Contemporary juvenile justice system is going through a period of reformation and reformulation, as the authorities and the general public begin to recognize that incarceration is not a solution to crime among adolescent offenders. There emerged a need for alternative judicial control that is cost-efficient, provides better outcomes, and prevents criminal recidivism. House arrest is not an innovate form of punishment that has been utilized mainly towards political criminals.
Moreover, home confinement has recently been viewed as an alternative to imprisonment for both juveniles and adults. Although the form of punishment has proven to be beneficial for adults, house arrest for the youth is associated with higher risks due to the unhealthy environment at home in the majority of cases. While the method may be potentially dangerous at the critical stage of adolescence, the period of home confinement in some cases of non-violent crimes may be valuable for further rehabilitation.
Effects of Imprisonment
Juvenile criminals face some objective and subjective hardships during the incarceration. First, they go through the deprivation of liberty and autonomy as they lose command of almost every aspect of their life and cannot do what they want. Second, all the prisoners suffer from the lack of goods and services and heterogeneous sexual relationships. Third, all the criminals are deprived of security, as socializing with prisoners is often a threat to psychological and physical well-being.
Chamiel and Walsh describe other difficulties including loss of life skills, extreme loneliness, humiliation, impaired sense of self, violation of sexual identity (4382). This is especially true for adolescents, as they are going through a crucial life period between childhood and adulthood (Chamiel and Walsh 4383) In brief, it is clear that imprisonment does more harm than good to juveniles as it damages their mind and makes further rehabilitation challenging.
Despite the obvious negative consequences for young criminals, imprisonment is very expensive for the state. The cost of juvenile incarceration is very high; the US government has to pay $88,000 a year for every imprisoned adolescent (Weisburd 309). The costs also grow due to the high level of recidivism among minors, as 70%-80% are often re-arrested within three years after imprisonment (Weisburd 309). Consequently, the economic reason drives many judicial representatives to acknowledge alternatives to conventional detention programs, including house arrest.
Negative Effects of Home Confinement
House arrest has proven to have mostly negative consequences on young criminals. According to Chamiel and Walsh, most of the young people who have experienced such form of punishment report to face the same struggles as the imprisoned people (4383). The only difference is that minors most of the time preserve the sense of personal security throughout home confinement. While this being true, some additional pains connected to the matter can be mentioned, including difficulty in sleeping and having damaged relationships with friends and family. In short, while house arrest may seem easy to endure, it makes the young criminals experience hazards similar to incarceration.
Additional dangers of house arrest for the adolescents include exposure to the unhealthy environment at home that has provoked delinquent behavior. The young criminals are often victims of family abuse or suffer from the consequences of the deviant behavior of family members. Consequently, house arrest in such families can do more harm than good. Moreover, minors under home confinement may feel unsafe, as their enemies may know where they are (Chamiel and Walsh 4398). Weisburd mentions that many adolescents violated their restricting orders and used an increasing amount of drugs and alcohol (299). Therefore, the form of punishment is not universal and can find only limited use.
Positive Effects of Home Confinement
The apparent positive effect of finding alternatives to incarceration is cost-efficiency of house arrest. According to Bouchard and Wong, the Federal Government pays only $10 per day for every offender, which is only $3,650 a year (591) In comparison with imprisonment, home confinement is 24 times more cost-effective, which makes it an excellent alternative. Therefore, in cases of non-violent crimes, more judges may tend to incline towards house arrest as an appropriate form of punishment.
House arrest also allows young people to continue their normal life and avoid socializing with other criminals. In cases of a relatively healthy family environment, young people feel safer at home than among other criminals. Moreover, intercommunication between adolescents and hardened criminals in prison may lead to further development of delinquent behavior, as young people are more vulnerable for negative influence than adults (Chamiel and Walsh 4383).
Additionally, young criminals who underwent house arrest often report improvements in family relationships, as children and their parents spend more time together and have to cooperate to deal with emotional difficulties (Chamiel and Walsh 4396) In short, in contrast to imprisonment, home confinement may have a positive impact on a persons family and social life.
Conclusion
The only positive effect incarceration may have is that it can make people fear of severe deprivations and stop committing crimes predicting the possible hardships. However, Weisburd specifies that young people have less control over their actions and cannot think about the future outcomes at the same level as the adults (324). Therefore, juvenile justice should be more therapeutically rather than punishment oriented and house arrest may become one of the methods for rehabilitation. While the form of punishment is more cost-efficient and recovery-oriented, it should be considered only for non-violent crimes where no possibility of family child abuse is present.
Works Cited
Bouchard, Jessica, and Jennifer S. Wong. The New Panopticon? Examining the Effect of Home Confinement on Criminal Recidivism . Victims & Offenders, vol. 13, no. 5, 2018, pp. 589-608. Web.
Chamiel, Elad, and Sophie D. Walsh. House Arrest Or Developmental Arrest ? A Study of Youth under House Arrest . International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 62, no. 14, 2018, pp. 4381-4402. Web.
Weisburd, Kate. Monitoring Youth: The Collision of Rights and Rehabilitation . 101 Iowa Law Review, no. 297, 2015, pp. 297-341. Web.
The U.S. justice system could be considered similar to the majority of European ones as they descended from Roman law. Using this set of regulations as the basis for further development, Western countries managed to transform and adapt laws to meet specific requirements that come from the peculiarities of culture and mentality. At the same time, there are countries which also used Roman law as the starting point; however, its impact was significantly weaker, and new perspectives on the justice system appeared.
The Russian Federation could be considered one of these states where the existing legal environment has its unique aspects different from European and U.S. ones. That is why the comparison of the Russian and American justice systems could help to improve the comprehending of the way the law functions in different states.
Substantive Law
Thus, the legal regulation traditionally comprises the substantive and procedural laws which guarantee the preservation of the public order and provision of punishment. The substantive law encompasses a set of regulations that govern the way members of society are allowed to behave (Burnham, 2016). It defines civil rights and responsibilities. Russia and the USA have similar perspectives on substantive law and guarantee the same rights to citizens. However, the structure of the law is different as the Russian substantive sphere splits into public and private parts (Sergevnin & Kovalev, 2013). The U.S. system does not recognize this division. It has only common and equity laws that are expected to guarantee the preservation of all outlined rights and duties.
Procedural Law
As for the procedural law, it includes a set of rules to administer the substantive law (Burnham, 2016). In other words, it is responsible for the detection of breaches of the law and the provision of the appropriate punishment. There are significant differences in the Russian and American legal systems related to the given sphere. First, the moratorium on capital punishment is established in the Russian Federation. It means that no person could be sentenced to death. On the contrary, the majority of the U.S. states (31) consider capital punishment a legal penalty that could be applied to different cases (Burnham, 2016).
There are many other differences in the given sphere of law related to the terms of punishment, penalties, litigation, etc. In general, it is possible to note a significant number of differences that precondition a divergence in perspectives on the procedural law and the way it should be executed.
Judicial Review
Continuing the comparison of two legal systems, the peculiarities of judicial review should also be outlined. In the Russian Federation, courts can supervise legislative acts at all stages of the lawsuit; however, only the Constitutional Court possesses the authority to nullify unconstitutional regulatory acts (Libbe, 2011). As for the USA, its constitution does not provide a judicial review with the authority to cancel acts that contradict the main law. Only the Supreme Court of the United States can investigate cases of this character and determine their constitutional or unconstitutional nature (Burnham, 2016). This difference impacts the whole legal environment as it preconditions the appearance of numerous precedents related to legislative acts or other solutions that could be illegal.
Policing Systems
Besides, the preservation of public peace and law observance is guaranteed by the functioning of policing systems which are different in the USA and Russia. The American system presupposes the provisioning of outstanding authorities to every police officer who should be ready to use force in emergent situations (Burnham, 2016). In Russia, the power of an officer is limited by numerous regulations and limits that are introduced to avoid power abuse and protect citizens from it. Additionally, the efficiency of the Russian policing system suffers because of the low level of officers training, lack of skills, corruption, and poor financing (Sergevnin & Kovalev, 2013).
Comparing the U.S. and Russian systems, it is crucial to state that the latter is still recovering from its great restructuring and constantly looks for new forms and approaches that should be used to satisfy the diverse needs of the population.
International Police Cooperation
Finally, both states are involved in the international police cooperation that is created to improve the efficiency of the justice system across the world and ensure that all lawbreakers will be provided with an appropriate punishment. Both Russia and the USA are members of the International Police Organization (INTERPOL) which is an intergovernmental unit that fastens police cooperation in different countries (Libbe, 2011).
Moreover, the USA and Russia could act together in case their efforts help to solve a problematic situation. For this reason, the similarity in perspectives on international police cooperation could be observed.
Conclusion
Altogether, the USA and Russia use specific legal systems that have some similarities; however, they remain different because of the peculiarities of demands to their functioning which exist in these states. The given comparison provides an opportunity to understand essential divergences and consider the impact they might have on legislation and outcomes. Finally, differences in laws also impact the states policing systems as they have to adapt to the suggested legal framework to be able to preserve social order and guarantee the observance of the main regulations and laws.
References
Burnham, W. (2016). Introduction to the law and legal system of the United States. St. Paul, MN: West Academic Publishing.
Sergevnin, B., & Kovalev, O. (2013). Policing in Russia. In G. Mesko, C. Fields, B. Lobinkar, & A. Soltar (Eds.), Handbook on policing in Central and Eastern Europe (pp.191-215). New York, NY: Springer.
Juvenile delinquency is a critical matter of concern due to the necessity of creating and operating a separate system for juvenile justice, addressing age differences of criminals. In the United States of America, there is a distinct line between adult and juvenile justice systems. However, regardless of the separation, there are several challenges in the juvenile justice system, as it is characterized by imperfections and significant gaps. Therefore, the central objective of the paper at hand is to identify and describe the main issues related to the operation of the modern juvenile justice system of the US.
The Role of Status Offenses in Juvenile Delinquency
To begin with, it is essential to define the concept of status offense. In general terms, these are socially unacceptable behaviors, such as running away from home, skipping school and traffic violation. Even though the range of these behaviors is wide, it is evident that they are not crimes. However, offenders are treated like criminals based on their age or belonging to a particular class or group in most cases, minorities (Levin and Cohen). The criticality of status offenses is the fact that they are perceived as crimes and are commonly addressed by incarcerating offenders. In this case, the major issue is that the 1980 version of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act allows incarceration because of committing a status offense (Knefel).
The risks of such a reaction to delinquent behavior treating n minor offense like a serious crime are connected to the increased likelihood that a teen treated in a similar way will grow up to become a serious offender (Levin and Cohen). From this perspective, the challenge is connected to the inability to perceive the needs and specificities of young offenders and address them in a manner to avoid changes in their personalities. As a result, it turns impossible to reintegrate into the community after committing a status offense, thus making teen isolated from society and instigating them to serious crimes in the future.
Adultification of Youth
Another challenge is referred to as the adultification of youth. It stands for the specificities in perceiving and treating younger offenders. In fact, they are seen as adults because they committed adult crimes (Benekos et al. 130). This challenge has several critical consequences. First of all, it is associated with the lowering of ages of criminal court jurisdiction. It means that younger offenders are unlikely to get away with community service.
Instead, they will be sentenced to custody in case of committing a serious crime. Another outcome connected to the adultification of younger offenders is the very fact that it leads to overcrowded jails. Accompanied with the increased attention to status offenses, it leads to situations when it is necessary to place kids in adult jails because there is the lack of places in juvenile jails. Regardless of the changes in federal legislation and the requirement to keep children out of adult jails, still more than 2,000 younger offenders are kept in adult prisons (Knefel).
