It is important to note that juvenile delinquency is a major part of criminology, where the law is violated by underage individuals. Since the agents are not considered adults, the issue becomes a complex and intricate one, where the standard justice systems might not apply or apply in a differential manner. The given case will focus on Michael, who committed a mass shooting at an LGBTQIA2S+ Pride march. Michael is a 16-year-old White male adolescent from NYC who engaged in a mass shooting at an LGBTQIA2S+ Pride march with an AR-15 rifle and Molotov bombs, killing 60 people, including nine children.
The tracking of the juvenile from juvenile court to adult court and then through the system is shown in the outline below:
Arrest.
Juvenile court.
Michael charged with a criminal charge.
The juvenile is a 16-year-old, and the charge listed in IC 31-30-1-4.
The prosecutor seeks a direct file in adult court.
The charge constitutes the statutory requirements.
Transfer to the adult court.
Adult charging.
Trial: Adjudication.
Sentencing.
Imprisonment.
Capital punishment.
Being a juvenile in prison is a stressful experience with many abusive elements to it. Many juveniles are subjected to sexual and physical violence, which amplifies the trauma of family separation. The development is hindered massively due to psychological and physical damages (Juvenile Law Center, 2022). Solitary confinements are imposed more often due to a juvenile’s inability to function within the system. Being on death row is an even harsher experience, where solitary confinement is guaranteed greater psychological and physical harm (Death Penalty Information Center, 2022). Therefore, both situations carry a significant level of risks, damages, and abuses.
In the previous research studies, the issue of juvenile delinquency was identified and disclosed. Research has shown that the problem has become one of the major societal concerns and involves in the issue individuals of various ages. The factors impacting the behavior and involvement in crime are diverse and depend on age, gender, family relationship, character specialties, substance use, and many other various factors. To formulate the research question in the framework of the issue, the subsequent criteria were followed: researchable, measurable but not too factual, complex yet clear, neither too broad nor too narrow, has value for gathering information, and has relevance to the identified research problem.
Investigating the factors directly and mostly indirectly impacting juvenile delinquency is a researchable question as it is structured properly for data collection in the frame of available time and resources. The research question can be used for qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. The formulation of the question aims to lead the author of the study to logical and clear conclusions, more concisely, what factors are significantly impacting young individuals in juvenile delinquency (Fandino, 2019). The factors could be measured both statistically and qualitatively via interviewing, for instance, society members affected by the issue.
The research question is complex and yet clear as it problems the factors impacting juvenile crime, which are many, complicated, have various backgrounds, and have to be investigated thoroughly. Moreover, some factors can be more influential on the issue united together, and some are non-modified and should be studied separately (Hunt et al., 2018). The latter makes the research question not too narrow but manageable to study in the framework of one study. The information gathered, synthesized, and analyzed in the research with the help of the proposed question has future value as it identifies factors that can be impacted by the society representatives (Ratan, Anand & Ratan, 2019). For instance, social work professionals can develop more attentive strategies in helping young individuals coming from families with low social status, unhealthy parental attitudes, with physical violence as a part of communication between family members. The proposed research question has direct relevance to the problem as the latter is present in the question itself.
Identifying the Problem Research Question Addresses
In identifying the problem that the research question addresses, it is essential to understand the meaning of juvenile delinquency, which is related to any kind of unlawful acts committed by individuals that have not yet entered the age of maturity. Some research highlights the non-modified factors such as gender and age to have a connection with juvenile delinquency (Liu & Miller, 2020). However, age and gender cannot be impacted. They can only be studied to identify the highest risk at some definite children or adolescent age. The family role is one of the most discussed factors impacting youngsters’ perceptions of crime, their willingness to commit it, and their general attitude to unlawful events.
The family concept defines responsibility developed inside the family institution, and if the family falls apart, it leads to reconstitution of it and changes in children’s behavior, sometimes psychological damage, and various issues in communication. Child character determination deviates depending on the obstacles the family has met. The parental upbringing strategies can include violence, harmful attitude to their children, and the lack of significance they put in clarifying the importance of social norms and rules to a child (Mwangangi, 2019). If some of the aspects in the process of upbringing are not considered, the young individual tries to understand the outer world by himself, which can lead to various issues in behavior and performance. Character specialties such as impulsivity and aggressiveness can impact the attitude of juvenile humans toward crime. If the specialties of the character are not corrected by family members and society representatives, children and adolescents tend to believe each of their features is unique and does not need self-control. The socioeconomic status of the family impacts the neighborhoods the teenager inhabits and the influential groups he gets involved in (Lobos, 2020). Substance abuse can become a defining factor in the problem of unlawful performance.
Identifying Patterns of Symptoms
Thus, in the proposed research question, one can identify the patterns of symptoms the young individuals are affected with. Due to family issues, the youngsters develop a lack of attention, feeling of emotional and social insecurity, and fear of becoming a victim of home violence. Teenagers develop psychological issues and mental health disorders that are especially evident in poor physical health, deviation from substance abuse, becoming depressed, anxiety, uncertain, issues with self-control, and emotional reactions (Semenza, 2017). Adolescents can become irritated, stressed, impatient, aggressive, and impulsive. Without additional help, it becomes hard to handle the condition, and teenagers tend to think they are abandoned, lonely, and not needed. The major impact here puts family and parental involvement in a child’s upbringing. The negative influence of authoritarian parenting and uninvolved parenting lead to feelings of lack of support, love, and emotional connection with a parent (Guarnaccia et al., 2020). These factors can be a firm basement for future mental health disorders or at least the cause of severe psychological conditions.
The pattern of symptoms development is straightly connected with the childhood background and family relations. The latter defines the further route of an individual, his life orienteers, self-esteem, goals, and psychological condition. That is why identifying communicational issues between family members, attracting social work professionals, and raising the importance of doctoral communications with the teenage patient and his family are central strategies for helping the problem. Juvenile delinquency can be solved from various perspectives by identifying the underlying causes of crime-oriented behavior and the ways of correcting them.
