work).

The analysis of non-competitive groups helps to understand the causes of discrimination in the labor market. Discrimination occurs as a tradition, a law, a misconception, and then shows that workers are divided into non-competitive groups for sex, race or ethnicity.

Differences in labor are a universal feature of the market economy. In the last century, discrimination was characterized by the removal of high-paid niches from the colored population and women. The result was that they were forced to work in rough jobs that did not require specialization, and became representatives of non-competitive groups.

The largest group suffering from economic discrimination is women. A full-time working woman can get only 80% of the average wage of a person who has the same time, education and social status.

The principle of comparative behavior is used by trade unions, particularly the organizations that make up the majority of women, who translate this principle into an instrument for negotiation. Sometimes judges have decided that comparative values are the most appropriate way to eliminate the permanent differences between men’s and women’s salaries. Probably, comparative costing training will remain a major problem in the labor market for many years.

Offer. The country’s internal workforce is aged over 16, employed to earn a living, or seeking a job that is actively seeking employment. The job offer or the amount of workforce is determined by the variety of factors, including:

1. Gender capacity: this is normal; Factors from homework, homestay; division of labor, child feeding and her care, women’s home away from home is restricted to their work.
2. Lifestyle – Criteria for choosing a job: the desire to work or the need to work?
3. Age limit: Getting to work at home ban on the legislation; the seriousness of their observance. Retirement age. Do I have age discrimination?
4. Conditions of participation in the labor market changes.
5. Immigration.

The proposal is the number of hours a person is willing to work in factories, farms, commercial, state, and non-profit organizations in order to earn income. The analysis of labor tulip is based on three elements: working hours, participation norm (or share of the workforce in total population) and immigration.

In the labor force developed countries, statistics are the most commonly used (including military men) and unemployed. The synonym for this concept is the category of ‘economically active population’. In the statistics, there is a definition of civilian labor, with the exception of military servants.

Employees hired in relatively developed countries in the market economy account for an average of 90% of the total labor force. Employees who are considered to be ‘workers of the labor force’ constitute the majority of workers, representing the majority, as a rule, a small group of entrepreneurs and independent professions (lawyers, journalists, writers, etc.)

Participation rate (share of the workforce in total population). One of the most promising achievements of women in recent years is the dramatic adverse impact on women’s labor market. The share of women over 15 years of age who are employed or looking for a job has increased from 40 to 60 percent in contrast to the mid-1960s. In part, the reason for this is the substantial increase in real wages, which is more attractive for women. But it is not possible to justify the change in these indicators. In order to understand this dramatic change in the structure of the labor, society needs to look at the changed attitude of a woman as a mother, a housewife, and a worker.

Immigration. As the labor force, immigrants play a role. For example, every year more than 1 million immigrants move to the United States, of which 200 thousand are included in the country becomes. Immigrants constitute an increasing part of the labor force ‘by creating’ 39% of the population.

The choice of employment for immigrants is a classic example of non-competitive groups. New immigrants from different countries tend to work in narrow-angle activities before they go into the open job market.

Immigrants are expanding their ability to choose their place of employment as they earn a great deal of service and earn a living, as well as languishing, and they become part of a common job offer.

Women-migrants are more vulnerable to finding a job and earning an income they belong. Most of them have the opportunity to find a way to any source of income are forced to abstain and are forced to go to the primitive farming industry or in the informal sector of the economy. Unlawful woman

The immigrant’s work is payable to a minimum of life, and therefore its economic security is very important.

Unemployment, unemployment rate

Unemployment is a socioeconomic phenomenon, partly because some of the workforces do not deal with commodities and services. Together with unemployed people, the country’s labor force. In real economic life, unemployment is a labor supply that is more than labor force demand.

The structure of the unemployment is divided into four main categories of labor: the ones who lost their jobs at the dismissal; volunteer workers; those who come to the labor market after a break; those who come to the labor market for the first time. The proportion of these categories depends primarily on the stage of the economic cycle.