This challenge is related not only to the perception of younger offenders but also the undesirable changes in their personalities. Just like in the case of incarcerations due to status offenses, there are increased risks of the future serious offenses because kids are transferred from juvenile justice system to criminal justice system (Knefel). More than that, it is associated with the increased rates of victimization and exposure to violence that has a negative influence on ones personal development and future life (Benekos et al. 137). Because of it, they lack protection and the opportunities for their reintegration are limited.
Racial Disparities
Regardless of the legally proclaimed racial equality, in real life, it is impossible to guarantee it. The issue is even more critical in prisons as well as juvenile justice system. First of all, it can be explained by the significance of status offenses mentioned above. Because they are common for particular groups, racial minorities (especially, African American teens) are exposed to increased risks of being incarcerated for status offenses.
For instance, around 40 percent of African American teens have been incarcerated at least once. Also, they are twice as likely to be incarcerated compared to white peers (Knefel). More than that, there is a significant challenge of racial inequality in both prisons and the overall juvenile justice system. In this way, there are numerous instances of increased violation of human rights and excessive violence when it comes to treating racial minorities. In addition, once out of prison, it is more complicated for them to reintegrate into society due to tighter social control compared to white offenders (Cox 23).
Therefore, the central challenge is the inability to treat all offenders equally. In most cases, it is associated with ignoring legal provisions enhancing equality as well as failing to reform the system so that behavior, not skin color, is the only determinant that matters when treating a person (Cox 28). Finally, it is based on the lengthy segregation of criminal justice system, and juvenile justice system is its integral element that was as well segregated.
Possible Causes of the Existing Challenges
Modern American juvenile justice system operates according to the provisions of the 1974 legal document Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act. Even though it has been amended several times over the following 40 years, the issue remains: the law is outdated so that it cannot control all critical challenges that emerge in the modern society. It can be explained by numerous social changes as well as the very fact that it has not been revised or reauthorized since 2002 (not to mention the 2014 and 2015 attempts to reauthorize the document that are still in progress) (Knefel).
That being said, regardless of including the major provisions for and requirements to the operation of the US juvenile justice system, the legal act is too weak for guaranteeing an adequate level of justice in the modern society and protecting young offenders as well as reintegrating them into their communities. In addition, even though other legal documents were adopted, the Act is the only federal law that is applicable to administering the juvenile justice system and setting standards for its operation.
Conclusion
Based on the facts and issues mentioned above, it is evident that the currently operating juvenile justice system of the United States cannot be perceived as a modern one. Failing to comply with the regulations of the federal legislation, racial disparities, keeping younger offenders with the adults, and a significant gap connected to the increased role of status offenses are just some of the challenges to mention.
Nevertheless, regardless of numerous imperfections, the system may still be improved. For instance, a successful reauthorization of the 1974 Act mentioned above and adopting supporting federal legal acts establishing standards for the operation of the US juvenile justice system may become the foundation for making the system modern and effective, especially if accompanied with establishing the system for monitoring compliance with both state and national standards.
Finally, the transformation of the juvenile court, recognizing age-related differences between offenders, seeking more efficient ways of reacting to status offenses (for instance, community service) and enhancing reintegration of the younger offenders in the society are other potentially efficient strategies for coping with the existing challenges and imperfections identified and described in the paper.
Works Cited
Benekos, Peter J., et al. In Defence of Children and Youth: Reforming Juvenile Justice Policies. International Journal of Police Science & Management, vol. 15, no. 2, 2013, pp. 125-143.
Cox, Alexandra. Responsible Submission: The Racialized Consequences of Neoliberal Juvenile Justice Practices. Social Justice, vol. 41, no. 4, 2014, pp. 23-39.
India was a simple subcontinent before its introduction to the West. On the eve of the British conquest of India, it was characterized by lot of disruption and economic fragmentation. The gradual downfall of the Mughal Empire during the 18th century had led to economic disintegration and the constant bouts of conflict amongst the Indian princes hastened economic disruption. As the British appeared in the political scenario there was considerable increase in the oppression and plunder. India was characterized by a village economy with the existence of self governing and self sufficient village communities.
In essence, on the eve of the British rule Indian villages operated as self contained communities that did not have much to do with the outside world. An important characteristic of the village economy pertained to the amalgamation of the agricultural and cottage and handicrafts industry. When agriculture did not provide adequate means of livelihood, peasant families engaged in secondary activities such as weaving and spinning. Most of the economic needs in villages were fulfilled by village craftsmen such as blacksmiths, potters, goldsmiths, and carpenters who were part of the village economy. For rendering their services they received a share of the agricultural crops. Land relationships were governed by usage and customs and there was no practice of land ownership.
The villages had their own system of governance by way of autonomous bodies. The village panchayats were responsible to settle all disputes and to administer village affairs. However the practice of self sufficiency maintained in the rural sector had become barriers for the mobility of labour and for the creation of new markets due to which there was economic stagnation and prosperity was missing. There was a lack of national consciousness amongst the villagers due to being aligned from the nationalist movements. Hence on the eve of the British entry into India, the villagers who comprised of the majority population suffered from economic blockades and were totally alienated from the mainstream. The urban economy was however much brighter in terms of economic prosperity.
The major industries were cotton in Gujarat and Bengal, silk fabrics in Agra, Lahore and Murshidabad, carpets and woollen shawls of Lahore, Agra and Kashmir, which were all in good demand in the subcontinent as also in other areas of the world. In addition to the trade in gold and silver other metals were also predominant and the transactions in these metals developed the banking system within the country. However there were certain socio economic restraints like the prevalence of feudal classes and the system of interest that hampered economic advancement.
India was not a stable country politically during the period 1100 to 1700 in view of the plundering strategies of Muslim invaders. Mahmud Gazni and Ghori went on looting sprees and inflicted extreme mayhem on the people. Despite the plundering, the economy continued to be prosperous and the subsequent Turk and Afghan rulers did not disturb the landowners, financiers and merchants in conducting their activities but collected their revenue by using force and taxing on land. It was during Akbars time during the 1560s that a systematic land reform was introduced, and the wholesalers and merchants were organized into conducting their businesses in trade and for export.
Such reforms led to rapid growth in the economy and historians believe that India and China at that time together accounted for about half of the worlds trade (Hari Sud, 2007). Unfortunately for the country, Nadir Shah invaded the country in 1739 and decamped with booty worth over $1 billion in current value but the country was able to bounce back within twenty years and the unfettered economy recouped in accumulating wealth fairly quickly.
The Muslim rulers were not responsible for mishandling the culture and economy of the country. In fact they allowed it expand culturally and to prosper economically. They did get their revenues with an attitude of high handedness but remained aloof from the complexities of commerce, trading and finance. With all round prevalence of prosperity the British inherited a nation with strong fundamentals. However the Indian economy began to decline after the onset of the Industrial Revolution in England. At the cost of the Indian cottage industries the British industries were made busy. Goods produced in India came to be taxed heavily, raw materials from India were carried to England and ship loads of manufactured goods were dumped into the country which gradually weakened the industries in India.
In this context the discourse of British Imperialism in India demonstrates the various connections to the loss of social and cultural awareness at the time of Indias independence that sparked an evolution of change to the Indian society of today. The aggressive colonization of the British within India and the aftermath of their stay led to Indias own self-governed misuse of power, which followed the same path as the British imperialistic exponent. Indias post independence reforms from 1947 to 1977 closely resembled those established under previous British imperial rule and further deepened the fragmentation of the Indian culture and social and economic progress, leading to a loss of cultural identity.
India previously comprised of a group of independent and semi-independent princely states and territories and had undergone lot of changes under the British rule. The country had become very poor and in addition had to suffer the pain and miseries resulting from partition. There were 350 million people and an economy that was worth only $55 billion at the time of its independence in 1947. There were frequent occurrences of famines and droughts which the British blamed on the incompetence of Indians in strong denial of the creation being on their part.
The illustrations of a character within the literary piece, Midnights Children, show what roots lay beneath the surface of present day India. In terms of the social, political and psychological aspects of the colonization, this novel by Salman Rushdie vividly portrays the authors point of view for India to be a self-sufficient nation or one without manipulative outside influence. Rushdie also explores the impact of these outside regimes inflicting systemic damage to India over their period of reign. Within this ancient civilization of India, lay many pieces spread out from the Middle East to the coasts of the Pacific Ocean. Although Indias trade with the West had been quite prominent for several years, a shift of power was inevitably in view.
A supreme Indian statesman, Mohandas Ghandi, in a private interview in 1948 (the same year of his assassination) stated profoundly that Repression does for a true man or a nation what fire does for gold. If nationalism is nonviolent it helps in enhancing industrialization and in bringing a higher order of civilization or else it becomes the curse of imperialism. This quotation found in the text of Concession and Repression, speaks to my topic in the sense that it questions directly what the Indian culture withstood as they took on the burden of an exploitive mindset of a narrow-minded British regime. In terms of the psychological aspects of the colonization, the quote vividly portrays a highly regarded citizens national pride and his vision for maintaining a conservative traditional India.
The repression at the hands of the British was manifold in the context of their social and economic highhandedness on the population at large. In this regard it was written in the issue dated May 20th 1884 of the Sindh Times, Nadir Shah looted the country only once. But the British loot us every day. Every year wealth to the tune of 4.5 million dollar is being drained out, sucking our very blood. Britain should immediately quit India. This was one year before the birth of the Indian National Congress and 58 years prior to the launching of the Quit India Movement of 1942. Several leaders of the freedom struggle were hanged and a mass wave of revolutionary movements began which led the British to adopt severe repression measures in suppressing the resistance offered by way of civil unrest, strikes and demonstrations.
This was followed by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by General Dyer in which thousands of unarmed demonstrators were fired upon and killed. In suppressing the communist movement in the country the British unleashed brutal repression on the newly emerging groups by banning communist literature in attempts to stop the spreading of radical ideas. Despite the repressive practices the number of followers for both the revolutionary and communist parties continued to increase. Gradually small groups of subversive revolutionaries began to appear that attacked British Army camps, police stations and repression centers of the government.
Such revolutionaries when apprehended were either hanged or sent to jails for hard labor. Businesses were adversely impacted by the repressive policies followed by the British and the non violence movement of Gandhi created a class of defiant protestors within the working groups who were hamstrung by the conservatism of the Congress party and the oppression at the hands of the British colonial overlords.
Salman Rushdies Midnights Children depicts Indian culture as an evolving creation. Midnights Children in essence is about the early life of its writer Salman Rushdie, and is tactfully blended with politics and fiction. The story is about Saleem Sinais life, who was born at the same time when India achieved independence from British rule at the stroke of midnight on 15th August, 1947. The historical period of India between 1947 to 1977 reveals that the laws and reforms adopted after fighting for independence from Britain closely resemble those laws on the books during the British Imperial rule.
Indian leadership retained many of the same infrastructures and policies that contributed to a perpetuation of the class system and further deepened the socio-economic divides. According to the codified books of The Raj- India (1939), the rationale provided was that these continued laws served as a means of maintaining control over a diverse populace. Saleems life is handcuffed to the same history of Indias undermined past and is instilled with the same uncertainty about change that was faced by Indias citizens in the State of Emergency in 1977. The mistreatment of Indian citizens during the State of Emergency established by the Indian government reflects the inhumane rule by the British upon India during colonization.
Midnights Children is a narrative in first person by Saleem Sinai, who is depicted as being a thirty year factory worker employed in a pickle factory and who fantastically narrates and writes the details of his life experiences every night, reads it out every day while Padma, the woman who is very affectionate with him, makes comments on what he has to say. Saleem, in narrating the story of Midnights Children, gives details of what happens several years before he was born, including the detail of the courtship that his grandparents went through as also the lives of his parents before his birth.