Ethical Approaches
The importance of ethically correct research realization is central as the study impacts the juvenile period of human development and investigates unlawful actions realized by them. The research should follow all the rules of ethics in the research method, including confidentiality, the anonymity of the participants, and their court cases (Milton, 2018). Any interaction with youngsters should be followed by a clarification of the research’s goals, approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB), and signed informed consent by each of the participants. The member of the study signs the consent voluntarily; any intimidation and pressure on the participant make the document invalid (Wolf, Clayton & Lawrenz, 2018).
If the patient wants to leave the study, it is possible at any step of the research as the participant’s rights and preferences are respected and considered. To avoid personal bias, multiple researchers should code and analyze data. Thus, the formulated research question can be used for the study as it addresses the problem and provides possibilities to find conclusions and strategies that can help solve the issue of juvenile delinquency.
At the beginning of the narrative, the authors indicate that ‘a decade ago, the city had been designated an all American City, but more recently, its normally tranquil environment has been disturbed by an increasing number of assaults and homicides’. The authors also indicate that the violent incidents have involved students at the university. This passage gives a solid background of the gunman incident. From the passage, it can be deduced that the city in which the incident occurred was initially peaceful and that a majority of the inhabitants were Americans. The passage also highlights the fact that the current assaults and homicides are common in public universities in that particular city. This gives the reader a clear picture of the episodes that occurred.
The authors also give a detailed analysis of the gunman. In the passage, the authors highlight that the gunman, aged 43 years, was a graduate student studying actuarial science at the postgraduate level. The authors also highlight that the incident occurred on a school day, Monday, just a few minutes before the commencement of lectures on that particular day. The gunman was heavily armed. He had a vintage Korean War Military semi automatic rifle loaded with a thirty round clip of thirty caliber ammunition. On top of that, the authors highlight that the gunman had an extra thirty round clip in his pocket. At the time of the incident, according to the authors of the article, twenty students out of a total of thirty had arrived for the lecture. Their lecturer was on the way to the lecture room when the incident occurred. This passage has vital information regarding the incident. First, the reader can tell that the gunman was a postgraduate student aged 43 years. The age and level of study of the actuarial science student who had turned into a gunman are extremely essential in this context. Analysts of offenders use demographic information such as age and educational level of criminals to assess the motive behind crime. At the age of 43, the gunman is probably married. Generally, there are various reasons which force people to engage in criminal behavior. In an attempt to explain why people engage in criminal behavior, social control theorists argue that people obey the law because behavior and passions are controlled by internal and external processes. Proper socialization enables people to develop a strong moral sense, which prevents them from hurting others and violating social norms. They develop a commitment to social conformity, which requires that they observe the norms of the society. Properly socialized people are cautious not to engage in crime activity because they fear hurting their loved ones or tainting their images. In other words, according to (Siegel, 2011), people’s behavior, including criminal activity, depends on their association with conventional institutions, individuals, and processes.
On the contrary, social control theorists argue that individuals who are not properly socialized, who lack a commitment to themselves and others, are free to violate the law and engage in deviant behavior (Siegel, 2011). Such individuals hold the opinion that they have nothing to lose even if they engage in crime. Thus, to prevent delinquency, juveniles must be properly socialized; they must develop a strong moral bond to the society. The units of social control most influential in the establishment of the bond are the family, school, and the law (Brenda & Robert, 2010).
Looking at the explanations presented by social control theorists, it is evident that socialization significantly influences and individual’s behavior. In this case, socialization assists people to bond, and in the process they end up avoiding criminal behavior. However, it should be noted that individuals who engage in criminal behavior also socialize, but in this case, with the wrong people. The underlying principle with regard to this theory is that socialization influences the ability of an individual to engage or not to engage in criminal behavior. The aforementioned passage outlines several critical facts that are essential in the description of how and when the incident occurred and an explanation of the aftermath of the incident.
In addition, the authors highlight the aftermath of the incident. They report that campus police were the first to arrive at the site of crime after receiving a distress call. Campus police arrived at the scene of crime within three minutes from the time they received a distress call. Thereafter, the gunman, who had managed to escape, was captured by police in less than an hour. This passage indicates that campus police are extremely alert and swift and that they took control of the situation within the shortest time possible.
The authors also highlight that the Police Chief and the Vice Chancellor of Students Affairs described the incident at a press conference. The authors also indicate that the Students Affairs office contacted the Student Health and Employee Assistance Program counselors and instructed them to be available for any student or staff requesting assistance. According to the narration by the authors, the turn up for the counseling sessions set up by the Student Health and Employee Assistance Program was extremely low. Only one student booked an appointment with the counselors. From this passage, it can be deduced that whereas the university has a well established students and staff counseling program, students and staff are not utilizing the facility as expected. Even though a good number of students and staff were disturbed by the incident, they did not go for counseling. Furthermore, the authors highlight that some of the staff had encountered traumatic episodes owing to other traumatic events that occurred in the university in the past. This indicates that traumatic incidents are common in the university. This statement marries with the earlier statement in which the authors had indicated that incidences of homicide and assaults are on the increase in the city in which the university is located. In addition, these incidences are common in large public universities. These passages help to define the context within which the incident occurred.
Moreover, Creswell (2011) argues that qualitative data analysis consists of describing information and developing themes. According to Creswell (2011), the process of qualitative data analysis is exceptionally essential during the research process and it relies on proper data collection. During data collection, researchers are tasked with a huge responsibility of segregating useful data from irrelevant data. Creswell (2011) recommends that researchers should take decisive measures to eliminate errors associated with sampling and data collection. This can only be achieved by choosing appropriate data collection tools (Creswell, 2011). The final results of any research process rely heavily on the data collected. It is extremely important to gather all the useful information required to make generalized conclusions about the study at hand.
References
Brenda, B., and Robert, V. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory. Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.
Cresewell, J. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New York: Pearson.
Siegel, L. (2011). Criminology. Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.