Unemployment rate (%) = Number of unemployed / Total labor force × 100% / 1

In Western economies, such a rational point is that unemployment, in essence, reflects the economic well-being of the use of resources, as we must ensure that the sustainable and rational use of fixed capital requires the full acquisition of production facilities. It illustrates the structural disproportion in the business market, which is the natural limit of the business, and reflects the disparity between the physical, demographic, coordinated and non-specific structural requirements and supply.

The rate of economic unemployment is an economic and social problem. That’s why it’s an economic problem that’s causing a lot of resources. It is social – because it brings countless sufferings to unemployed people who are trying to defraud themselves. In periods of high unemployment, economic failures have a strong impact on the emotional spheres of people and their family life.

In the conditions of economic recession, full employment before the state was abolished; the recession was the most serious of the women’s employment. Unemployment is one of the most pressing problems, with 55% of the unemployed being approached. Unemployment covers especially youth and women with relatively high education and academic degrees.

Conclusion

The exertions market operates through confronting the supply and call for of labor and it works in each us of a, on a nearby and global scale. Any pastime that is initiated or exists in society creates the want for labor. The exertions marketplace operates on the equal mechanism because the marketplace of any goods or services. Being the primary factor of the marketplace its elements, systems and standards are similar to the ones of the alternative components, the herbal assets market, and capital market. despite the fact that there is no opinion extensively frequent with admire to the use of one of the phrases exertions market or group of workers marketplace, it is necessary to distinguish among paintings and individual and between what arises from the paintings method (items and offerings) and the individual who possesses the talents and understanding they provide to supply the ones goods and offerings. From the evaluation performed, we concluded that the labor market has a high degree of pressure and inflexibility, the segmentation of this marketplace takes location each at a widespread level, the segmentation is executed on the main sectors of the economy and to a lesser quantity from the point of view of the supply of and call for of labor, there may be a actual want to alter this marketplace, being both a contractual and participatory market, with a multidimensional individual due to its geographic, economic, educational and social scales. The conventional, neoclassical, Keynesian, monetarist, unbalanced exertions marketplace and the income performance models brought on the formation and functioning of the hard work marketplace.

References

1. S.Ibadov-Economy ,Baku, Baku State University (2012)
2. Bosworth, D. Dawkins, P. Stromback, T. – The Economics of the Labour Market, Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., 1996.
3. Marshall, Alfred – Principles of Economics, Ed. Prometheus Books, New York, 1997.
4. BECKER, G.S., 1971, The Economics of Discrimination, Chicago, University Chicago Press.
5. Shmalenzi «Ekonomika» Moskva – 1999.
6. DOUGLAS, P., 1934, The Theory of Wages, New York
7. Botero, J., Djankov, S., La Porta, and Shleifer, A. (2004). The regulation of labor. The Quaterly Journal of Economics 119

Introduction

We were given a independent investigation project and the goal of this project was to research a question,create notes,write a report and present a presentation.The question that I researched was What regular items could you find in your home that might have been produced through child labor? How would you know? I picked this question because many people don’t know that the products they are using are produced by children.I found out many things that even I didn’t know that surprised me and made me aware of the things I use and where it comes from,I also learned about many ways to find out.

Examples Of Things Made By Child Labor

Website Used:“Products Made by Child Labor – with Alternative Options.” End Slavery Now, www.endslaverynow.org/blog/articles/products-made-by-child-labor-with-alternative-options.

There are many things that we use on a daily basis that are produced through child labor. Shoes,all of us wear shoes everyday weather it is to go to school or work or anywhere we use shoes everyday, Nike is a very big company of shoes which uses child labor while creating their shoes if your looking for alternative options other ar many fair trade companies which makes shoes fairly a example of a company would be oliberte they have shoes which are made by workers who are fairly paid and eligible to work.

Another big one would be sugar,harvesting sugar can be a challenge since we live in a age where we all are addicted to sugar we need more of it and so we need more workers to help harvest and so many children are recruited to help if you are looking for sugar that is made without child labor look for sugar packages with a fairtrade symbol which i will talk more about later in the report.