In regard to his own life, Saleem narrates the details every night in such a fantastic manner that it becomes very difficult for Padma to believe all that he said as being the truth. The novel depicts Saleems childhood as being very hard and tough in view of the financial difficulties as also due to the fact that other children picked on him and teased him because of his abnormal looks. The novel is separated into three sections and each take on a vivid caption of the timeframe spanning from Indias Independence to Indias relapse into former British rule.
In the initial parts of the second section when Saleem is aged nine years, he is hit by his father on the ear, which makes him to become gifted with the ability to have telepathic powers thus enabling him to glance into other peoples minds. When he enters the head of a neighborhood child, Evie Burns, she becomes upset. Subsequently, he learns that other people know when he is reading their thoughts. This learning induces him to form a network that connects all the children of midnight, who like him, were born on August 15, 1947.
It is notable however that amongst the 1001 who were born at this time, only 581 remained alive by the time they reached nine years of age. All these children had extraordinary powers. One boy had the ability to walk through mirrors, while a girl was gifted with such extraordinary beauty that whosoever looked at her was blinded by her dazzling looks. Saleem uses his ability to call the Midnights Childrens Conference. He utilizes his telepathic powers to contact Shiva, the child he was exchanged with at birth, and who is of the belief that he, not Saleem, must become the leader of the conference. Later when Saleem is injured in school, a blood test confirms that the people whom he considers as being his parents are not actually so.
He made to go to Pakistan to stay with his Aunt Pia and Uncle Hanif, who do business in films. Saleem discovers that Homi Catrack, who finances their films is having an affair with a naval officers wife, and he informs the officer by sending him an anonymous letter, who subsequently shoots Catrack as also his own wife. This leads Saleems Uncle Hanif, now without financing, to kill himself. With the death of the financier, Saleems entire family collects together for the mourning of forty days. Thereafter Saleem is then taken to Pakistan, where his telepathic powers are considerably reduced in contacting the Children. He is present at the front lines when India invades Pakistan.
While living with his uncle, General Zulfikar, Salim is made a party and involved in making plans for a military coup. After returning to Bombay, his father makes arrangements to for an operation so that he gets relief from his running sinus because of which Salim entirely loses his telekinetic powers but develops an extraordinary sense and ability to smell things. By this time, his 15 years old sister who is in Pakistan is able to become a very popular singer on the radio. Subsequently, upon Saleems confession of his love for her makes her to feel much repulsed and she tells him that she would never like to meet him again. The story has special relevance in the viewpoint of its author Salman Rushdie who was born in Bombay, India on June 19, 1947, just two months before the protagonist of Midnights Children, Saleem Sinai.
With the outbreak of war between India and Pakistan an ironical development occurs in that, the grandmother, two aunts and guardians of Salim are killed by Indian bombardment. Salem wanders around Pakistan with amnesia from the head trauma that he received during warfare. He regains enough sense of daily function to join the army. He led a patrolling group along the Padma River in keeping away from the war while several other soldiers are killed in the deep jungles. He comes across Parvati the witch, one of the Midnights Children, who recognizes him. He disbands his patrol and is taken under the wings of Parvati and Picture Singh, a snake charmer.
The two conceal Saleem and clandestinely bring him back to India so that he stays with the family of his uncle. He lives there for 420 days and mourns for the dead. Subsequently he returned back to the slums, where Parvati and Picture Singh had become communists. He married Parvati and found that Shiva, the child who had been switched with him at the time of birth had become a war hero and who had by this time borne hundreds of children. Saleem is unable to have any children with his new wife Parvati since he keeps getting haunted with the memories of his sister, about whom he comes to know that she has also given birth to one of the several sons of Shiva.
The ghetto is attacked by government forces under the command of Shiva which leads to the death of Parvati while all the remaining midnights children are sterilized by the army officers. A distraught Salim returns to his roots and request his nanny to give him some work in the factory that she had. She hired him straight away and he started working in the factory during the day. At night he used to tell his stories and experiences to a woman named Padma. In working at the pickle factory which was owned by his former nurse, Saleem is at much advantage since he has a strong sense of smell which made the job very well suited for him.
Padma is the narrators confidante, the person to whom he tells the story of his life. In the entire novel the story is told by Salim in being compelled to do so in view of the fact that Padma is not literate and would prompt him to narrate the events of his life. She would listen to him and comment critically, in responding towards what she liked and what she found very difficult to believe. At the end Padma is able to convince Salim to get married and the novel concludes on a romantic note with the two of them getting married.
It is known by now that Saleem was born on August 15, 1947 at the stroke of midnight, the time at which India was granted independence by the British in divesting all its colonial authority over the country. Saleem was born to a destitute couple; his father was a poor street singer and his mother died while giving him birth, and within a few minutes of his birth he was exchanged with the son of a rich family of merchants that eventually raised him.
He has been described as an unattractive child with a big nose that was always congested and running. Saleem Sinai examined in this novel the thirty years of his life as also the thirty years preceding his birth in order to understand his identity and purpose in this world. In portraying that Saleems life began at a time when the colonial rule of the British had just finished, the novel is much relevant in linking his future life to the developments that took place in the post colonial era. In looking back at the events in Saleems life, one is compelled to relate the failing circumstances that he is forced to go through with that of the problems faced by countries that are thrust abruptly with the responsibilities of transforming themselves into mature states.
Just he says that he is falling apart, India too was also in a similar state in view of the extreme challenges it was faced with. It is quite evident that initially an independent India appears to be thriving and strong while enjoying the new wealth and freedom just as Saleem did as a child; being brought up in a prosperous family in addition to enjoying the privileges and security. Just as Saleems Midnight Children conducted their conferences, in countries also there are is tendency to have underground organizations, and such organizations produce people like Shiva who compete in controlling and promoting their respective violent agendas. The fortunes of Saleem progressed and declined, just as Indias did, which depended at times on coincidence, chance and the willingness of people around him to ignore his unlawful status.
This was similar to the willingness of the Indian people in submitting to the illegitimacy of foreign military rule that imposed its authority over them. With the invasion of Pakistan by India Saleems gets changed for ever with the loss of his family, and similarly the identity of India also changed with the fierce repression of a country that shared its cultural values with it. Saleem is able to reach a state of peace at the end but at the cost of succumbing to his weak identity, which is also the important reality that Rushdie associates with India in its being vulnerable to the external forces.
It is noteworthy that there are several aspects in Saleems life which are portrayed in the novel in not making much meaning. The magical powers as enjoyed by children depicted in the novel are more in the nature of conveying the hope and expectations of a new generation looking forward to new promises of an independent country. In most of the other narrations the author has given details that do not convey any deep rooted meanings in this context. All such details, are noteworthy but are not much meaningful, and only help in heightening the readers sense in regard to the absurdities of the world in which Saleem Sinai exists.
The looks of Saleem as depicted in the novel are more in the nature of making a mockery of the customary classic character. His nose is made a big issue in becoming his most outstanding feature. It is not only very big, but is given a status that makes people to remember him for a long time after having met him. The nose does not help him in any way and to make it worse it is always running. During his childhood, Saleems hair were pulled away from their roots and he lost a finger in a door that was slammed shut. The existence of all these qualities and traits combined in making him appear to the readers as extremely bizarre. It is ridiculous in expecting readers to identify with Saleem, which although Salman Rushdie obviously desired.
There are several There are many examples in the book whereby Rushdie makes attempts in making the case that post colonial life in India is full of absurdities. An example in this regard was the exorbitant powers vested in the arch rival of Saleem in crushing his enemies and the fascination with which the entire nation followed the trials of Commander Subarmati. Another amusing depiction is the character of Padma who appears to be the only person to be caring for Saleem at the end, and whose name if translated into English means dung princess (301). There are several components of the novel which indicate higher levels of importance, and there are also instances whereby the important constituents clearly indicate that even in their most ugly forms, the novel depicts a strange world which is abound with deep rooted wonders.
The novel has however made attempts to strike a balance between what could be made sense of and what could be treated as nonsense. For example, the protagonist is as far from being a dashing man as much as Rushdie could make out of him. Most of what we know about Saleems life is ridiculous, but not everything, since as the story is revealed, readers are much influenced by just how much sense can be made out of the finer points in the novel.
Saleems life is not inconsistent, but develops in a cyclic pattern with his fortunes transforming from good to bad and again bad to good. Throughout the novel, Rushdie has made it difficult for the reader in ascertaining as to which parts of the life and experiences of Saleem are important in being related to. One thing which is noteworthy and commendable is the fact that Rushdie has very tactfully built upon a meaningful affiliation between the two boys who were given birth at midnight although on the face of it there may be some elements of doubts in the practicality of the happenings.
During the time that Rushdie was writing his novel in the 1970s, Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India. Rushdie is particular in writing that she was not related to the freedom fighter Mohandas K. Gandhi. She was the daughter of independent Indias first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who was a close associate of Gandhi. Indira Gandhi was the countrys first female Prime Minister and as a child had grown amongst the powerful elites of the country.
She married Feroze Gandhi, also a politician who expired in 1960. She was elected as a member of the Indian Parliament in 1964, and upon the sudden death of her father Jawaharlal Nehru due to heart attack in 1966, she was unanimously chosen as the prime minister of the country. She was seen as an easy target by the power brokers who sought to control her actions as the countrys leader in keeping with their unwarranted intentions. However after taking over as Prime Minister she exercised independent control and ruled the country continuously from 1966 to 1977, and for another four years from 1980 to 1984. Indira Gandhi became much popular with the Indian masses especially in view of the victory over Pakistan in the 1971 War, but subsequently there were internal social developments that reduced her hold in politics and power.
India suffered tremendously on the economic front and by 1973 a large scale movement took shape in holding her responsible for the adverse economic situation. The High Court in India found her guilty of involvement in election campaign irregularities in June 1975 and she was ordered to step down as Prime Minister. Instead of resigning, Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency by suspending the constitution; political opponents were sent to jail without proper trial and freedom of the press was immensely curtailed. In 1977 after concluding that all her opponents had been suppressed, she got elections held but her party was badly defeated in the polls and she had to make way for the new prime minister. She was however elected again in 1980 and while in office as prime minister of the country, was shot at by her own bodyguards and killed in 1984. Following her assassination, her son Rajiv Gandhi was made the Prime Minister of the country.
The Europeans had been interested in India for trade and commerce since the 1490s when Portugal was given the sole privilege to trade in India by the then Mughal rulers. The Portuguese monopoly was broken by the Dutch East India Company in the start of the 17th century. The East India Company too entered the fray soon after and by 1750s had fought a number of battles with the Dutch in gaining control over different parts of the subcontinent. For the next two centuries India was ruled by the British whereby the entire economic and social structure saw massive changes into making the modern India of today.
Before British rule, India possessed an assortment of resources. Trade was great with a variety of markets throughout the world. There had been constant invasions from outside sources that include Alexander the Greats Greek army to the Mughal Empire. Nevertheless, Indias many kingdoms remained relatively intact, changing very little over hundreds of years. This can only be understood by exploring the system by which India existed. For many years, India existed under the rule of several spread out kingdoms. Only one king from these kingdoms would be declared as the supreme ruler of the entire civilization. This would be determined by seniority, strength, and social appeal.
Therefore each kingdom was ultimately autonomous. The rules and laws depended on the rulers of each kingdom. Subsequently, due to the religious and mystical appeal of people in India, religion played a pivotal role in criminal law. This dependence on religion, which had existed for thousands of years, led to a stagnant and static civilization. Change was not a priority in this pre-British India. Mysticism ran amuck, even kings were fearful of religious deities and superstitions. The king imposed the law, but he would always have a group of priests and advisors guiding his decisions. Because the kingdoms were mystical in character, there was little change and social evolution. Thus, the laws, philosophies and ideas remained simple and constant. This was all about to change with the induction of the British East India Company.