Criminological research produced a reliable link between an individual’s criminal attitudes and criminal behavior. Research showed individuals’ attitudes toward crime may herald their criminal behavior, in agreement with criminological theories such as control theory, learning theory and psychological theories like the theory of reasoned action. Alternatively, juvenile delinquency may reflect defense mechanisms whereby adolescents try to conceal their factual motivations and emotions by providing logical or self-justifying explanations for unfounded or unacceptable behavior of their prior criminal behavior. This is clear in social psychological theories as self-perception theory. Finally, criminal attitudes and behavior may be reciprocally related such that each exerts an independent influence on the other (Rebellon & Manasse 2007).
Despite all theories contributed significantly to explaining how young individuals involve in delinquent activities, none specifically accounted for why some young people deliberately choose to become involved in at-risk and criminal-related activities to pursue and subsequently establish a nonconforming reputation. To fulfill that, an alternative explanation that integrates goal-setting and reputation-enhancement theories or multifaceted theoretical approaches are needed (Cullen et al 2003).
Since there are many theories for juvenile delinquency, this paper will focus on the developmental theory and the labeling theory explaining its limitations.
Developmental Theory of Juvenile Delinquency
Developmental Theories of Delinquency focus on two themes:
the timing of delinquency initiation and
the progression along developmental pathways of involvement in increasingly serious delinquent behaviors.
The developmental theories of delinquency offer a dimension lacking in some other prominent theories because they explain patterns of offending over the course of an individual’s life. They also address why some individuals are more likely to engage in delinquency than are others and why some groups have higher rates of delinquency than do others.
According to developmental researchers, trajectories, pathways, and transitions should be incorporated into theories of crime. Researchers proposed that during adolescence, delinquent behavior is carried out mainly by two distinct groups: juvenile-limited delinquents and life-course enduring delinquents. A third group known as abstainers, that is those with no more than one recorded antisocial problem from age 5 through to 18 years, was also identified.
To categorize the disproportionate number of adolescent-limited offenders compared with life-course persistent offenders, Moffitt, 1993 (after Carroll et al 2009) developed a Developmental Taxonomy. Within this taxonomy, the critical distinction between these two groups of offenders is grounded in different trajectories. That is, antisocial behavior begins early in life and is life-course persistent, as against antisocial behavior beginning in adolescence and likely remaining limited to this period.
Adolescent-limited offenders begin engaging in delinquent acts to mimic the behaviors of their life-course persistent peers, because these behaviors allow access to desirable resources and mature status, which entail power and privilege. Desistence occurs when the costs of delinquency become higher than the benefits of more prosocial actions. With reference to adolescent-limited offenders, these individuals engage in delinquent behaviors only during adolescence, and offending develops as a result of social mimicry and peer influence (Carroll et al, 2009).
Life-course persistent offenders, on the other hand, may develop antisocial and aggressive behaviors caused by neuropathologic impairments sustained during prenatal, perinatal, and/or early postnatal phases, sometimes in combination with family and neighborhood adversity. These neuropsychological problems are thought to result in two main types of neuropsychological deficits in childhood: deficits in verbal functioning and deficits in executive functioning. Life-course persistent offenders also consist of a second distinct group of early-onset offending individuals with no neurodevelopmental pathology. These offenders are often termed psychopaths in adult life and pursue a lifelong evolutionary adaptive strategy of defection, manipulation, dominance, coercion, and aggression (Sampson and Laub 2005).
Although these young people are biologically capable of and interested in adult behaviors (e.g., autonomous decision making), society denies them such privileges and so a solution is found by imitating the behavior of antisocial peers – peers who appear to have surmounted the maturity gap with behavior that symbolizes independence and autonomy such as drinking, smoking, and other risk-taking behaviors (Piquero et al 2005).
It is important to note at this juncture that whereas the developmental theory alludes to the existence of and possible importance of social identities and reputations to individuals; it did not specifically address their importance in the context of young individuals at risk of delinquency. Furthermore, that young people make choices through which to develop their reputations requires self-regulated goal directedness (Carroll 2009).
Labeling Theory of Juvenile Delinquency
Labeling theory centers on the impression that certain human behavior is socially defined as deviant and that it predominantly affects individuals on the margin of society. Once labeled as deviant, marginalized individuals accept the label and get seriously involved in a career of deviance. Both labeling theory and the conflict theory focus on who is defined as deviant, and the costs of being deviant. The theory provides potential incentives for the application of these definitions (Shoemaker 2009).
Edwin Lemert (1951) (after Shoemaker 2009) categorized deviance into primary deviance, involving in a delinquent behavior, and secondary deviance, where an individual changes the definition of self to fit the social label of deviant. Lemert emphasized that secondary deviance is the most problematic since only some of those involved in primary deviance reach the secondary new self-definition phase.
Ten years later, Howard Becker, 1963 (after Shoemaker 2009) highlighted the concept of career deviance, which expanded to the perception of sustained secondary deviance. According to Becker, after the redefinition of self in secondary deviance, the individual passes to a stage where the private and public identity is that of a deviant. Finally, once a juvenile accepts the label of deviant on the individual and public levels, a delinquent juvenile then starts on linking with deviant groups.
Labeling theory over-emphasizes the influence of socially applied labels over individuals’ subsequent behavior. Critics suggest that labeling theorists tend to view actors as rather passive, simply accepting the labels others place upon them and adopting the behavior associated with those negative classifications. Critics have also suggested that labeling theorists have been rather inconsistent in applying their understanding of deviance as a social construct.
On the one hand researchers hold that behavior only becomes deviant after it has been publicly labeled as such. Yet on the other hand, they deploy notions such as primary deviance and secret deviance, suggesting that acts can in fact be deviant prior to their public labeling. This being the case, the claim that deviance is purely a quality conferred by societal reactions appears to be contradicted by labeling theorists themselves. Such criticisms notwithstanding, labeling perspectives have made a vital contribution to the understanding of crime and deviance as the product of social processes, and continue to provide a valuable counterpoint to positivist criminology (O’ Brien and Yar 2008). As Shoemaker (2009) states:
Labeling theory has an interest in the understanding of how laws are made and enforced. In particular, this perspective on crime and delinquency assumes that laws reflect the interests of some, especially the more powerful in society, and that the enforcement of laws is also based on these influences. In addition, labeling theory addresses the important issues of the impact of being labeled a delinquent on one’s self-concept and behavior.
