Zoroaster, also famous as Zarathustra, was a prophet who urged people to reject evil, a reformer and founder of one of the most ancient religions, Zoroastrianism. Although the exact time of this person’s life is unknown, according to legends, he received divine revelation at the age of 30 and began to preach (Holland 2017, 2). He convinced people that the road leading to paradise is accessible to those who adopt a righteous life. Zoroaster proclaimed one supreme God, Ahura Mazda, thereby denying polytheism and giving Zoroastrianism a monotheistic character (Corduan 2012). He was one of the first to tell people about hell and heaven, this world’s dark and light beginnings, and the Day of Judgment (Holland 2017, 3-5). Zoroaster taught people that God would not leave them, especially if they chose the path leading to mercy. Therefore, this prophet spoke about the struggle between good and evil and emphasized that each person’s way to paradise could be opened only due to good deeds.
Similarities and Differences between Zoroastrianism and Judaism
Although Zoroastrianism and Judaism are pretty different, they have several similarities since both religions were spread mainly across the Middle East. They are monotheistic: there is one eternal and omnipresent God (Corduan 2012). Moreover, these religions view all people as equal and make them strive to do good deeds, listen to God’s voice, and believe that God will judge them after death. The differences between them concern both the daily habits of the faithful and broader concepts. While Judaism originates in the Levant and directs believers to pray three times a day in synagogues, Zoroastrianism comes from Persia, and its followers pray five times a day in fire temples. Although both religions are monotheistic, Zoroastrians consider that “the cosmos was created from the interplay of two distinct forces” and that good God has a cosmic fight with his evil counterpart (Holland 2017, 4). Jews believe that God is a True Creator of the World who has always existed. They have different Holy books and various beliefs related to the afterlife. Therefore, these ancient world religions have both similarities and differences.
Witnessing to Jews
Since I have never had the opportunity to witness Jewish people, it was interesting to familiarize myself with the traditions of Jews described in the section of the book by Winfried Corduan. Jews are not as different from Christians as people are used to thinking; they are firmly integrated into Western culture. However, their lifestyle has several peculiarities: they keep kosher and the Sabbath and are intently attached to their heritage (Corduan 2012). Practicing kosher involves “separating milk and meat meals, eating only pure, certified food,” and avoiding contamination (Corduan 2012, 88). It is also essential to understand that Jews who keep the Sabbath do not answer the phone, use electricity and drive cars on Saturdays. Thus, there are things that cannot be demanded from Jews.
Followers of Judaism may be suspicious of the phenomenon of evangelization. Sometimes, when Jews are told about other religions, they strive too hard to defend their faith, remembering the long years of persecution and the time when they were considered inferior (Corduan 2012). Moreover, it would be wrong to “look at Jews as deficient Christians” and “ask them to defend what may be found unacceptable in Judaism” (Corduan 2012, 89). These people cannot be responsible for all events described in the Old Testament. Therefore, although there are several essential things to take into account when dealing with Jews, it is necessary to discard the false stereotypes about followers of Judaism.
References
Corduan, Winfried. 2012. Neighboring Faith: A Christian Introduction to World Religions. 2nd ed. Illinois: IVP Academic.
Goodman, Martin. 2018. History of Judaism. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
A significant action performed by Miriam is described in chapter 15 of Exodus. She inspired Jewish people when the pharaoh and his army were chasing them. When the pharaoh’s chariots and horse riders went into the sea, God drowned all of them, but Israel was able to step on the dry land. After that, Miriam took a timbrel, “and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances” (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Exodus 15:20). Miriam inspired many people, asking them to sing thankfully for their God’s triumph.
Deborah
Deborah, the Lapidoth’s wife, was Israel’s judge and a prophetess. When children of Israel came to mount Ephraim for her judgment, she reminded them that they were supposed to go to Mount Tabor as per God’s will. Barak, the son of Abinoam, answered her, saying he could not go to that mountain without her. Thus, Deborah agreed to go with Barak and the other children of Israel, claiming she was able to withstand such a journey (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Judges 4:9). Deborah was a woman who was ready to go to any lengths to bring to life her Lord’s will.
Jael
Jael was one of the biblical murderers, and her actions described in Judges were highly dramatic. Sisera, the commander of King Jabin’s armies, trusted Jael to watch over him while he was sleeping in the tent. When Sisera fell asleep, Jael took a hammer and one of the nails from the tent and smote it into Sisera’s temples, which led to his immediate death (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Judges 4:21). Jael’s action helped the children of Israel to destroy the army of King Jabin.