Starting its tenure, the British East India Company was meant to be a simple trading venture. The establishment of the post would eventually facilitate trade between Britain and the Indian kingdoms. Instead, through the actions of its military officials, the company became a ruling enterprise, according to Peter Robbs text, A History of India. At first, the companys primary initiative was to create a massive trading post in important Indian kingdoms. However, officials did not expect the inevitable. Indians wanted freedom, and certainly did not appreciate these invaders. This led to increased military expenditures in order to gain more control over these rebelling Indian factions. These military ventures eventually led to complete control by the British East India Company, and consequently, a new shift in law and justice.
In 1773, Lord North initiated the India Bill, otherwise known as the Regulating Act of 1773. This allowed for parliamentary control over the company and its ventures. It also put the whole of India under the rule of a governor-general. This was a new type of leadership. It was more of a military iron fist. The first governor-general, Warren Hastings sought to control all of the kingdoms of India and knew that the expansion of British India was paramount (76).
The law ran under his control, and any disclaimers were always subdued on their way to the British parliament. Justice, law and ideals had changed drastically within a few decades. For hundreds of years, Indians counted on mysticism, minimal change and constant and reliable leadership as standards for their justice. Now, a foreigner was dictating their rules and laws. Inevitably, this led to several rebellions, including the famous Sepoy Mutiny as stated in the text, Imperial Nostalgia. Eventually, realizing the absurdity of this unlawful regiment, the East India Company was dissolved in 1858, and a new order was put in place.
For hundreds of thousands of years, most of India had run under the emphasis that criminals were those who committed a crime and had inherited criminal traits. In essence, Indians believed that thieves and murderers were always banded together, and part of a class. They believed that upper class Hindus did not need to commit crimes and that the lowest class civilians were inherently at risk to commit crimes and atrocities. This system of criminal justice existed for many years, but the new order initiated by the British Crown felt that this needed to change. Indian historian Lal Vinay stated that the Civil Code was adopted in 1859, the Criminal Code in 1860, and the Code of Criminal Procedure and Police Act in 1861; and so, it was believed, the immoral influence of the upper class Brahmins was decisively removed (41).
This new code took time to gain acceptance, but it promoted some level of equality. Britain had many interesting feelings toward the Indian people. Different British governors had different concepts on how to govern the indigenous townspeople. Some felt that it was their duty to instigate Christianity and faith in a single God. They felt that Hindus were too reliant on superstitions and extremely old and worthless rituals. Others, such as the utilitarians, felt that it was their duty to install rational and scientific thinking into the minds of the superstitious Indians, according to an article entitled: John Stuart Mill and India.
The article clearly pointed fingers and mentioned that Indians were Neanderthals, and that they needed to join the progression that Europe participated in. Of course, not all British governors felt this need to institutionalize Indians. There were some who were hopeless romantics, according to Mill. They helped to preserve Indian customs and sacred rituals. They also helped to give confidence to Indians that they were not truly inferior, but rather victims of imperialism and world order. Nevertheless, no matter what these different governors felt in terms of how to deal with the Indians, they ultimately felt that it was their duty to govern them, and the Indians duty to bow down to their leadership.
Albert Memmi is a modern Tunisian Jewish philosopher who is best-known for the non fictional work, The Colonizer and the Colonized, which examines the interdependent relationship of the two groups. The book was written in 1957 at a time when several movements of liberation had gained ground. Memmi explored the injustice and oppressive daily humiliations of the colonized. The book is composed of two main narratives, one about the specific colonizers mentality and the other refers to the social detriment of the individuals being colonized. Memmi has referred to the narratives as being descriptive portraits which are easily recognizable and vivid.
He has stated his arguments quite boldly and in a tone that is free from any anxiety. Memmi has heavily relied in constructing single and collective personalities which is aptly portrayed with phrases such as the Arab mind, and the Arab world as also on the metaphors relating to health and sickness, which have been all tactfully used in pathologizing the other. Memmi has recognized that postcolonial countries have been suffering at the hands of the repercussions of historical events but he has categorically denied in making history as a reason for self pity. He has written that the decolonized have tendencies to find shortcomings with all except themselves.
Memmi believes that history is at fault along with the whites, but until a time that the decolonized countries are unable to free themselves from the given elusions, which he calls dolorism, they will not be able to analyze correctly their factual circumstances and to further take remedial measures (19).
He has argued that colonialism has to a large scale resulted in disastrous consequences. It has not brought an end to the oppression and violence against women. Memmi has referred to such an existence as resembling a kind of fascism. He says that fascism is related to economic privileges, in spite of the notion of additionally dignified objectives in regard to religious civilization. It is these practices that give vent to the practice of enacting terror and racism.
Most of the former colonial states continue to have disputes and violent border clashes, measures to alleviate poverty have not been addressed in the right earnest, and most leaders and intellectuals who campaigned for independence from the colonists have become silent or grown timid. Memmi has opined that racism is strongly imbedded in all colonial institutions which further aggravate the already established sub human conditions of the colonized people. The colonizers use terror to in halting uprisings of a reactionary nature and thus instil submission and fear amongst the people.
The colonizer rewrites history in glorifying itself and thus plays a major role in removing the colonized from history. The children in colonized states are not taught the history of their country but that of the colonizer. The colonized ultimately realize that they are insignificant and in being excluded from the government become less attracted in the formation of the government. They become conditioned to such an extent that they consider themselves to be incapable of assuming significant roles in history. Another well known philosopher, Edward Said, has referred to Memmi as being one of the few intellectuals in the colonial periods that was able to link the space between the colonized and the colonizer.
Since the 1960s Memmi has explored in his various works the tricky triangulation of his different cultural identities Arab North African, Jewish, and French citizens and over the years disillusionment with anti-colonial leftism moved him closer to a position which on cultural matters can be viewed as decidedly conservative (Edward W. Said, 1979).
It is required of the ending of colonization that it should set the course for prosperity and freedom and the use of its native languages should result in the national culture to flourish. But instead of a new culture being created, the higher level of freedom and enhanced education has resulted in the creation of forward looking society. Decolonization has in fact resulted in increasing incidents whereby religious fanatics and oppressors have become more dominating in enforcing their conventional practices.
With that notion in mind, it was very easy to implement rules and laws. Each Indian region possessed its own mini-parliament and answered to the subsequent governor presiding over that territory. To Britain, history and land was pivotal. The conquest of India was monumental in developing Englands reputation. They now had an even more powerful and diverse army, and instilled fear and sombreness in their enemies hearts. Nevertheless, there was still strife within India itself. People in India were beginning to feel unappreciated and abused. Rules were being broken and there were not enough British to regulate the chaos.
A new set of laws needed to be made to create order for everyone: British and Indian alike. This new set of rules was called the Indian Penal Code according to Imperial Nostalgia. Founded by Lord McCauley, the code was influenced by the French penal code and the Code of Louisiana. The most interesting aspect of this constitution is that it is very similar to the British code of law. The distinction is that there are no technicalities, bureaucracies, and unproductive peculiarities. It was 1860 when the Code was initiated as is still an underlying law code used throughout present day India. Of course, like any set of rules, amendments have been made. However, the Indian Penal Code still remains intact and society serving. More importantly, the Indian Penal Code is probably the most progressive and positive result of the British invasion of India.
India was definitely unified after its British colonization. But the big question is whether it became a better society because of the change. Britain had given India unification, penal codes, and universities. It had introduced modern society to the Indians, but it also introduced feudalism, famine and extreme poverty. In order to ultimately answer that particular question, one must meticulously deliberate all the positives and negatives.
As cited from Economic History and Modern India, Redefining the Link, standardizations of languages into dictionaries and translations throughout India were very important in creating connections through different cultures in India. Universities and hill stations (well built cities) are still in abundance today. India had become a nation instead of a conglomeration of innumerable small societies. The industrial revolution made its way to India because of the British, as did cinema and arts. Law had a face in India because of the British. There was a set of rules, and a democracy of sorts, for Indians to administer.
Capitalism still pumps through the veins of India, and it would never have existed there if it were not for the British invasion. These are all wonderful aspects of the British invasion, but there may be many more negative ones. Before Britain, India had remained static for centuries. The system worked, and there was little poverty because land ownership had different guidelines. Although there was rampant superstition, there was no visible and insufferable poverty.
Because there was little trust in the British government in India, rules and laws have little influence over the actions of millions of Indians. Britain also left India in shambles, creating a partition dictated by religion (Hindus and Muslims). Pakistan and India are still at war, even after 60 years. The recurring famines in India during British rule were a direct result of modernization. India had used artificial irrigation, which needed continual care and proper division of labour for centuries. Britain, instead, dissimilated the centuries old division of labor in Indian society for its own benefit. Famine was inevitable because agriculture had taken a backseat to pleasing British rule.
The most pivotal argument is in reference to the quote by Arnold Toynbee found in Imperial Nostalgia: the last stage but one of every civilization, is characterized by the forced political unification of its constituent parts, into a single greater whole (77). When a civilization, a group or culture is unified, it is supposed to create a greater whole. In Indias case, the result of the unification is a weaker sense of cultural identity than the one that existed when India was divided. A system that worked for thousands of years was replaced by a system that has only promoted anarchy, chaos and unreliability. It is on that note that India needs to reach back into its roots, find what made it such an amazing subcontinent, and establish a new order; an order that takes the best of its past, British and pre-British. Only then will India maximize its future.
The plight of the Indian population is very well understood in the context of Franz Fanons revolutionary work The Wretched of the Earth which is a study on the post colonial conditions in North Africa. The theories outlined by Fanon revealed themselves to be very precise in the Indian context. Indeed it is easy to see that modern India is a product of the annals of British colonialism stemming from the conquests of the East India Company.
Over the several decades a false nation was created in encompassing people with vast and potentially volatile religions and cultures. Having received independence, the Indians did not have a concrete sense of national consciousness because of which there was large scale ambiguity in framing the social and economic objectives for the country. In this context Fanon has categorically mentioned that unity takes off the mask, and crumbles into regionalism inside the hollow shell of nationality itself, (1583). The divide amongst Hindus and Muslims continued due to lack of trust, despite the formation of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. Fanon saw a deep spiritual regionalism in writing Inside a single nation, religion splits up people into different spiritual communities, all of them kept up and stiffened by colonialism and its instruments, (1584).
Going by Fanons theory the social structure is such that the country continues to be dominated by caste politics and economic penury amongst the masses. This is perhaps due to the western model that India adopted; a model that did not have much relevance in the country in view of being an almost empty replica of the original. Nationalism did grow in keeping with the social structure of the country but the ideologies imposed on the country were not in keeping with the inherent culture and economic circumstances that prevailed at the time of independence.
Through the lens of Fanons work literature plays an important function in the regions prosperity. Fanon argued that in post colonial situations there is a progression in the literature which reflects the evolution of nationalism; In fact, the progress of national consciousness among the people modifies and gives precision to the literary utterances of the native intellectual, (1589). A marked change has been seen in India in the field of literary achievements in not only literature but also the ideologies in terms of an enhanced sense of nationalism and development of literature. The country has developed significantly especially during the last ten years in fulfilling Fanons prophecy that the literature coming out of a country provides the methods of stability and peace within the country.
The problematic association that links the colonizer and the colonized in the colonial framework is aptly demonstrated in E M Forsters novel A Passage to India. Forster has revealed the stereotype in which the people have been depicted by way of being brainwashed and subjected to a consistent process of formatting by the colonizers. The novel also portrays the picture of the land as proving to be unreceptive to the colonizers which makes them to fight and intensify their feelings of being alienated and exiled. The book is in stark resemblance to the theory as propagated by Memmi as also to those of other literary thinkers of the time.
Forster has explicitly depicted the challenging issues in regard to race relations, formation of identity and the complications from colonial discourses in different contexts. If Forsters work is examined in the perspective of post colonialism one can infer the socio psychological dilemmas during the period of British rule. Forster has outlined the processes by which it became rather mandatory for native people in positions of authority to accept adopting the British dictates in formatting themselves within the given framework of the system.