Conclusion
Juvenile delinquency is one form of deviance that is deviation from the societal norms and values. As many institutions establish and enforce these norms (family, school, juvenile justice systems…), juvenile delinquency is affected (as a behavior) by many factors. This may explicate the many theories accounting for this behavior. The developmental theories explain patterns of delinquency over the course of individual’s life and address why some individuals are more likely to engage in delinquency than are others. The labeling theory on the other hand (as Shoemaker stated in his book) focuses on the understanding of how laws are made and enforced.
References
Carroll, A., Houghton, S., Durkin, K., and Hattie, J. A. (2009). Adolescent Reputations and Risk: Developmental Trajectories to Delinquency. New York: Springer.
Cullen, F. T., Paul Wright, J., Gendreau, P., and Andrews, D. A (2003). What Correctional Treatment Can Tell Us About Criminological Theory: Implications for Social Learning Theory? In Akers, R. L., and Jensen, G. F (Ed.), Social Learning Theory and the Explanation of Crime: A Guide for the New Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
O’ Brien, M., and Yar, M (2008). Criminology: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge.
Piquero, A. R., Berzina, T., and Turner, M. G (2005). Testing Moffitt’s account of Delinquency abstention. J. of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(1), 27-54.
Rebellon, C. J., and Manasse, M. E (2007). Tautology, Reasoned Action, or Rationalization? Specifying the Nature of the Correlation between Criminal Attitudes and Criminal Behavior. In Froeling, K., T. (Ed.), Criminology Research Focus (Chapter 13). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Sampson, R. J., and Laub, J. H. (2005). A Life-Course View of the Development of Crime. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 602(1), 12-45.
Shoemaker, D. J (2009). Juvenile delinquency. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Juveniles should be treated differently than adults by the criminal justice system for a variety of reasons. First, children are generally considered unable to make sound decisions and realize the consequences of their actions. Children cannot make all the decisions for themselves, which is confirmed by law. If children are treated as adults by the criminal justice system, it would be inconsistent with law. Second, children are weak, both mentally and physically. If they are treated as adults, they are to be incarcerated with adults. Children cannot mentally handle serving a sentence with adults. Such practice can lead to mental illnesses, rape, physical assaults, and an increased chance of adopting new crimes. Finally, children often commit crimes out of ignorance or peer pressure. If juveniles are trialed as adults, they are not likely to recover, which means that their lives will be ruined because of society’s inability to protect them.
A recent case in Pennsylvania demonstrates why children cannot be treated as adults. Thirteen-year-old Brayden Wright is charged with murder for killing his nine-year-old brother for a simple fact that the younger brother refused to play a game with Brayden (Metrick, 2020). This demonstrates that children do not realize the consequences of their actions. However, according to Pennsylvania laws, there is a high chance that the offender will be treated as an adult by the criminal justice system. If Wright is charged with first-degree murder, he will automatically y go to jail for life. Thus, a child’s life will be over for no reason.
Juvenile Delinquency: Perception versus Reality
While juvenile delinquency is becoming less frequent, people seem to become more worried about violent adolescents. Current news is full of stories about mindless murders committed by children and school shootings. According to Keneally (2019), there have been at least 11 deadly shootings at schools associated with more than 100 victims in total. Such reports make people afraid of teenagers’ inability to control their anger. However, the total number of violent crimes decreased from 1,108 thousand in 1993 to 215 thousand in 2017, which is an 80% decrease in violent crime prevalence (Statista, 2019). However, even with general downward trends, juvenile delinquency is a significant social issue that needs to be addressed.
Juvenile violence persists because its root causes exist in society. According to the United Nations (UN, 2003), juvenile delinquency is positively correlated with urbanization, economic instability, media violence propaganda, exclusion, peer pressure, family problems, and the availability of firearms. While UN (2003) reports that criminal delinquency becomes less prevalent around the world, the US remains one of the countries with an increased prevalence of violent crimes committed by adolescents. According to Junger-Tas (2012), the US has the third largest prevalence of juvenile violence in the world of Ireland and Aruba. Thus, even though the current rates of juvenile delinquency are falling, the public remains concerned with the problem.
Changing Views of Delinquency
The views on juvenile delinquency varied at different periods of US history. In the progressive era of the early 1900s, the US justice system began to realize responsibility for juvenile offenders to help recover (Impact Law, n.d.). In 1974, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act finally achieved complete separation of adults from juvenile offenders (Impact Law, n.d.). However, in the 1990s, Americans faced growing concern over highly publicized and violent juvenile crime. In order to fight crime, criminal law began to treat children and adolescents as adult offenders in cases of serious offenses. Currently, the global community starts to push for revising these changes to help children and adolescents reintegrate with society even after committing serious crimes.
The changes in society can be illustrated by the events in Pennsylvania. Recently, thirteen-year-old Brayden Wright is charged with murder for killing his nine-year-old brother for a simple fact that the younger brother refused to play a game with Brayden (Metrick, 2020). According to Pennsylvania laws, children at the age of 10 and above can be trialed as adults for first- and second-degree murders (Metrick, 2020). However, the defenders are pushing towards moving the case to the juvenile court (Metrick, 2020). In 2017, a fifteen-year-old shooter in Pennsylvania was trialed in the juvenile court (Metrick, 2020). These two cases demonstrate that the attitude of the criminal justice system to juvenile delinquency is changing.
An African-American teenager named John does not have many friends. He is a successful student, an obedient son, and a caring brother but the lack of peer communication worries him. In an attempt to make friends with a group of classmates, John attends a party where he drinks too much alcohol and gets involved in a fight. As the outcome of the physical conflict, one of the boys at the party gets hurt. When John’s parents find out about the incident, they make him apologize, punish him, and resolve the conflict with the injured party. However, the peers in the class know about John’s temper when under the influence of alcohol and avoid communicating with them.