Many carpets are produced by children and they are forced to weave carpets 14 + hr/day if they ruin a carpet there are many consequences that they have to face and a big one is they get abused.After hearing this I am aware of the stuff some children have o go though just for us to get a carpet but in most cases there is a solution there is a company called goodweave which is helping get children out of carpet weaving and into school.Goodweave also sells carpers which has no use of child labor and and their certified.

In the country of uzbekistan the whole country is obligated to pick cotton during the harvest season also including the children.This cotton is then in many of the clothes we are wearing everyday a good alternative for this is to wear clothes that use no child labor like People Tree which is a 100% no child labor brand.

How Do You Know The Products You Are Using Are Not Made By Child Labor

Website Used:“What Is the FAIRTRADE Mark?” Fairtrade Canada, fairtrade.ca/en-CA/What-is-Fairtrade/What-is-the-Fairtrade-Mark.

I already talked about some examples of things that are created with child labor and gave some labor free options but what if your going shopping and you need to find out if the product your purchasing is free of child labor.

The fairtrade mark is a very popular ethical label around the world, the fairtrade symbol on a product which clearly contains the international fairtrade standards.This symbol is trusted ny customers in more than 120 countries.Research found out that

• 85% Canadians Trust The Fairtrade Mark
• 80% Of those who trust it say it positively impacts their awareness of those products
• 73% of coustumers would recommend to friends/family

The fairtrade symbol ensures that:

• A)Their is a fair price paid to farmers
• B)They have a highstandard of human rights
• C)Their are safe working conditions
• D)Their is no child labor

Make sure that the products you re bying have the fairtrade symbol on it so you can know the product you are purchaing if free of child labor for more information visit http://fairtrade.ca/

Use websites/apps that tell you if your product is made from child labor

Their are many apps/websites which give you information and data on weather your product is free from child labor an example of a app would be free2work this app uses barcode scanning technology to see weather your product is free from any type of labor including child labor, if you download this app next time you go shopping you can scan the barcode of your product and check if its etically made currently 400 brands are on this app.

Conclusion

Therefore many things in our life are not 100% free of child labor or slavery many children in third world countries are forced to work and make carpets, harvest sugar or make shoes and this cant’e be stoped fully but can be pervented by reading pckages carefully or esearching I hope you learned a lot abou how to identify prodiuct with child labor and things we usee evryday that ere made from child labor, You can also help because every cent counts in these childrens lives.

Resources

1. “Products Made by Child Labor – with Alternative Options.” End Slavery Now, www.endslaverynow.org/blog/articles/products-made-by-child-labor-with-alternative-options.
2. “What Is the FAIRTRADE Mark?” Fairtrade Canada, fairtrade.ca/en-CA/What-is-Fairtrade/What-is-the-Fairtrade-Mark.
3. Wong, Kathleen. “5 Tools to Check If Your Clothing Is Ethically Made.” Mashable, Mashable, 24 Apr. 2015, mashable.com/2015/04/24/ethical-fashion-tools/#pozU.NH4.uqE.

Since 1997, Australia has been one of the most attractive countries to overseas students because of its truly world-class education, advanced economies as well as improvement in the setting of policies benefiting foreign students along with meeting the needy parts of its labor market. Policy changes during this stage include building links between international students and permanent skilled migration programs that has played a vital role in facilitating the growth of international students. With the future occupation on the Migration Occupations in Demand List (MODL), foreign students were able to gain addition points in a selection test for skilled migration application and were in the priority of the process. The MODL specified 106 occupations in categories ranging from Managers and Administrators, Professionals, Associate Professional and Trade Persons that were identified by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), as being in short supply and in demand. Since 2010 Skilled Occupations List (SOL) has been introduced for revoking the MODL.

This new policy critically eliminated occupations that generated much of the growth such as computing professional, hospital pharmacist, cooking, etc., in the previous years. All applicants for independent skilled migration visas must now have relevant qualifications and skills to an occupation from the SOL. It is likely that what has been sold is the right to work and to remain in Australia, not the quality of education. According to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), the number of student visa holders increased annually with an average rate of 13.9 percent after 2001 and reached a peak of 320,000 holders in 2009. Since 2010 this number has always flutuated between 260,000 to 290,000 students. These students are considered as an important group of young and well-educated individuals who also want to stay temporarily for work experience or become permanent residents later.