Forsters book begins with describing the bazaars of India which are subsequently related with Chandrapore, the place where the British lived, general outline of the town [which] persists, swelling here, shrinking there, like some low but indestructible form of life , Chandrapore is a city of gardens. It is not described as a city, but as a forest that is thinly dotted with huts. It is a tropical pleasance, washed by a noble river, (p.31).
He further writes about the roads in Chandrapore being named after victorious generals and intersecting at right angles, were symbolic of the net Great Britain had thrown over India (p.39). In this context it is clear from the word net that Forster did not approve of the colonization of India by the British. Forster writes that in spite of the attempts by the British to tame India, the country continued to be a wild country. The novel is concluded with the premise that the Indians and the British can be intimate with each other but the complexities of colonization, stereo typing and cultural disparities would never allow them to become friends. Memmi has subtly said in this regard, The colonial situation manufactures colonialists, just as it manufactures the colonised , (Memmi 1974:56-57).
Memmi was of the belief that the colonizer discovers his own existence in discovering his privileges. He explained in this context that the colonizer finds himself on one side of a scale, the other side of which bears the colonised man. &. [T]he more freely he breathes, the more the colonised are choked. & It is impossible for him not to be aware of the constant illegitimacy of his status (Memmi, pp.6-9). It is clear that to Memmi the act of colonization was illegitimate; the colonizer takes away the right of the original inhabitant by taking his place. If the colonizer is sympathetic towards the colonized, he will be rejected by other colonizers who will take his place and the best choice for him is to remain a colonizer.
Memmi has noted that one after another, all the qualities which make a man of the colonised crumble away . To the coloniser, the colonised is hardly a human being. He tends rapidly toward becoming an object (Memmi, p.85-86). He opines that colonization is in the nature of hiding its factual intentions in the guise of introducing a higher order of civilization and knowledge for the colonized people.
In fact Memmis book was born out of his own experiences in North Africa. Memmis work is in the nature of providing a psychological viewpoint of the effect of colonialism. He has distinctly provided a clear picture of the colonized and the colonizer, their relationship and the dynamics prevailing amongst the two groups. Memmi has also examined the psychological influence on the protagonists. Memmi has specifically explained of a world in which extreme privileges are enjoyed by the colonizer while the colonized is forced to live under inhuman conditions while at the same time being viewed as belonging to a single mass. This is typical to the plight of the masses in India after the British left the country.
In essence, the colonized become virtual objects and do not live the life of normal individuals. Memmi has described rather poetically how the process of colonization literally strangles the region in making it to loose its language, history and memory. The native language of the colonized becomes out of use in being neither encouraged for further research nor being read and written in the present. The colonizer ensures that all institutions that have any relevance use its own language thus rendering the institutions of the colonized to be alarmed and scared in not using the native language. This also implies that all technological advances and innovations happen as a result of the efforts of the colonizer which in turn makes the movement against colonization to become stronger with the return of culture that appeals to traditional institutions and religion.
The most important changes made by the British pertained to the changes they made in the top levels of Indian Society. The extravagant aristocracy of warlords was replaced by the military establishments which were more bureaucratic in nature, very efficient in preserving law and order which were framed by experienced technocrats. The efficiency measures that the British adopted did result in considerable curtailment of the fiscal burden which enabled a larger chunk of the gross national product to be available for new classes of professionals, capitalists and land lords. On a positive note, although a part of the enhanced income was sent to the UK, a major chunk was spent within the country.
Consumption patterns also changed since the upper classes now did not indulge in the lavishness of maintaining harems and wearing expensive damascened swords etc. Although such changes caused some painful adjustments to be made in regard to sectors such as handicrafts, there was a definite increase in investments into the production sector which was a bare minimum during Mughal rule. There was significant increase in industrial and agricultural output as a consequence of government initiated investments in these sectors. In fact there was the creation of a new elitist class which used English, went to English schools and adopted a western life style.
The English had left a legacy of new towns that had modern urban facilities in suburbs that were separated in having their own identities. New elite groups were formed that comprised of businessmen, journalists, teachers, doctors and lawyers and such people further encouraged the removal of old caste barriers and the increase in social mobility.
The British had made some institutional changes in the agricultural sector by converting the traditional circumscribed property rights into what resembled the agile property titles characterized by western capitalism. The erstwhile Moghul property system of jagirs was done away with and most of the previous warlord aristocracies were cast out. The incomes from these sources were now to be incorporated as taxes on land. Zamindars continued to enjoy their status but they were not treated as having the same status as western land owners. They could not be evicted and their rights could be inherited.
The distinctive features of the zamindari system at the end of the British rule were much different as compared to the end of the 18th century. By the end of the colonial period the zamindars were no longer able to exploit their tenants as much as they used to at the beginning of the British rule in India.
The British have been accused by some Indian authors of bringing about de-industrialization in India. R C Dutt, an eminent economist has argued that, India in the eighteenth century was a great manufacturing as well as a great agricultural country, and the products of the Indian loom supplied the markets of Asia and Europe. Unfortunately it is true in regard to the East India Company and the British Parliament, that they follow selfish commercial policies as they did a century ago. They discouraged Indian manufacturers in the early years of British rule so that the British industries could capture a larger share of the markets for several goods.
The different policies followed by them during the latter half of the eighteenth century and during the first few decades of the nineteenth century, aimed at making India compliant and dependent on the manufacturers in different parts of England, and to literally force the Indian people in having no option but to only produce the raw materials. This strategy was in keeping with the British objective of enabling the supply of raw material for the manufacturers and looms in Great Britain,(Nayyar, D, 1966).
An important feature in the psychology of India pertains to the fact that it was born during the prime of the colonial rule under the British. The tradition of empiricist psychology is a gift to India and like other British legacies in the country the people have not metabolized them fully as yet. According to Nicholas Abraham and Maria Torok, we are living with many-a-phantoms of the past that are the result of our colonial history, the cultural trauma that emanated as a result, its psychic encryption and subsequent (psychic-social-political) concealment of this trauma from collective memory, (1994).
Other works of postcolonial writings such as Saids Orientalism, writings of Nandy (1995), Spivak (1993), G. Pandey (1988), and Das (1989. 1996, and 1997) have greatly influenced the culture and psyche of the people in addition to generating debates on the issue. A characteristic of the educated Indians during the period of British rule was that they were very slow in reacting to some forms of racist attitude and impositions of the British. Deep rooted in their ambivalent attitude was their desire to remain close to their native self while also emulating the educated and enlightened white man, which considerably weakened the sense of subjectivity and culture in their understanding of the psychological perspectives.
In this regard Nandy (1995) says that such attitudes hampered efforts in the introduction of the Unique Indian oriented cultural and psychological theories. It was tragic that the Indian babus did not emulate the Indian practices and unashamedly supported the British in demeaning the Indian social customs and value systems for the sole purpose to be given membership in the so called civilized club. Even today the remains of colonialism can be sensed in academic circles by way of the psychological developments. There is still a tendency for researchers to submit their findings with indications of their being more objective and subjective as compared to the subjects of the studies.
Walter Ernst (1997) has put forth a psychohistory of the idioms of madness in regard to the locals and Europeans who were mentally ill in British India. Ernst has in particular outlined the repeated instances of colonial psychiatry in India whereby women, tribes and lower castes were ostracized because they did not conform to their expectations. The film Heat and Dust (1983), produced by Merchant Ivory was an excellent production that viewed at similar perspectives in comparing the attitude of the British with the practices of healing that were widely popular in India during the rule of the British.
There is not much material to directly link the critical psychology in India with its politics, cultural history and society in terms of their interpretations in social and individual lives. The critical thinking in this regard has to be manifested in associating with the works of writers who have researched similar situations in other parts of the world.
This paper has relied on the reviews of recent psychological literature whereby the prevailing psychological discourses in the country could be reviewed by simply visualizing the two parallel streams that run along side each other. Such parallel streams suggest the disjunction among the psychological work in the mainstream of India and the presence of the alternatives along with the dissenting and radical perspectives and voices. In this country there are limitations in coming to a concrete conclusion since there is lack of awareness of psychology in exploring the full potential in this regard.
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The Code of Hammurabi is one of the oldest deciphered writings in the world. Created by the eponymous Babylonian king, it is a collection of the decisions reached by him in various disputes and legal matters. It was intended to serve as a reference to judges for just resolutions of disagreements and punishments for crimes. Ultimately, however, the king had created the document to improve his popularity and spread awareness of the wisdom and order of his rule.
The Geopolitical Context
Hammurabi was a highly successful ruler, achieving many victories in both internal and external affairs. According to Dutton et al., under his rule Babylon conquered its rivals, ending the period of strife that had lasted two centuries, and instituted the kings native Accadian as the primary language of the land (17). Considering his work in resolving legal matters in addition to that, it is likely that Hammurabi enjoyed popularity with his citizens.
However, the expansion of the nation beyond the boundaries of a single city had a significant effect on the legal system. The much higher number of subjects, combined with the distance between them and the city of Babylon, meant the king could not attend to every matter personally. As such, it became necessary to appoint local judges who would control the population without needing to consult him personally. To aid them, Hammurabi decided to create a code of laws, like his precursor Ur-Nammu did two centuries earlier.
The code made clear distinctions between nobles, commoners, and slaves, valuing the aristocracy above the rest. A nobles word was more likely to be believed, and the punishments for the same crime were more severe if the felony was committed against a noble as opposed to a commoner or slave. This difference in treatment served to deepen the social rift between different categories of citizens, effectively securing their positions.
The Justice of the Code
The first step in evaluating the justice of the Code of Hammurabi is the examination of the judges position. The judges were not the local rulers and did not enjoy freedom in their decisions. Instead, they were strictly supervised and expected to follow the code whenever possible. Furthermore, the decisions of judges could be appealed before the king, though the decision would be sent back to the judge if the kings representatives decided the case was covered by the code.
The code operates on the presumption of innocence, requiring evidence before a judgment concerning a crime would be made. If a person accused another of misconduct and failed to present adequate proof, they would often receive the punishment instead. False witnesses shared the same fate if their deception was discovered. Finally, in cases where presenting evidence would be impossible, such as accusations of practicing magic, the accused was forced to jump into the sacred river, and if they managed to survive and get to shore, they were deemed innocent.
Despite the positive factors described above, the code was still affected by social differences, with people from lower classes receiving greater punishments for harming those of a higher category and vice versa. According to Dutton et al., An individual who had physically harmed a noble was punished with the same injury, whereas an injured commoner could be paid compensation (17). This rift prevents the otherwise fair, if harsh and primitive, code from ensuring true justice.
The King and the Code
As mentioned above, Hammurabi was not the first Mesopotamian king to create a set of laws and commit them to clay. Ur-Nammu did the same thing almost two centuries before Hammurabis reign. Similar to Hammurabi, Ur-Nammu left behind a kingdom that lasted a little over a century, though in his case the country fell apart with the end of the Ur dynasty instead of being conquered like Hammurabis. As such, Hammurabi is an important historical figure, but not a new type of political leader.
Additionally, neither Hammurabi nor Ur-Nammu was the first ruler to unite Mesopotamia. That distinction belongs to Sargon the Great, the founder of the Akkadian Empire. According to Dutton et al., the country he created is considered one of the first great ancient empires, even spreading out into the Middle East during the reign of Sargons grandson Naram-Sin (17). However, the Akkadian Empire also lasted less than two centuries, falling apart after Naram-Sins death.
Despite Hammurabis presumably lesser importance compared to these two, he is better known, primarily for his code. There are two primary reasons to commit a rule to a clay tablet: permanence and time. A law that is written down is immune to changes or misunderstandings that may result from a verbal retelling, letting people feel more secure in their understanding of it. Furthermore, a written law may outlive its creator, continuing to see use during the reign of their successors and immortalizing the lawmakers name, as exemplified by Hammurabi.