Also, teachers initiate socially educational work, publically discussing John’s behavior as an example of wrongdoing. Being labeled as a dangerous person, John always gets accused when someone is beaten, or a party with drinking becomes uncontrolled. As a result, he becomes an alcohol addict, joins a gang, and voluntarily engages in criminal activity after school, which involves him in continuous troubles with the police.
From the point of view of labeling theory, the initial drinking and the first fight at the party is John’s primary deviance. Since society labeled him a deviant after the first incident, the consecutive drinking problem and criminal behavior of the main character became secondary deviance (Keirns et al. 141). The impact of labeling in the teenage years was very strong because this is the time of individuals’ identity formation (Abrah 179). Under the influence of society’s opinion about him, John’s identity altered, and he began to perceive himself as a deviant, thus acting like one.
Application of Conflict Theory
John’s secondary deviance might be explained from the perspective of conflict theory. This approach justifies that criminal or deviant behavior depends on socio-economic factors, including race and income (Keirns et al. 140). These key propositions of the theory imply a high level of the main character’s probability to become a criminal. John’s race contributes to his likelihood to react to society’s labeling in a deviant manner since he represents the minority. John’s deviation demonstrates the imbalance between racial majorities and minorities. Consequently, due to the statistical prevalence of African Americans among the criminals, John’s chances of being convicted of a crime are very high.
Application of Merton Strain Theory
The actions and decision-making of the main character of the story might be theorized from another angle. Merton’s strain theory explains deviant behavior by the inability of an individual to achieve socially acceptable goals by socially acceptable means (Lester 13). John has a goal of becoming a socially active citizen, but he does not have lawful means of integrating into society. His way of adapting to the gap between the goal and the means to achieve it is ritualism, through which John lowers his goal to being a member of a criminal gang as a prototype of society (Keirns et al. 139). His adherence to the rules of criminal life is socially unacceptable.
However, by lowering his goal, the main character succeeded in achieving it by means of deviant behavior. One of the weaknesses of strain theory is its inability to provide an adequate explanation of goals achievement when the goals are not economical. In other words, the theory is best applied to the explanation of crimes and deviation related to the financial sphere and economic success.
Works Cited
Abrah, Prince Boamah. “Labeling Theory and Life Stories of Juvenile Delinquents Transitioning into Adulthood.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 63, no. 2, 2019, pp. 179-197.
Keirns, Nathan J., et al. Introduction to Sociology. 2nd ed., OpenStax, 2018.
Lester, Joshua L. Strain and Adaptation Among Probation Officers: An Application of Merton’s Classic Strain Theory. Dissertation, Middle Tennessee State University, 2016. Web.
Defining a historical context of juvenile delinquency studies can provide valuable information about society’s progress concerning juvenile delinquency in such aspects, as parental responsibility. Comparing the acts that were acknowledged as juvenile delinquency in ancient times and modern society can determine whether current policies effectively prevent youth from misbehavior. This essay will compare how juvenile delinquency was perceived in Ancient Greece with the way modern society approaches juvenile offenders.
Firstly, searching for the historical origins of the juvenile delinquency concept could quickly become confusing because, historically, such a concept only occurred at the beginning of the modern era. While there is no significant data on youth misbehavior in ancient times, some available sources suggest that misbehavior was encouraged among young men (Bates & Swan, 2021). In particular, because masculinity and physical power were highly appreciated in Ancient Greece, one could determine that the society was pushing male youth towards violent behavior.
Exposing the youth to violent behavior and stories from a young age contributed to the unruly behavior of youth In Ancient Greece. According to Regoli et al. (2020), many stories from Ancient Greek culture focus on complicated parents’ relationships with their children that end with the killing of the children. Therefore, the author suggested that juvenile delinquency was sourced in one’s relationships with parents. While other sources suggest that in punishment measures, youth were treated as adults, according to Bates and Swan (2021), the issue of juvenile delinquency could not occur at that time due to close family connections. Furthermore, as corporal punishments were common in families at that time, the state did not have to define specific punishments for youth misbehavior. The only policy related to juvenile delinquency existing in ancient Greece was the law that prohibited the youth in ancient Greece from beating their parents. Thus, for example, in cases where a young man committed misbehavior, he was primarily responsible for his parents, and they decided the punishment measures, which mainly featured corporal punishment.
Exploration of the historical context of juvenile delinquency in the ancient period helps define one significant difference in parental engagement in modern society. In ancient Greece, the state encouraged parental responsibility for the child’s misbehavior, and parents could choose the punitive measures themselves. On the other hand, parental engagement in juvenile delinquency is limited in modern society. Moreover, parents, educational institutions, society, and media are acknowledged as responsible for the delinquent behavior of juvenile offenders.
Furthermore, considering the punishment measures, the corporal punishment commonly used in ancient times proved ineffective in the long run. According to Finkelhor et al. (2019), corporal punishment can result in poor development outcomes, such as mental health problems and subsequent aggression. In the last fifty years, the rate of children subjected to corporal punishment significantly decreased (Finkelhor et al., 2019). In modern times, common penalties for juvenile offenders include treatment and counseling, fines, or mandated community service hours. For example, in cases where a young man committed misbehavior, he is accountable to the authorities and will be judged depending on the severity of his actions. Lastly, the punishment measures for juvenile delinquency in modern society will never include corporal methods.
In conclusion, this essay explored the historical context of juvenile delinquency and compared how the state approached juvenile delinquency in ancient and modern times. The essay defined that young Greeks were exposed to violent behavior from an early age in ancient Greece, and many had problematic relationships with their parents. Moreover, as the state held parents accountable for the children’s misbehavior, parents were the ones who chose the punishment measures, often resorting to corporal punishment. In modern times, the state prohibits corporal punishments due to their ineffectiveness and limits parental engagement in juvenile delinquency, and offenders are judged based on the severity of their actions.