Judith
Judith, the daughter of Merari, was a widow who feared God greatly, which is why not a single person had ever said an ill word to her. She bravely stood against the governors of Bethulia, saying they were not right to touch the oath given to God (The Bible: King James Authorized Version, 2008, Judith 10:11). Judith was able to bring the governor’s faith back and reinstate their oath to God.
Huldah
Like Miriam and Deborah, Huldah was a prophetess who dwelt in the college of Jerusalem. She was God’s messenger who told Hilkiah that God would bring evil to Jerusalem and its inhabitants because they had forsaken their Lord to obey other gods (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, 2nd Chronicles 34:25). Huldah represented the Voice of God, bringing deadly warnings to Jews about his wrath.
Hadassah
Hadassah, or Esther, was a beautiful woman, and king Ahasuerus loved her above all his other women. She obtained the king’s favor, which is why he chose her over Vashti as his queen and put the royal crown on her head (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Esther 2:17). Esther had a significant influence on the king, which is why she could help her brother Mordecai to become a vizier.
References
The Bible: Authorized King James Version. (2008). OUP Oxford.
Both Judaism and Taoism have become great and accepted religions of the world. Judaism is a religion that is monotheistic that is believes in one God and the belief that the universe was produced by a sole, Supreme Being, who created the entire world with some significance and intention. In accordance with the tradition of Judaism, the ‘will’ of God shapes the behavior of humans and was disclosed to Moses and the people of Israel at Mount Saini. The humans have to lead their lives according to the ‘The Torah’ also called the ‘Commandments’, which is a gift from God that will enable the Judaists to lead their lives keeping in mind His will.
In contrastingly Taoism is not known to be a religion with a belief in a supreme God or divinity and there is a polytheist approach stressing the belief in many gods. The religion did not stem from any divine revelation, unlike Judaism which is believed to have been revealed to Moses who is the prophet of God. The word Tao, which is pronounced as ‘Dow’ does not have a clear interpretation and can be more or less interpreted in English as a pathway, as it is essentially indescribable and necessitates experience of a power which surrounds, encloses, and runs throughout all living as well as non-living things.
The Tao controls the natural environment courses thereby nurturing the equilibrium of the world. Most Taoists and scholars believe that the originator of Taoism is ‘Lao-Tse’ (604-531 BCE), who was known to be subsisting with Confucius while some believe that he is a mythological personality.
Taoism differs from Judaism in its commencement as it has been known to originate as an amalgamation of psychology and philosophy but eventually developed into a spiritual belief in 440 CE when it was implemented as a religion of the state and it was during this time that ‘Lao-Tse’ gained immense popularity and was established as a deity contrasting to Judaism which does not include idol-worship.
Judaism is similar to Taoism in the issues of achievement of salvation as according to the philosophy of Judaism there are no set of values based on which the Jews would be led to salvation. Judaism does comprise of the ‘Maimonides’ which are the thirteen articles of faith, but these serve the purpose of binding the ethics of the Jews. Like Taoism, Judaism lays more importance on the deed ‘miswa’. According to the Taoist beliefs, the ‘Tow’ is the essential force that encompasses all forms of existence and as such, there is a greater emphasis on maintaining the equilibrium between all these forces of nature and the universe.
However Judaism can be distinguished from Taoism by the special prominence Judaism lays on assured beliefs and ethical values which involve the sustenance of the world by ‘law’, ‘Temple service’ and the basic virtues of ‘love and kindness’.
The temple or the synagogue of the Jews is a sacred place where the functions of study or learning, prayer or worship of God, and assembly for community deeds need to be undertaken. The Taoist culture too involves the use of temples for the practice of worship to the many gods they preach who are the manifestations of the single Dao, and as such the temples for worship activities are a point of similarity between the two religions but the distinction lies in the fact that the concept of a God is alien to the Taoists.
Consequently, they do not pray like the Judaists do, as they do not believe that there is a single God to hear their prayers and they search for answers to the problems of life utilizing personal meditation and external observation. Similar to the basic virtues of Judaism, Taoists seek ‘Three Jewels’ of ‘compassion’, ‘moderation’ and ‘humility’.
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart: ‘Handbook of Today’s Religions’. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983. 12th edition, 1992.
Shelley, Fred M. and Audrey E. Clarke, eds. ‘Human and Cultural Geography’. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Judaism is a religion that identifies Abraham as its patriarch and believes in the existence of one supreme God who is neither masculine nor feminine. According to McDowell (1992), the Jewish people are scattered in many parts of Europe and the United States of America but there has been a trend to resettle in Israel nation from the year 1948 especially following the holocaust and the Second World War. The religious beliefs and the commandments (law or Torah) mosaic i.e. as handed over to Moses by God, the Creator of all things, on Mount Sinai.