Conclusion
Hammurabis achievements and the creation of his code make him one of the greatest ancient Mesopotamian rulers, but not the most accomplished of them all. The primary reason for his popularity is his creation of a surviving document that is also an advanced code of laws. The Code of Hammurabi is highly innovative for its time, leaving behind many tribal traditions, operating on the presumption of innocence, and providing judges with a robust framework while restricting their power. However, the remaining tribal customs such as eye-for-an-eye practices as well as the social division prevalent throughout the codes prevent it from creating true justice as defined by modern standards.
Work Cited
Dutton, Paul, et al. Many Europes: Choice and Chance in Western Civilization. McGraw-Hill Education, 2014.
Organizations should support an appropriate environment.
Stronger Together works with people having disabilities.
Report:
Services and resources the firm provides.
Discusses how it maintains the environment.
Thesis:
Stronger Together supports the environment by advocating for the rights of individuals, educating organizations, and ensuring positive workplace environments.
Supporting a diverse, just, healing, and inclusive environment is crucial for all organizations. However, it is especially significant for companies working with individuals having disabilities. This presentation provides information about Stronger Together, the company supporting the needs of this group of the population. It addresses the services and resources the firm provides and discusses how it maintains an appropriate environment both for these individuals and within its structure. The presentation concludes that it is crucial to support an appropriate environment for people living with disabilities by educating organizations about the challenges they may encounter, ensuring a welcoming environment for all employees, and advocating for their legal and civil rights.
Services and Resources of the Organization
Stronger Together non-profit organization.
Supports people having disabilities.
More than two decades in the field.
Aims:
Advocating for the rights of people with disabilities.
Ensuring access to health care, education, housing, transportation.
Supporting people living with intellectual disabilities.
The organization this paper presents is a non-profit company named Stronger Together that provides help for individuals living with disabilities. The company has been working in the field for more than two decades, offering support for this group of people. The firm aims at improving the lives of populations having disabilities, advocating for their rights, and ensuring their access to healthcare services, employment, housing, education, and transportation. Stronger Together provides care for individuals living with intellectual disabilities as well.
Follows the example of the NDRN.
Provides support within the criminal justice systems.
Addresses the significance of enforcing appropriate laws.
Believes that everyone should have equal opportunities.
In its work, Stronger Together also follows the example of the National Disability Rights Network (NDRN), which is a legally-based advocacy organization established by Congress that supports individuals with disabilities. Like in the NDRN, one of its services is advocating for this group of the population within the criminal justice systems (National Disability Rights Network 2019). To be specific, Stronger Together addresses the significance of enforcing laws protecting the human rights of individuals having disabilities. It believes that every person should have equal opportunities and be able to participate in community life fully.
Collaborates with the EARN.
Offers education and outreach activities.
Helps to establish communication between employers and employees having disabilities.
Supports companies in building inclusive workforces and creating welcoming working environments.
Today, Stronger Together has significant resources to achieve its aims and support vulnerable groups of individuals. First, the organization collaborates with the Employer Assistance and Resource Network on Disability Inclusion (EARN) to offer education and outreach activities to people living with disabilities (Employer Assistance and Resource Network on Disability Inclusion 2019). Together with the EARN, it helps to establish communication between employers and their potential employees that have physical or intellectual disabilities. Moreover, it offers support to companies wanting to build inclusive workforces and create positive environments for all workers.
Has volunteers and professionally trained employees.
Helps individuals with disabilities to perform daily tasks.
Assists in cleaning, washing dishes, and doing shopping.
Helps to find housing and maintain appropriate living conditions.
Offers affordable housing options and ensures a healing environment.
Second, the company has volunteers and professionally trained employees, including nursing staff, that help people with disabilities to perform daily tasks or support their well-being. The organization aims at eliminating the challenges individuals having disabilities may encounter regularly, such as the ones associated with cleaning the house, washing dishes, and going shopping. Moreover, as mentioned before, employees and volunteers at Stronger Together help people to find housing and ensure that their living conditions are appropriate. Offering affordable options and maintaining a healing environment is one of the primary goals of the organization.
Collaborates with local organizations (3 local initiatives).
Offers food and toiletries to individuals living with disabilities.
Collaborates with a major local hospital.
Ensures that patients receive appropriate care.
Holds educational events for medical professionals.
Finally, Stronger Together collaborates with local organizations to meet the needs people with disabilities have. For example, it works with three local initiatives offering food to individuals having physical or mental disparities. Moreover, the companys resources allow it to provide individuals in need with other necessary products, such as toiletries. Besides that, Stronger Together works with a major local hospital to ensure that all patients living with disabilities receive appropriate care, holding educational events for medical professionals. This way, it communicates the needs individuals having disabilities have.
Principles of Transcultural Nursing
The concepts of transcultural nursing are central to Stronger Togethers work.
Understands that culture is a critical, but not the only, part of an individuals identity.
Seeks to view each person as an individual who is shaped by factors such as race, but not entirely defined by them.
Stronger Together follows the latest research in transcultural nursing. The organizations volunteers and staff undergo training aimed at explaining the concepts related to understanding the patients culture and taking it into consideration when deciding on an appropriate health care measure. This approach, advocated by Lydia DeSantis (1994), views patients as individuals who are shaped by their race, culture, and ethnicity, but not defined by these factors. Ultimately, this means that Stronger Together advocates for a individualized approach unique to each of its clients.
Understands that different cultures can perceive the same reality in a different ways.
Staff and volunteers are trained in cultural brokerage.
Seeks compromise informed by the patients cultural views of their disability and status.
The principles of transcultural nursing are especially valuable in low-income neighborhoods with low education rates and a high percentage of immigrants. For these populations, a lack of familiarity with the national healthcare system can be a significant obstacle to acquiring a standard of care and advocacy that is available to them. To assist them, Stronger Together maintains an outreach program designed to inform and educate people on the options available to them.
Produces, translates, and distributes learning materials in non-English language.
Contracts multilingual lawyers to legally represent non-English speaking people with disabilities in court or provide legal counseling.
Currently developing English as a Second Language (ESL) courses and group programs for non-English speakers.
Different cultures can have different perceptions of the same condition, which includes disabilities. Stronger Togethers staff and volunteers working in the outreach program introduced in the previous slide are trained in cultural brokerage. This training enables them to treat the patients disability within the context of his or her culture and reach a compromise on treatment options that are acceptable in said context.
Provides the information and education required to take advantage of the national healthcare system.
Maintains an outreach program in low-income neighborhoods.
Works with immigrants.
Stronger Together acknowledges that in such populations, language barrier can further hamper individuals from acquiring care. To remove this obstacle, the firm produces and distributes learning materials on disability and the national healthcare system in non-English languages, notably Spanish and Arabic. Furthermore, the organization staffs multilingual lawyers who are capable of legally representing non-English-speaking applicants. Group programs designed for non-English speaking participants and English as a Second Language (ESL) courses are currently in the development stage, and expected to be made available to the public in 2020.
Working with Children and Adolescents
Provides information and training to family members of people living with disabilities.
Seeks to address racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in access to this information.
Specifically, works with the parents of children living with disabilities, whose lives can be critically affected by such a lack of information.
Stronger Together provides the necessary training and information to the families of people with disabilities. As Singer and Baer (2012) note, a lack of information can be a significant barrier to managing disabilities such as asthma. Furthermore, a racial and socioeconomic disparity exists in this issue, affecting low-income Latin families more than others (Singer & Baer 2012). The organization ensures that parents of disabled children are informed of any special needs, procedures and considerations that may be required.
Prepares teachers and education administrator for working with children living with disabilities.
Produces and distributes learning materials adapted for learners suffering from disabilities.
Staffs child and adolescent psychologists to help disadvantaged children and teenagers living with a disability.
Provides financial aid in seeking psychological services.
Stronger Together also works with the education system, providing teachers and administrators with additional training on working with children with disabilities. The organization has assisted in authoring and adapting learning materials to be more accessible, and distributing these materials as necessary.
The firms staff includes child and adolescent psychologists and therapists to help children and teenagers with disabilities, particularly those with a disadvantaged socioeconomic status, cope with their condition. The same staff can also help with any other psychological issues related to disability. Finally, the organization provides low-income families financial aid in seeking psychological services for their children.
Helping the Elderly
Provides older people with disabilities with general geriatric care in addition to helping manage their disability.
Issues health monitoring devices such as blood pressure cuff meters and heartbeat monitors.
Provides the elderly with training in the use of such devices, accounting for the patients existing disability.
For older patients, Stronger Together aims to provide a standard of general geriatric care that is necessary in addition to any special care required for managing their disability. The non-profit issues health monitoring devices such as heartbeat monitors, sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meters), and personal medical alert systems (emergency buttons) to the elderly people living with disabilities. The organization also offers training in their use, tailored to the individuals existing disability.
Performs weekly check-ins with older patients, ascertaining their status and collecting medical data if possible.
Employs volunteers to socialize with aging individuals with disabilities living alone.
Rehabilitation center offers special group programs for older people, aimed at establishing and maintaining their social support networks.
Stronger Together performs weekly phone or personal check-ins for geriatric patients to verify their status and, if possible, perform any additional medical tests that the patient cannot do him- or herself. For older persons living alone, these check-ins provide a necessary opportunity for socialization that may be otherwise unavailable to them. Additionally, the organizations volunteers are ready to spend time with the people in question, specifically addressing their social needs, Finally, the organizations rehabilitation center offers group programs specifically tailored for aging individuals. These programs focus on creating opportunities to establish and expand an individuals social support network.
Challenging Disability Discrimination
Challenges disability discrimination.
Receives and responds to complaints of discrimination.
Brings anti-discrimination training to healthcare providers.
Finally, Stronger Together aims to challenge discrimination based on disability. This type of discrimination can be especially damaging, especially in a healthcare setting, as it can discourage people living with disabilities from seeking medical aid (Moscoso-Porras, 2018). Stronger Together receives and responds to complaints of discriminatory behavior and offers sensitivity and transcultural nursing training to healthcare providers working in local facilities. This training is aimed at providing them with the cultural and social tools necessary for creating an inclusive, safe, and healing environment.
Helping with Legal Issues
Assists individuals living with disabilities with legal issues.
Contracts attorneys to help resolve legal issues in employment and education.
If necessary, provides counseling and psychological assistance during the court proceedings.
The companys legal services are available to private individuals, not just business owners. It staffs and maintains contact with attorneys and legal councilors to provide advice and representation in any disability-related issues. These issues include, but not limited to: resolution of employment and education conflicts; harassment and discrimination litigation; and class action lawsuits related to disabilities. Professional counseling and psychological services are also offered to help with the taxing nature of such processes if they are requested.
Creating an Appropriate Environment
Environment highly significant; can affect individuals mental/physical state.
A persons environment => their health (Singer and Baer 2012).
Companies should support an inclusive environment (Moore, McDonald, and Bartlett 2017).
Organizations tend to follow the beliefs of the wider environment.
Stronger Together aims at creating a healing environment.
The environment can be considered one of the most significant factors affecting a persons mental and physical state. Singer and Baer (2012) report that there is a direct connection between an individuals environment and their health. The study by Moore, McDonald, and Bartlett (2017) shows that it is vital to create and support an inclusive environment for people living with disabilities. Unfortunately, in their internal policies, organizations often follow the beliefs and conventions of the wider environment, which may result in challenges for individuals having physical or mental disparities. Due to the factors presented above, Stronger Together strives to ensure that individuals it works with live in an environment that helps them heal; the strategies it uses will be discussed below.
Maintains diverse and inclusive environment in its structures.
Offers jobs to people living with disabilities.
Ensures that all employees work together and have equal opportunities.