References
Bates, K. A., & Swan, R. S. (2021). Juvenile delinquency in a diverse society (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Sage.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Wormuth, B. K., Vanderminden, J., & Hamby, S. (2019). Corporal punishment: Current rates from a national survey. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 1991–1997. Web.
Regoli, R. M., Hewitt, J. D., & DeLisi, M. (2020). Delinquency in society. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Family shapes the basic foundation of a child’s social, emotional, and mental well-being. Good parental nurturing results in well-mannered and industrious children and adolescents, while bad parenting results in a high rate of child delinquency. The family structure can cause delinquency among children and adolescents, particularly those raised by single parents. Single parents have many life challenges and inadequacies that may hinder a child’s proper upbringing. My proposed research question identifies parental factors that contribute to juvenile delinquency by focusing on family structure, parental support socially, emotionally, and economically, and disciplinary actions from single parents. The proposal seeks to establish the relationship between single parenthood and the increase in juvenile delinquency.
Children always crave parental support from both parents to grow more independently and confidently. Being an all-around parent in raising children needs commitment, hard work, and sacrifice to meet all parental needs. Sometimes, the responsibilities are overwhelming and time-consuming for parents leading to less physical and emotional contact with the children. The absence of parental guidance in a child’s growth can cause delinquency and violence. The lack of parental presence and support may lead to other means of filling the gap, such as seeking peer support from external sources, corrupting a child’s behaviour leading to delinquency.
Discipline is an essential factor in the upbringings of responsible citizens. However, children living with single parents tend to get away with many mistakes because the parents may ignore or overlook the mistakes.1 Other parents avoid scolding or reprimanding a child for fear of losing them to the other spouse in case of separation due to divorce. Such children grow up doing whatever they want regardless of right or wrong. Single parenthood also limits parents from spending quality time with the family leading to emotional detachment. Emotionally detached children can become antisocial and fail to identify societal norms leading to delinquency.
Single parenting leads to the risk of delinquency due to inadequate economic stability to meet the family’s needs. Adolescents may engage in criminal activities to obtain a means of survival and essential needs, which the parent fails to provide. The absence of parental figures can make adolescents engage in substance and drug abuse in their free time which is a crime and can also lead to violence and criminal activities.2 Children also emulate etiquette and gender roles from their respective parents; girls learn from mothers, and boys learn from fathers.3 The absence of one parent can cause a child to lose focus and self-control, leading to delinquency.
An increase in Juvenile delinquency presents a crucial problem in society since teenagers are determinants of the future world. Studies relating bad parenting to delinquency have always focused on parental methods that may cause delinquency, such as authoritative and permissive approaches to bringing up children. However, with the rising numbers of broken families and single parenthood, children are getting less parental attention, emotional connection, and discipline from the sole parent. Single parenthood has also resulted in more children in the streets due to economic hardships, where they learn delinquent activities for survival. I propose addressing child delinquency from the perspective of social and family background to understand the risks associated with a child’s nature of upbringing.4 Addressing the issue is significant in offering vital information to criminal justice on the appropriate approaches of intervening and preventing juvenile delinquents from broken families.
Theoretical Framework
This study will base on the theory of social control in criminal activities. The theory states that a given community or family must have strong social bonds that help conform to societal norms.5 The study will examine single parenthood in relation to three key components of social theory: belief, involvement, and attachment. The aspect of belief argues that individual upbringing contributes to their involvement in a crime.5 A good upbringing leads to following rules, while a poor upbringing leads to delinquency. Attachment refers to the bonds of a relationship where stronger bonds lead to conformity while weak bonds in a relationship contribute to deviance from the law. Finally, involvement is how individuals engage in good behaviour and ethics. Individuals who spend more time doing the right thing are less likely to break the law than people who have their way. The absence of attachment, involvement, and belief will establish the argument that single parenthood is a significant predictor of juvenile delinquency.
Methodology
This study will adopt a qualitative research design because it uses a subjective approach during the inquiry. Qualitative research allows an extensive exploration into the issue, giving more insight and information regarding parenting and delinquency. The study will occur in three juvenile institutions in Saudi Arabia through a random selection of 100 participants, including both genders. Data will be collected using open-ended questionnaires and face-to-face interviews, allowing a deeper inquiry into the possibility of single parenting causing delinquency. Data analysis will involve a narrative analysis of the respondent’s feedback and primary data, coded using axial coding.
References
Jacobsen SK and Zaatut A, “Quantity or Quality: Assessing the Role of Household Structure and Parent-Child Relationship in Juvenile Delinquency” (2020) 43 Deviant Behavior 30
Rathinabalan I and Naaraayan S. A, “Effect of Family Factors on Juvenile Delinquency” (2017) 4. International Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics 2079
Mwangangi RK, “The Role of Family in Dealing with Juvenile Delinquency” (2019) 07 Open Journal of Social Sciences 52.
Sari N and Nurhayati SR, “Parent and Child Relations in the Perspective of Adolescents with Juvenile Delinquency” (2019) 2 Psychological Research and Intervention 36
Triplett RA, The Handbook of the History and Philosophy of Criminology (John Wiley & Sons, Inc 2018
Footnotes
1 Shannon K. Jacobsen and Amarat Zaatut, ‘Quantity or Quality: Assessing the Role of Household Structure and Parent-Child Relationship in Juvenile Delinquency’ (2020) 43 Deviant Behavior.
2 Indiran Rathinabalan and Sridevi A. Naaraayan, ‘Effect of Family Factors on Juvenile Delinquency’ (2017) 4 International Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics.
3 Rosemary Kakonzi Mwangangi, ‘The Role of Family in Dealing with Juvenile Delinquency’ (2019) 07 Open Journal of Social Sciences.
4 Nourmarifa Sari and Siti Rohmah Nurhayati, ‘Parent and Child Relations in The Perspective of Adolescents with Juvenile Delinquency’ (2019) 2 Psychological Research and Intervention.