This paper seeks to explore and underscore the various historical, religious, and socio-economic events and state of affairs that have interacted to determine the status of the woman with respect to Judaism. To deeply understand the pertinent issues regarding the role of women in Judaism, it is critical to examine the underlying historical connotations that have played vital roles in enforcing the present state of affairs in relation to the olden days’ view and the society’s recognized status of a woman.
Objectives
To explore the place of women in relation to Judaism’s religion, culture, and traditions.
to find out how Judaism’ religion and culture relate to the woman-gender
To examine the forces, beliefs, and practices that work together to place the woman in her position with regard to Judaism.
to determine the effects of modernity and the forces of social change on the status of women in Judaism
History and Judaism women
The Hebrew Bible, a Jewish religious book believed to have been written in the tenth century BC gives few women characters that played a key role in the development of the Jewish way of life, customs, beliefs, and practices.
For example, ester, the queen of Persia ensured that the Jews lived in Persia, present-day Iran, for over 2,000 years (Beal, 1997). The women who are adversely mentioned in the Bible owing to their contribution to the religious, cultural, social, and political state of the Jews in the olden days apart from Ester include Debora who was a judge among the Jews Miriam (who contributed to the liberation of Israel – Exodus verses two) and Abigael. These high-ranking women indicate that women could be active leaders especially in times of need like wars and God’s anger where a fortune teller would be required.
During the Middle Ages, however, Grossman (2004) points out that there the cultural and customary beliefs coupled with changing Judaism slowly began to undermine some Mosaic laws as the male took a central role in solely determining their wives, championing and arranged marriages. Since many centuries ago, the girl child and women have had unequal treatment compared to the opposite sex. For example, upon the birth of a female child, the Jewish would not bequeath her welcoming rituals and celebrations that were accorded to a male counterpart in a mitzvah rite.
Status of women in the synagogue
The synagogue, a holy worshiping place, is a highly respected place among the Judaists. Religiously and traditionally, there were separate places for sitting for women and men in the synagogue besides a woman being expected to dress modestly and cover their hair, showing how women made an extremely little contribution in the administration of rituals and prayers. Before major reforms were pushed for particularly by some liberal Judaism believers, the men and women were in most synagogues, even today, physically separated by a barrier with women occupy distant positions from the celebrant. The barrier according to most writers served to avoid physical and visual contact between men and women that could spur up sexual emotions and disrupt the holy prayers.
The women were also expected not to deeply engage in religious studies as this would make them not properly attend to the domestic chores as expected of them. Their attendances of the prayers in the synagogues were voluntary and their presence did not count as they had no obligation to follow the Torah guidelines on worship.
Traditional Judaism also prohibited women from becoming rabbi. This practice was accepted owing to the fact that the women were not required by the law to religiously take part in the worship and religious rituals.
Women in marriage
The Jewish Torah (law) puts a man under obligation to fend for his family and keep the wife materially and emotionally satisfied. The woman among the Jews has the role to be in charge of the family’s domestic affairs, act as a mother, and light the candle every Friday in preparation for the Sabbath. The Jewish religion also gives women an upper hand in sexual relationships in marriage as sex is viewed as a way of procreation and woman satisfaction, placing man’s satisfaction last. However, the mosaic laws as recorded in Deuteronomy 24: 1 gives the man free hand in divorce by merely writing a certificate of divorce:
“When a man takes a wife and marries her if then she finds no favor in his eyes because he has found some indecency in her, and he writes her a certificate of divorce and puts it in her hand and sends her out of his house, and she departs out of his house, 2 and if she goes and becomes another man’s wife, 3 and the latter man hates her and writes her a certificate of divorce and puts it in her hand and sends her out of his house, or if the latter man dies, who took her to be his wife, 4 then her former husband, who sent her away, may not take her again to be his wife after she has been defiled, for that is an abomination before the Lord. And you shall not bring sin upon the land that the Lord your God is giving you for an inheritance”
The mosaic laws and the customs of the Jews also prohibit women from having physical contact with their husbands for up to a period of seven days. On a different note, Judaism has been exhibited to give married women special status in society especially during biblical times. The wife of a rabbi, rebbetzin, was consulted by the husband on critical issues
Women and societal expectations
Traditionally, women are expected to have full-length dresses with their heads while appearing in public. Judaism prohibits body mutilation in any form. Contraception and sterilization are therefore not allowed unless the mother’s health is at risk.
Judaist conservatives have normally compounded on the mosaic laws as the principal guide to the societal settings and determinants as well as a guide to the way of life. According to them, it is their obligation as descendants of Abraham and adherent Judaists to protect the Torah as originally inherited from their ancestors. However, Hauptman (1993) explains that an obligation is attached to issues of social status. Owing to the developments in the women and empowerment of the minority, allowing full participation of women in the societal and religious issues would automatically put them under obligation as men to protect their religion, culture, and beliefs.