Many positions are remote, but people can work from the office.
It is vital to note that the company strives to maintain a diverse and inclusive environment in its structures, too. Stronger Together offers jobs to individuals with disabilities wanting to be a part of the organization. The company ensures that all employees, regardless of their abilities, work together and have equal opportunities. Many of the positions Stronger Together offers to individuals with disabilities are remote, but all people can work from the office if they want.
Strategy: ensure that individuals engage in physical and group activities.
Participation is vital for human functioning (Krops et al. 2019).
Physical activities support the well-being.
Stronger Together has a rehabilitation center; offers group programs.
Physical exercises, art sessions, communication.
One of the other strategies Stronger Together uses to support a supportive and healing environment is by ensuring that people with physical and mental disabilities can engage in some physical and group activities. Krops et al. (2019) report that participation is one of the most significant aspects of human functioning and physical activities are crucial for supporting well-being. Stronger Together has a rehabilitation center that offers group programs for people having disabilities. During these programs, individuals can do simple physical exercises, have art sessions together, and communicate with each other.
Figure 1. An example of a group art session (WXXI Arts Infocus 2017)
Typically, a group session in the rehabilitation center looks like in the picture above.
Strives to maintain a just environment for individuals living with disabilities.
Protects their civil and human rights.
Encourages individuals to address challenging issues.
Offers legal advice and financial aid.
Provides emotional support to those in need.
As mentioned above, the company strives to maintain a just environment for individuals living with disabilities by protecting their human and civil rights. Stronger Together encourages people it works with to discuss the issues they encounter and offers legal advice. Moreover, if necessary, the representatives of the organization provide financial aid to individuals needing to work with lawyers. Finally, the company offers emotional support to those facing unfair policies or conditions related to the workplace or healthcare settings.
Ensures that local companies support diversity and inclusive practices.
Provides free diversity training sessions.
Discusses disability employment, inclusive human resource practices.
Raises awareness of possible challenging issues.
Helps to implement healthy policies that meet peoples needs (Moore, McDonald, and Bartlett 2017).
It is crucial to add that Stronger Together ensures that local companies support diversity and inclusive practices within their settings. It offers free diversity training sessions for organizations, discussing issues of disability employment and inclusive human resource practices, raising awareness of the challenging issues individuals may encounter. Moore, McDonald, and Bartlett (2017) note that such an approach is crucial to encourage companies to implement healthy policies that meet the needs of people living with disabilities and align with organizational values.
Improving the Physical Environment
Helps install and maintain accessibility features in public spaces.
Monitors and ensures compliance with the ADA.
Employs specialists to help plan and deploy accessibility features.
Provides legal aid to business owners seeking financial grants and tax deductions as per the ADA.
Stronger Together advances its legal advocacy to ensure that accessibility features are installed and maintained in public spaces in accordance with any requirements, standards, laws and regulations outlined in the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Such features include wheelchair ramps, elevators, widened doors, and accessible toilets (United States Department of Justice, 2010). The lack of such features can make life and seeking healthcare a challenge to those with physical disabilities (Moscoso-Porras & Alvarado, 2018). The organization employs specialists to assist in the planning and deployment of these elements in public spaces. Stronger Together also provides legal aid to business owners in securing financial grants and tax deductions in accordance with the ADA.
Helps brings mobility assistance and accessibility into the home.
Contracts local construction firms to install accessibility features in private homes.
Provides financial aid towards installing these modifications in homes.
Furthermore, Stronger Together works with local services and construction firms to take steps for modifications aimed at improving accessibility to be made in housing. This work is intended to help expand the home as a safe and healing environment. However, these features can be difficult to afford, particularly for those of a lower socioeconomic status or those living alone. In particular, the organization maintains a special sponsorship fund to be used on installing accessibility features in the homes of people living with disabilities.
Conclusion
Stronger Together.
Offers legal support.
Advocates for individuals human and civil rights.
Offers group sessions and activities.
Ensures positive and just environments (including working ones).
Maintains housing and transportation.
Offers educational sessions.
Stronger Together supports people having disabilities by offering legal support, advocating for their civil and human rights. It offers group sessions and physical activities, and ensuring just and positive environments for them. Moreover, it maintains appropriate housing and transportation for these individuals and provides companies with educational sessions.
References
DeSantis, P. 1994. Making anthropology clinically relevant to nursing care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 20, 707-715.
Employer Assistance and Resource Network on Disability Inclusion. 2019. About. AskEARN.org.
Krops, Leonie A., Nienke Folkertsma, Doortje H. J. Hols, Jan H. B. Geertzen, Peter U. Dijkstra, & Rienk Dekker. 2019. Target Populations Requirements on a Community-Based Intervention for Stimulating Physical Activity in Hard-to-Reach Physically Disabled People: An Interview Study. Disability and Rehabilitation 41(19): 2272-2279.
Moore, Katherine, Paula McDonald, and Jennifer Bartlett. 2017. The Social Legitimacy of Disability Inclusive Human Resource Practices: The Case of a Large Retail Organisation. Human Resource Management Journal 27(4): 514-529.
Moscoso-Porras, M. G., & Alvarado, G. F. (2018). Association between perceived discrimination and healthcare-seeking behavior in people with a disability. Disability and Health Journal, 11(1), 9398.
National Disability Rights Network. 2019. About. NDRN.org.
Singer, Merrill and Hans Baer. 2012. Introducing Medical Anthropology: A Discipline in Action. 2nd ed. Lanham: AltaMira Press.
WXXI Arts Infocus. 2017. Expressive Arts Session at Hochstein School of Music and Dance. Wxxinews.org.
United States Department of Justice. (2010). Americans with Disabilities Act Title III Regulations.
The notion of social construction helps to define and explain social relations, realities, and the importance of knowledge sharing. Following Beaumie Kim (2001): Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding. The four tenets of social constructivism are knowledge, reality, learning, and inter-subjectivity of social meanings. They describe the origin of social realities very simply as a process by which individuals who repeatedly confront a task or situation relevant to their lives develop habitual ways of dealing with it. People first recognize the recurrent nature of a situation; then, they develop roles or functions for cooperating individuals to perform in connection with the task involved. (Searle, 1997). Through socialization, social constructions are internalized, and as experience is filtered and understood through meaningful symbols, the essence of individual identity is formed. Identity is built upon the foundation of family identity. Intersubjectivity is a shared understanding among individuals whose interaction is based on common interests and assumptions (Kim 2001). The construction is the same as the construction of all identities, for instance, young children learn to use verbal labels for themselves and their behavior, as well as for others and their behavior. These labels then come to have the same meaning for the learners as they do for the old hands. Social constructions thus embodied in the language shared within a group come to be embedded in the foundation of individual identities by means of language. Individuals observe and judge their own behavior and the behavior of others. In making these judgments, they use the scripts provided by society. The meanings of behaviors and the judgments that individuals attach to them are part of these scripts. Following Warmoth (2000): knowledge is not what individuals believe, but rather what social groups, or knowledge communities, believe (Kukla, 2001, p. 45). Reality means that a child is born into a social world that has the experienced characteristic of being the sole reality
Distributive justice determines the process of resource allocation in society in accordance with the rules of justice and rights of individuals. Distributive justice in its modern sense calls on the state to guarantee that property is distributed throughout society so that everyone is supplied with a certain level of material means (Fleischacker, 2004). The four features of distributive justice are strict egalitarianism, justice as a virtue, the difference principle, and equality of resources. Identifying the kinds of goods available for distribution and the criteria which are appropriate to each means interpreting the culture of particular society questions of justice always arise within a bounded political community. Each community creates its own social goods, their significance depends upon the way they are conceived by the members of that particular society. The roster of such goods will differ from place to place (Searle, 1997). But this suggests simply that there is a widely held distributive principle that holds that medicine ought to be allocated according to need. And although this principle may be suggested by the nature of medicine itself the fact that medical need is a necessary condition for being able to benefit from this good it is not entailed by it. Distributive justice in its modern sense, calls on the state to guarantee that property is distributed throughout society so that everyone is supplied with a certain level of material means (Fleischacker, 2004, p. 7). Distributive justice arises within a bounded community in which each person enjoys equal political and civil rights.
Reproductive success can be explained as a passing of genes to the next generation (Kukla, 2000, p. 48). The four main features of the concept are selfishness, competition, behavioral differences, and evolution. The growth of reproductive technology is closely tied to a societys central tenets. The United States can be characterized by its cultural diversity, but it can also be characterized by cultural ideologies originating from its early roots, Selection increases the frequency of adaptive traits, traits that give their bearers an advantage in the competition for productive success relative to other individuals (Sociobiology, 2005). In the selection process, competition means performing the pertinent tasks better than ones competitors (Sociobiology, 2005). Individuals in a single population can differ from each other from a variety of causes. Reproductive success produces a population of defectors because it favors the higher-scoring strategy in every contest. The reproductive success acting on variation in a character (parameter of a design or strategy) can often be expected to fix the mean value near the functional optimum and to minimize the variation about that mean. It is important to note that reproductive success is related in most cultures to differential wealth, social status and power within that culture (Sociobiology, 2005).
In reproductive success, reproductive health becomes a fairly well-accepted concept at government policymaking levels; thus, understanding of the concept is believed to be almost nonexistent at the field-worker and service-provider levels, where reproductive health is still equated with family planning. It is believed, however, that the lack of comprehension about reproductive health care would not hamper implementation of the governments reproductive health agenda since the essential services package proposed under the Health and Population Sector Programme (HPSP) would be implemented in such a way that 40 percent of its components included reproductive health care elements (Kukla, 2000).
The relations between distributive justice and social construction can be explained by a close link between social reality and social justice. There is an obvious sense in which social reality is constructed by people: people make the social world through our conceptualizations and interactions, attitudes, and acceptances. Collective acceptance is the key to the construction (including equal and fair distribution of resources) of many social entities and properties. Social institutions and arrangements are constructed and maintained, but they also change, sometimes in a piecemeal fashion, sometimes abruptly. In this case, the role of distributive justice is to establish resource allocation (Searle, 1997). As the most important, social justice takes place within a changing social structure, within the evolving institutions of economics. The models and rules of justice are shaped by the institutions of economics. They are so shaped regardless of whether and how well they represent economic reality. The concept of knowledge has to include that of truth in order for the difference to be visible. It is only with this traditional and richer notion of knowledge that we can entertain the idea that different constellations of belief-shaping social conditions and distributive justice have different likelihoods of generating true beliefs (Distributive Justice, 2007). This is a realist version of the idea that distributive justice is socially constructed. It suggests that the institutions of economics have to be so designed as to maximize the likelihood that the economic models published in journals and textbooks help us attain maximum relevance in our beliefs about the way the economy works.
The relations between reproductive success and social construction are based on the idea of social interactions and functions. The idea is that it is an important feature of social reality that people seek to make sense of their social lives: people give accounts of the reasons and worth of their social behavior. In this sense, reproductive success is pre-interpreted by social actors themselves (Searle, 1997). Reproductive success becomes a portion of reality as well as the truth about that reality. Rather, it is by way of such pursuits that social construction takes place, not only of knowledge but of reality as well. Realists may resist this reasoning by arguing that while knowledge claims are socially constructed, and it is an empirical question to determine the precise ways in which they are constructed, the truth of those claims and the reality that those claims about do not coincide (Searle, 199; Sociobiology, 2005).
The relationships between reproductive success and distributive justice are based on a right of a citizen to access resources and the competitive nature of reproduction. For instance, in reproductive rights, as in other aspects of social policy, feminists have been active participants in the policy processes. Following duties of parents to children, of beneficiaries to benefactors, of friends and neighbors to one another, and of everyone to people of merit. (Fleischacker, 2004, p. 27). In addition to their social movement roles of outside interveners and trenchant public critics of the inquiry processes and recommendations, feminists have been insiders in non-government organizations with interests in procreation, members of government departments, elected officials, and members of committees of inquiry. In some cases, outside critics became members of inquiries, being formally required to see the issues from another perspective.