5 Triplett RA, The Handbook of the History and Philosophy of Criminology
The environments in which children grow up have direct impacts on their behavior and characters. Children from low income neighborhoods and rural areas are more prone to delinquent behaviors if they do not have a positive outlet. Fortunately, creative and performing arts can be used to create a positive outlet to children. Incidentally, music, art, drama, and dance are positive preoccupation ventures that can positively engage children and hence help foster social correctness and reduce loneliness among them. This program will focus in initiating and implementing creative and performing art as way of preventing children from engaging in delinquency behaviors. This program will be conducted in Anderson in South Carolina. Its success will be replicated in different other areas including outside the state. The program will be titled, MADD, which is an acronym for music, art, drama, and dance. These four were selected to allow the children the freedom to choose an area where they will be most comfortable. Children who are interested in music will be provided with relevant instruments in addition to doing vocals. On the other hand, art will encompass drawing, painting, and photography while dance will infuse tap, hip hop and yoga. Although yoga is not part of dance, it will be selected because of its physical attribution. Drama will also equip the children with production and acting skills. Thus, there will be at least something for everyone.
Implementation
The program will be primarily implemented through art. Different fields of art like music, theater, cinema, dance, and visual arts will be put to use. However, irrespective of the type of art selected, it will not be implemented in isolation. The main objective is to integrate that program with society. Therefore, the pieces of art will be customized to rhyme with society needs of the targeted children and the adolescents. For instance, the Anderson area is synonymous with hip hop music, which will significantly be used to integrate them into society (Abraham et al., 2021). The program will also be implemented by engaging as many stakeholders as possible, especially the local community.
Importance of Art
The significant role played by art in general in society cannot be underestimated. Students who are engaged in various forms of art record better outcomes in academics. Moreover, art is a form of expression that children use to let out their emotions. Negative emotions can thus be identified and addressed before they turn into something dangerous in children. It must also be noted that the expression of art requires a mastery of different sets of skills. Therefore, these children end up getting equipped with new skills that also play a significant role in enhancing their creativities. Art also helps children struggling with depression or trauma to deal with them effectively.
Art Therapies and Art-Based Programs
When art programs are used as therapies, their main concern is usually to heal. For the program to effectively act as a therapy it will target two categories of children; those at risk of being delinquent and the justice involved ones. These programs are designed to help participants tackle rage, depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, and delinquency. They can be introduced at different stages of the juvenile justice system to assist the children achieve their goals (Ma & Ren, 2018). The dispensation of this program will, however, require the services of a specialist who fully understands the children’s psychological needs.
Major Milestones
This program will be expected to run for five year. It will be dived into three phases, and the success of one phase will determine the decision to initiate and progress with the subsequent one. The first phase will be to create an art center in Anderson. This center will be equipped with all the MADD enhancing resources. It will mainly target children from low income neighborhoods, the homeless, school dropouts. School going children will also be enlisted into the program. The children will be allowed to participate in areas that they feel most comfortable in. if this program succeed, it will be extended to schools in the area. Plans will be made to ensure that it is entrenched into the curriculum. As it spreads beyond Anderson, sports events will be organized across the state to evaluate its effectiveness.
Creation of an Activity Center
The program will run for five years. After putting all the structures in place, an Arts Center will be opened in Anderson within the first two months of the program’s timeline. This center will host all the activities included in MADD. It is expected that within the first month after joining the program, children would have identified their main areas of interest. The attendees will be allowed to switch programs at will as long as it helps them keep engaged and busy.
Mandatory Art Classes
This will be the most difficult phase of the project as it will require the collaboration of different actors. Ordinarily, the Anderson-based Art Center will be used as a pilot project. Since it will not be economically practical to build art centers in all neighborhoods in the United States, the program can be further executed by infusing it into the school curriculum (An et al., 2020). Therefore, efforts will be made to persuade the District schools in Anderson to adapt to the program by making the MADD activities part of its curricula. To ensure its seriousness, it will be made compulsory that accreditation will only be issued to learners who have undertaken any of the MADD programs.
State Sports Events
As the program continue to gain popularity, it will be important to consolidate its activities through sporting events, which will be organized periodically. The first event will take place two years into the start of the program. This is an event that will be poised to bring into board severally industry players including psychologists, law enforcement officers, psychologists, parents, and the students themselves. Such events will be used to take stock of the gains made over time and identify areas of improvement. The outcomes of these sporting events will inform the policy makers on different aspects of the program.
External Influences
The implementation and operationalization of the project will be influenced by several factors, both internally and externally. Internal influences will include the availability of funds and other resources and human resources. On the other hand, the external influences will be mainly political, economic, and social factors. Incidentally, since the program will touch the state’s juvenile justice system, the political factors at play cannot be ignored. The effectiveness of the program will require the existence of conducive laws and policies for support (Zhong et al., 2021). In addition, since this is a massive program that is resource intensive, it will be important to also consider the economic factors and their influence on the availability and affordability of such resources. The identified social influences that will affect that enrolment of children to the program will revolve around income levels, education, and housing. In some poor households, children engage in various income generating activities to augment what their parents produce. Incidentally, this might not leave them with ample time to take part in the program. On the other hand, households where parents are educated are more likely to understand the important roles played by arts in the physical and cognitive health of a child. Hence, such families will most likely enroll their children into the program. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of poor household. When it comes to housing, families living in congested neighborhoods might not have ample spaces where their children can practice such art forms as dancing for instance.
Ethical Considerations
Although the program is touted to be an exemplary one, there are several ethical concerns that must be taken into consideration, especially given the fact that the program targets children and adolescents, many of whom have not attained the age of eighteen. Some of the enrollees to this program will be delinquents. These are children who are harshly judged by society and sometimes condemned (Poama & Lever, 2018). By mobilizing them into a program, the rest might misconstrue it as an act of abating criminal activities by providing homage to law breakers. Moreover, participation in such a program requires participants to sign consent forms. However, most of them are underage, making it illegal for them to sign. Worse still, some of them do not know their parents to do it on their behalf nor just have uncaring parents.