Women and economic status
Jewish women were expected to fully depend on their husbands for economic support and sustenance. This was provided for in the marriage contract whose breach would land the husband to the rabbis’ court (Rabbinical Court) or result in either divorce or fine. The women were therefore expected not to deeply get the insights of the Torah as their obligations as domestic attendants required a lesser understanding of the law. However, with the growing liberalization of the Jewish society and religious practices, the women today are becoming economically independent with some today being sole family breadwinners.
Most Jewish women who practice Judaism today receive formal education up to advanced levels including universities. The ability to study formally has greatly empowerment most Judaism women thereby improving their status in society economically unlike before. Schenirer, a leading woman Judaism believer is credited with the immense contribution to socio-economic empowerment of women through education in the early 20th century through the ‘house of Jacob’ network.
Changing trends
The stringent religious practices and beliefs that gave men almost complete dominion over women are slowly lessening with more changes being witnessed. There is an emerging trend of Jewish women who opt not to strictly observe and do not observe at all the religious requirements expected of them. This can be attributed to modernity and globalization and the universal quest for observation and respect of individual’s basic universal human rights.
Today mitzvah ceremony, which acts as an official welcoming of a child into the Jewish society, is being carried out for both male and female children in many places. This positive development signifies the growing urge for equal treatment of both sexes even in religious practices. Religious-wise, the women are increasingly becoming not only active participants but also proactive celebrants in worship as rabbis. Women today are gainsaid in their marriages in case the man fails to meet his marital requirements. According to the ketubah, a marital agreement, the wife has a right to divorce and compensatory claims upon divorce or failure by the husband to meet his sexual and material support obligations.
Women today are counted in the prayer by most rabbis to provide a required quorum for prayers. The reading of the Torah by women has been also allowed as an equally acceptable and countable way of offering prayers that are communally recognized. Before these changes gained wide acceptance, the presence of a woman in the time of worship was inconsequential and could not be counted as the minimum of ten people required for a service to proceed. Judaism, therefore, viewed women as second-placed with reference to men in religious undertakings and were not obliged to strictly observe the rules and commandments.
There is, therefore, a need to let every cultural practice, not religious belief, that is impracticable due to changes with time naturally fizzle out to pave way for a new order that conforms to the current state of affairs (Schechte, 1986). Schechte further argues that the differences in the prevailing circumstances between the current age and the classical or the medieval ages are so divergent that some o the inherited practices are naturally impracticable today.
Conclusions
Most scholars have predicted more developments in relation to the continued liberation of women among Judaism believers. This has been perpetuated by more developments that have seen women serve as rabbis and cantors, read the Torah loudly, and passing of various laws in different countries to abolish discrimination on gender. However some conservative Judaists notably the Haredi groups have not fully embraced the new concept of Judaism in a contemporary society where men and women, boy and girl seek to be fair to one another in the religious practice as championed by the Committee on Jewish laws and standards (CJLS).
In 1973, The CJLS permitted the Jewish women to count minyan (public service prayer), which Rabbi Sigal refers to as a compulsory requirement among the Judaism believers, that served as a landmark in allowing active participation of women in religious affairs. To ensure more universal developments, women need to be treated equally as men and given equal opportunities as opposed to favor. Meyer argues that similar religious foundations and teachings of Judaism would serve as the best way to enhance God’s love and spirituality of both women and men (p. 324.). Consequently, there has been a growing trend of splinter Judaism groups that, without much restriction, allow women to actively take part in religious services.
Finally, it can be generally argued that there has been a tremendous change regarding the status of women in Judaism. The various factors which have led to this development include modernity, globalization, Judaism women advocacy, the flexibility of some rabbis, socio-economic factors, and increased awareness on the need for tolerance and human rights enhancement.
References
McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, (1992.) Handbook of Today’s Religions. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers.
Beal, Timothy K. (1997), the Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge.
Grossman, Avraham. (2004) Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe, Brandeis University Press
Paula E. Hyman, (2001) “Gender and the Immigrant Jewish Experience in the United States,” JW 312-336.
Ellen Umansky, “Jewish Women’s Religious Lives in the United States in the 19th and 20th Century,” JW 337-364.
Michael A. Meyer, (1997) German Jewish History in Modern Times (New York: Columbia University Press, vol. 2, p. 324.
Judith Hauptman, (1993):.Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies; Judaism.
Phillip Sigal, (1996) Women in a Prayer Quorum. Siegel, ed., Conservative Judaism and Jewish Law, p. 284.
Schechter, (1896) Studies in Judaism, First Series [Philadelphia], p. 211).