References
Searle, G. (1997). The Construction of Social Reality. Free Press.
Racial justice issues are a persistent problem contributed by classifying and treating people based on various factors that define them. These factors may include considering that a person belongs to populations from particular geographical regions with similar physical appearance. Additionally, individuals country of origin is a fundamental factor used to determine their race or ethnicity, leading to unfair treatment. Racial injustices negatively impact individuals and their families, and sometimes victims are denied rights endowed by the constitution. The racial injustice issues impacted my life, promoting interest in leadership and change-making to address problems of systemic racism, inequality, and oppression are harassment, victimization, prejudice and overt bias, racial profiling, and stereotyping.
Harassment and victimization are common injustices experienced by individuals because of being an affiliate to a particular race. Racial harassments that affect me include insulting behaviors or remarks and unwelcomed conduct in social and working places that violate a persons dignity and create offensive environments. Insulting remarks hurt an individuals emotions and self-esteem, making them unable to be significant team players at school and the workplace. People with low self-esteem cannot give their ideas or opinions in the presence of those they feel can racially harass them even if they know their thoughts or views can have a positive impact. Racial victimization involves singling out someone because of their language, appearance, or country of origin. This act amounts to unjust treatment and hurts emotionally.
Prejudice and overt bias are inevitable in a society with multiple racial or ethnic groups. Prejudice and overt bias in such a society lead to racial discrimination because someone or a group of people harbor negative feelings or hostility against others based on their country of origin, culture, or language. Consequently, racial discrimination victims experience unfair or unequal treatments, such as being denied job opportunities and access to buildings or residential areas. Such treatments and hostility can have emotional and psychological impacts on the victims, making them unable to participate in socially and economically productive activities. I feel that leaders contribute to the prevalence of racial discrimination when someone treats another person or me unequally because of their race since they tolerate violations of constitutional rights. The leadership fails to develop and implement policies that can alleviate racism and inequality in society. Additionally, a leadership that embraces racial and cultural diversity can help in addressing this issue, which hurts individuals, society, and the economy.
Stereotyping is a form of racial injustice that involves associating particular characteristics to all people belonging to groups regardless of personal differences. It leads to racial discrimination based on false generalization, inadequate information, and misconceptions. Notably, stereotypes often assume negative attributes about groups, which hurts victims. A good example of stereotyping is how most whites in the United States associate African American young men with robbery and violence, drug peddling, and other unlawful activities. Violence and other illegal behaviors among African Americans can be traced back to the slavery period and perpetuated social and economic marginalization after slaves were released. Unfortunately, some whites still consider most African Americans as robbers and ruthless, even those with no criminal records. Leaders are responsible for providing people with adequate information and eliminating misconceptions that contribute to stereotyping in society.
Racial profiling is shared among law enforcement agencies, and it involves actions taken in pursuit of public security and safety. These actions rely on factors such as ethnicity, race, or religious affiliation, or even where a person comes from instead of reasonable suspicion. African Americans and people affiliated with Islam religion are mostly the victims of racial profiling because they are associated with groups known for violence, robbery, or terrorism. The actions may involve forced stop and unlawful search as well as arrest and detention without an offense by law enforcement officers. However, leaders can address racial profiling by letting people and police officers understand that not all African Americans or Muslims are threats to security and reasonable suspicion is necessary before any action.
Earning the scholarship to pursue leadership and the change-making course will have a significant impact on my life. I will have an opportunity to enhance my leadership skills and learn more about social problems such as racial injustices that affect individuals and communities. Additionally, I will learn about different leadership strategies instrumental in making changes to address various racial justice issues, including harassment, prejudice and overt bias, racial profiling, and stereotyping. Also, the scholarship will help me achieve my dream of being a leader with a positive impact on all people regardless of their racial affiliation.
Conclusively, peoples classification and treatment based on race, ethnicity, or country of origin contribute to racial justice issues such as stereotyping, prejudice, overt bias, and harassment. Leadership at different levels contributes to the persistence of the problems because of the failure to develop and implement policies that can alleviate racism and inequality in society. The scholarship will help me acquire leadership skills and learn strategies to bring social changes to address racial justice problems.
The issue of drug addiction among pregnant mothers has been a concern among medical experts. When a pregnant mother is addicted to alcohol and drug, she may end up causing irreparable damage to the unborn child. At the time of birth, the child may have physical or mental deformities that it may be forced to live with for the rest of its life. This is very unfair not only to the unborn child but also family members who will be forced to take care of such a child. It is for this reason that some members of the society have started demanding for social justice for unborn children whose mothers are addicted to drugs or alcohol. In this paper, the researcher will try to find the best ways through which social justice can be administered as a way of deterring pregnant mothers from engaging in drug and alcohol abuse.
According to Kinser (2010), life begins at conception. This means that an unborn child should be considered a human being that has all the rights accorded to a human being. For that matter, it is important to find ways through which the rights of an unborn child should be protected. Medical experts have scientific proof that abuse of alcohol or drugs among pregnant mothers exposes an unborn child to a series of dangers. Such a child may develop physical or mental problems while in the womb. In some extreme cases, such a child may die. It is necessary to find ways of protecting rights of such a child. Coming up with a social justice system that protects the child from harm of alcohol has been a challenge because the mother also has her own rights that should not be violated.
The research by Barusch (2012), focused on the rights that unborn children have when it comes to the issue of drug and alcohol abuse. As an expectant mother, there are some moral obligations that one is expected of as a way of protecting the well-being of the unborn child. However, the problem that we currently face is that these moral obligations are not enforceable by law. There are no laws and regulations in our country that prohibits an expectant mother from acting in a given way. The law seems to be silent about the rights of an unborn child. If fact, our current laws focus more on the rights of the mother and the freedom of choices she can make regarding her pregnancy.
Lack of clear laws and regulations has been the biggest challenge when it comes to fighting of alcoholism and drug abuse among expectant mothers. Medical experts have clearly stated that it is harmful for pregnant mothers to take alcohol, but the legal system is yet to come up with principles that these mothers should follow. It means that irresponsible mothers can still harm their children due to their abuse of alcohol and drugs and get away with it.
According to Diaz (2006), we need social justice for the unborn children. If life really begins at conception, then we need to find laws and regulations that will protect the unborn child from any harm. It is a fact that pregnant mothers also have a right to be happy and enjoy life just like other members of the society. This right should, however, not be a threat to the rights of the unborn child. We may need to compare the two rights in order to determine the one that can be considered subordinate to the other.
When a pregnant mother takes excessive amount of alcohol, chances are that the child may be subjected to a number of physical and mental harm. Sometimes this may even lead to still birth if alcohol abuse is not controlled. It is a greater evil to kill a child than to be stopped from taking alcohol for just a few months. It is also a greater evil to force a child to lead a life of mental and physical sickness then to make a mother stop taking drugs for nine months.
It is justifiable to come up with strategies that will prohibit mothers from abusing drugs and alcohol based on the above arguments. The first step towards protecting the unborn children from harm due to excessive intake of alcohol is to formulate laws. In the past, it has been difficult to protect these unborn children because of limited or unclear laws and regulations. For this reason, the best way of addressing the current problem is to come up with laws that will stipulate how a pregnant mother should care for her unborn baby.
When coming up with these laws, it may be necessary to consult the relevant stakeholders. It will be important to note that these laws are not meant to punish pregnant mothers. When it is seen as a punishment for the pregnant mothers, then enforcing it may be a new problem that we will face after coming up with the law. Women should take a center-stage in coming up with the law that they find acceptable.
The right punishment for pregnant mothers who take excess alcohol should be a jail term of not more than ten years. However, this may be adjusted as per the suggestions given by the relevant stakeholders in the consultative forums. They may discuss appropriate punishment for first-time offenders and that for perpetual offenders. The term can be reduced to five years or less based on the extent of the crime. A jail term may seem a harsh punishment for pregnant mothers who abuse drugs and alcohol. However, it is important to appreciate the fact that they may be subjecting their children to a greater harm when they engage in substance abuse.
When coming up with social justice for the unborn babies, it is more effective to take moral and ethical approach than to take legal approach. It is easier for one to go against the law, especially in cases where one does not believe in the principle and spirit of that particular law. However, when one is made to understand the relevance of a given law or regulation, then they will appreciate why they ought to behave in a given manner (Van & Davis, 2008).
Pregnant mothers should be made to understand that when then engage in substance abuse, they not only affect their children but also all other members of the family. Their entire family will be forced to offer care to the abnormal child that will be born even in its advanced ages. This information will make them appreciate the need to protect their unborn children.
References
Barusch, A. S. (2012). Foundations of social policy: Social justice in human perspective. Melbourne: Cole Cengage Learning. Web.
Diaz, J. (2006). Chicana lives and criminal justice: Voices from el barrio. Texas: University of Texas Press. Web.
Kinser, A. E. (2010). Motherhood and feminism. Berkeley: Seal Press. Web.
Van, W. & Davis, D. R. (2008). Addiction treatment: A strengths perspective. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education. Web.
Analyzing the main factors influencing the willingness of people to get involved in advocacy efforts is the key to figuring out how to boost the activity of the workers. Chapter 3 Getting Involved of Advocacy Practice for Social Justice provides an in-depth analysis of the valid literature resources exploring the specifics of getting involved in politics and defines the main directions of influencing the level of advocacy among the social workers.
The first part of the chapter investigates the causes of difference in political activity among various people. Several classifications related to the level of political activity of the citizens are presented and the main factors that influence to which group a person belongs are discussed. The author reveals that the largest group of the population belongs to passive spectators who do little else except participating in the basic civic activities.
The second part of the chapter is aimed at answering the question whether social workers are politically active. The author analyzes the relevant literature and comes to a conclusion that social workers appear to be more politically active than most Americans. Most of the studies investigating the causes of the high level of involvement of social workers indicate such main factors as personal values, education level, participation in other organizations, and time. The methods of influencing these factors are discussed in the final part of the chapter.
Encouraging people willing to graduate in social sciences to obtain basic knowledge in policy making and other forms of advocacy and providing continuous educational activities for current social workers are identified as the keys to enhancing political activity through education. The main ways of affecting involvement of social workers through influencing their values are considered to be hiring those candidates who have desirable values and are eager to make a change and cultivating the organizational culture that encourages people to be active. Team leaders need to encourage workers to demonstrate professional advocacy efforts and reward such initiatives.
The author also emphasizes the importance of maintaining the high sense of professional responsibility among the workers. It can be done mainly by accepting those applicants who have the corresponding experience in social work advocacy gained while receiving the education. Stimulating the interest of the workers is also described as an essential method of increasing advocacy activity of social workers. Such method includes providing advocacy opportunities and revealing the relation between such efforts and satisfaction of personal interest.
Moreover, not only the interest should be promoted, but the corresponding skills should also be enhanced by giving the opportunities for enhancing advocacy skills and receiving the help of highly qualified mentors. The author also emphasizes the importance of encouraging the employees to cooperate with organizations engaged in advocacy and organize the working schedules in such way that the workers have enough time for advocacy efforts. One more variable influencing the involvement of social workers and discussed in the chapter is wealth. Hoefer (2015) claims that social workers receiving wages enabling them to live a good life are more likely to engage in advocacy activity.
The chapter provides a comprehensive information about the levels of involvement in politics, the main factors influencing it, and the possible directions of stimulating the advocacy activity of social workers through providing positive changes in certain aspects impacting their motivation and ability to engage in advocatory efforts.
Reference
Hoefer, R. (2015). Advocacy practice for social justice (3rd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Lyceum Books, Incorporated. Web.