Budget Estimates
These are just budget estimates and are prone to change depending on the market dynamics.
Costs include:
A commercial center
Hiring trainers, administrative staff
Purchasing equipment
Marketing costs
Annual budget estimate arrived at through cost risk model approach
Total estimated budget will be $2,654,134
References
Abraham, F., Bormans, Y., Konings, J., & Roeger, W. (2021). Price-cost margins and fixed costs. CEPR Discussion Paper. Web.
An, Q., Wang, P., Emrouznejad, A., & Hu, J. (2020). Fixed cost allocation based on the principle of efficiency invariance in two-stage systems. European Journal of Operational Research, 283(2), 662-675.
Hellman, N. (2021). Discussion of ‘Accounting for intangible assets: suggested solutions. Accounting and Business Research, 1-10.
Poama, A., & Lever, A. (2018). The Routledge handbook of ethics and public policy. Taylor & Francis. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 5(2), 102-108.
Zhong, H., Lin, Y., & Yip, T. L. (2021). A quantitative liability risk assessment of oil spills in oil ports: the case of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. Maritime Policy & Management, 1-19.
Collective efficacy is an essential concept in helping communities stop crimes. The perception of collective efficacy can be defined as the consideration that the people in a neighborhood are trustable and can do their part to partake in social control to benefit a specific community. The perception of collective efficacy may predict how individuals behave when they witness a crime in a particular community. Social capital, which defines the character of a group’s interpersonal relations, is central to understanding how collective efficacy is considered by various people. Social capital is constructed when trust-based relationships between individuals encourage action, which facilitates the achievement of various ends. In communities where social capital is strong, a free rider problem is eliminated while a sense of obligation to do their part is developed. In contrast, for communities and groups with weak social capital their sense of obligation to participate in collective ends is weak as well (Chouhy & Unnever, 2022). Social capital is related to neighborhoods in the sense that trustful relationships between neighbors allow them to will partake in community matters and become informal social control agents.
In addition, individual and collective efficacy perceptions are based on the level of trustworthiness that residents feel toward their neighbors. Furthermore, they should willingly accept to be informal social control agents. Social integration plays an essential role in the development of collective efficacy perceptions. It helps community members establish familiarity, which may breed trust. More often, familiarity will lead to the formation of a positive collective efficacy perception (Gearhart, 2020). Additionally, social ties within neighborhoods facilitate support and trust among members, reinforcing informal social control to regulate violent acts among juvenile offenders.
Mental Illness and Delinquency
Mental illness is a severe factor that may aggravate the likelihood of young adults committing crimes. Existing scholarship shows that youth detained in juvenile prisons experience multiple mental health challenges that are so serious they can be categorized as psychiatric disorders. As a result, it is critical to review youth arrests related to delinquency in the U.S. and how collective efficacy may help mediate the relationship between delinquency and mental illness. In 1997, about 2.7 million young adults aged below 18 were arrested, with the number decreasing by seventy-four percent by 2019 (Youth, n.d.). Although the number of incarcerated youths is declining every year, about 423,077 cases involving delinquency are tried in juvenile courts each year (Youth, n.d.). Research suggests that boys are more likely to be detained and petitioned than girls for the majority of delinquent offenses. Regarding ethnicity and race, youth of color are treated differently in the juvenile justice system compared to White peers. In addition, Black and Brown youth have a high chance of being committed and detained compared to White youth.
Youth in the juvenile justice system often experience substance use and mental health disorders. Research points to an overwhelming overrepresentation of mental health issues among young offenders. About 70 percent of young delinquents have a mental health disorder, with 30 percent of them facing grave mental health problems (Youth, n.d.). Most adolescent offenders under adjudication use illegal substances regularly. Those who perpetrate more chronic and severe offenses are known to abuse more substances. In addition, between 2018 and 2005, youth who violated drug law was reduced by forty-four percent (Youth, n.d.). The statistics are significant since high substance use levels amplify offending rates, antisocial behavior, and committed offenses.
Collective efficacy may alleviate mental health and reduce delinquency. Children and young adults that live in neighborhoods with high collective efficacy levels experience low levels of mental health problems. Communities where residents collectively maintain public social order or intervene in risky or negative behavior can support the mental health of children and young adults by offering feelings of safety and protection. Efficacious neighborhoods can attract resources from public bodies, social services, and larger infrastructures, which enables better children’s health by reinforcing their beliefs that they can cope with stress effectively (Lee, 2020). Collective efficacy combined with improved authoritative parenting reduces delinquency in adolescents (Nilsson et al., 2021). Thus, community-level solutions that focus on collective efficacy can help attenuate the relationship between delinquency and mental health.
Depression
Depression statistics in the U.S. can show how prevalent the problem is in the country. For instance, about 4.1 million young adults aged between 12 and 17 are depressed, representing approximately 17 percent of the age group (National Institute of Mental Health, 2022). Justice-involved young adults face child maltreatment and have a history of traumas. Female offenders suffer from higher depression rates compared to boys, with girls facing sexual abuse. Depression can be used as a predictor of criminal behavior among young offenders. It may cause indifferent feelings towards a person’s safety and the repercussions of their actions, increasing criminogenic outcomes. In addition, depression can cause peer rejection, low self-esteem, and withdrawal, resulting in delinquency (Wakefield et al., 2019). Weak attachment to prosocial institutions such as schools may diminish social bonds, increasing the likelihood of committing minor crimes.
Collective efficacy in communities may help solve the prevalence of depression among adolescents. Existing scholarship suggests that neighborhoods with high collective efficacy levels experience less depression-related delinquency compared to poor neighborhoods. Areas with increased levels of collective efficacy have strong social cohesion, which reduces depressive symptoms in young adults. In addition, the absence of social cohesion and neighborhood disorder is associated with increased depression diagnoses and depressive signs in adolescents (Dawson, 2019). Collective efficacy can effectively eliminate most social concerns; however, the effectiveness depends on how neighbors are willing to participate in finding solutions to challenges.