The higher percentage of the unemployed whose skills and experience are able to get a particular job, the tougher it is to get work. The effort to make Australia being more attractive to foreign-born students, and support skills shortages have likely boosted the probability of unemployment to young native and raised the competition to first job entrants. Unemployed youth is the group most likely to be impacted by the appearance of non-native students, as these students are actively competing for jobs in the local labor markets. Moreover, while Australian at young age are quite sensitive of wage rate, international students even have motivation to work with non-wage. The percentage of Australian graduates hunting a full-time job in the information technology field increased by 11% to 30% from 2001 to 2004 as migrant students took part in (Kinnaird, 2005). Regarding to the research from Bureau of Statistics, by the end of 2014, the youth unemployment rate broke the record for the highest since 1997, while for new graduates the employment rate dropped to the lowest level over the period of the last 20 years. The reduction in employment is not the explanation for the increase in the unemployment rate over the past few years as employment has been improved at an average growth of 1 percent annually. But this growth could not match the growth in the labour supply that has risen around 1.4 percent every year (Reserve Bank of Australia, 2014).

As a result, the economic consequence of international students coming under these policies, the expected effects on opportunities for native workers in particular, is important for contemporary policy debate. Based on legislative changes above that are applicable to set up natural experiments, I would like to analyse the impact of international students on Australian opportunities to have a job and their job search duration in the occupations which do not intersect between MODL and SOL as compared with the outcomes from occupations still remaining on SOL after 2010.

The question of whether these impacts are significant has recently been discussed in media and policy circles in Australia. However, there is currently no study conducted to figure out these causal effects. In the causal relationship area, the most relevant studies may support this issue is the economic impacts of immigration on the labor market. There is a vast amount of literature about the effects of immigrant inflows in Australia. Nonetheless, instead of investigating the impact of immigration on non-immigrant workers, the majority of analyses concentrate on the aggregate unemployment rate in general (Chapman & Cobb-Clark, 1999; Shan et al., 1999; Greasley et al., 2000). Immigrants can boost the aggregate unemployment, they can also bear the burden of

this increase that may enhance the employment chances of native workers at the same time. Winter-Ebmer and Zweimuller (2000) is one of exceptions, accomplishing to identify the positive influence of immigration on the unemployment duration. Nevertheless, there is no evidence of significant impacts of immigration on native workers in the investigation by Breunig et al. (2016). Similarly, McDonald (2017) finds that the immigrant is not the cause of pushing domestic job-seekers aged 15-24 out of jobs over the period between 2011 and 2016. The same conclusion is expressed for the prime working ages 25-54 although the migration accounted for 92 percent of a little growth in employment. The effect of international students on young native workers is considered having similar causal effects with the economic impacts of immigration on native-born workers. However, it is obviously irrational to simply apply the possible effects of immigration from above studies on the effect of international students due to their differences in inflow patterns and policies. Immigrants’s qualification acquired before they came to Australia can not create the same influence as similar qualifications obtained in Australia. Therefore, these reasons help motivate this analysis.

The data for the investigation is collected from Survey of Income and Housing (SIH) by Australian Bureau of Statistics and is restricted to 18-30 years old workers who participate in the labor force. This survey covers around 98% of people living in both Australian rural and urban areas with information about sources income, amount received, personal characteristics and so on.

The proportion of international student entering the workforce is different across occupations, states and time. Graduate students, first job entrants are likely to move among states. The differences in the labor market opportunities comply with different characteristics, the probability that someone is employed depending on explanatory variables such as age, sex, education, nationality, civil status and race group. In 2010, the beginning of SOL with some disappeared occupations is an advantage for identifiation the effect of international students on native opportunities. It introduces a discontinuity in the treatment is given by the exclusive occupations. The consequence is that the labor force from non-native students in those occupations decrease, driving less competition for Australian job seekers and shorter searching period. While without the elimination, the probability and duration of getting job across occupations would be the same.