Category: Judaism

Abstract

Judaism is considered to be one of the oldest religions in the world. It is a form of religion that is always changing in order to feel the needs of a constantly changing world. This is in terms of the social changes and the different perceptions that people are developing in a world that is changing on a day to day basis. Judaism represents the history and further the civilization of the Jewish community. This is in terms of their culture and social set up. Judaism also represents the religion of the Jewish people. The main languages that are used in Judaism include Hebrew and Palestine. For the strict traditional Jews Judaism rituals and rotes are conducted in Hebrew. Hebrew is considered as sacred as it is the language which was used by the prophets to give the revelation of God to the Israelites. Jewish also believe that Hebrew is a language that can be used to change the destiny of they world. This makes the language more sacred.

Though Judaism is considered to be a unified religion, as is shown in history, it is not that simple. It includes a number of different ideas and notions joined together to form Judaism. Some of them include:

• Judaism involves various literatures that are read by the Jews
• The Israelites are the central poles that support Judaism
• Judaism is founded on a body of rules that are followed by the Jews
• Involves certain rituals and rites
• Morality is highly regarded.
• Judaism follows certain principles/doctrines.

Over the years Judaism has been divided into two, as a result of this transformation they are the traditional Jews and the modern Jews. This division is attributed to the interpretation of Judaism. But the two groups know that God is the overall in their religion. (Steinberg, 1988) In Judaism, God is given human attributes such as God is one and is the creator of all things. With this kind of foundation, Judaism therefore is against any idolatry in any form.

Introduction

The Jewish religion has been affected tremendously by the people of the United States of America. Before the 18^th century, there was only one kind of Jewish religion which is now called Orthodox. The original Jewish religion meant abiding by 613 laws which guided the Jews lives and faith. The period of the late 18^th century is known as ‘enlightenment’ period, because from then henceforth Jews in America developed a wide variety of alternate interpretations of their religion most of which divided the role of faith in their lives and led to a great reduction of Jewish religion practice. These alternatives and other developments, key among them the Holocaust caused a tremendous reduction of the orthodox especially its ranks to a small minority. The decline of the Jewish religion in America today as it is practiced in relation to other religious is attributable to or rather can be viewed in three main perspectives, namely the history of the Jews, the fragmentation of the Jewish religion and secularization of the American Society today.

The History of the Jews in America

In order to understand how Judaism has changed over the years, we need to know about the history of the Jewish religion in America and then look at how the religion is practiced today as well as the different trends that it has taken. When the United States of America gained independence, there were around 2500 Jews in America. But within a period of forty years, around 25,000 Jews had migrated to the United States from various countries including Bohemia and Germany. The number of the Jews in America grew larger because of the unfavorable religious conditions in Europe. This meant that the Jews who had migrated to Europe opted to migrate to America. Due to the increase in the number of Jews immigrants in America, the perception of the people in America changed. The first Jews group to migrate to America was the Sephardic Jews who were located along the coastal cities and helped to provide the much needed labor since they offered their services as shippers and merchants. This group assimilated itself very fast into the American society (Wade, 2002).

The American government had allowed the migration of different people in America in the spirit of trying to have a diverse culture. These ensured that the different groups were assimilated into the society. This was the first step that led to the reforms in Judaism. This is because of the European reforms that were brought in America by the German Jews. This move therefore led to the establishment of various Jewish institutions and seminaries. The Jews who trained in these institutions and seminaries would in turn take any job available to support the family. They worked in many different jobs which were physically demanding. The garment district in New York today was made from their sweat and determination. Low pay and long hours characterized their working conditions. Like any other people Jews sacrificed the Sabbath to work so as to support their families.

By the turn of the century, Anti-Semitic had begun to spread in America. Jews were informally denied entry into schools and other institutions of learning and even employment in particular professions and industries. The United States of America had placed limits on the number of Jewish immigrants per year between World War 1 and World War 11.

Zionism was a movement formed by the Jews as a way of trying to get a land. This had an impact on American Jewry by 1915; Zionism began to attract prominent American born figures, for example Louis D Brandeis. (The first year to serve on the Supreme Court) Brandeis and his contemporaries changed the belief that the Diaspora was bad. For Brandeis American and Zionist ideals complimented each other. Another Jew by the name of Mordecai Kaplan founded also helped in changing the trends of Judaism in America. This is by forming a movement (Jewish Reconstruction) which would help to change the beliefs about Judaism. He advocated for advancement in the Jewish rituals and practices. He recognized the need for Judaism to keep on changing in order to fit in the American society which is constantly changing. Judaism therefore had to adapt to these changes in order to feel the needs of the society in which it was being practiced.

Movement of Judaism in America in the 20^th Century

Judaism is one of the religions that have undergone tremendous changes especially in America. This has especially been affected by the immigrations that took place in America and this therefore results in a society that is constantly changing. The movements in Judaism are therefore the different sects or denominations of Judaism that have come up due to the changes in the religion. In the Ancient times, there was the Maccabean revolt. The land of Israel was controlled by Greece and deeply influenced by Greek culture. The Hellenizing Jews were opposed by the Chhasideans who were a religion traditionalists group. The Selecicid Greeks began to oppress the Jews. War broke out and the Jewish people united in their opposition to Greeks.

The war continued for twenty five years and the Jews remained united for a purpose. The Essen’s were an Astic and mystical group devolved to strict discipline. He lived in seclusion from the world. Some people believed that the early Christianity was influenced by mystical and hermatical teachings of the Essenes. (Wade, 2002)

The Sadduces was formed from the Hellenistic Judaism. This was a movement made up of priests and the aristocrats of Jews society. Although they were religiously conservative, they were socially liberals. They believed in strict and unchanging interpretation of the Torah written. They did not believe in oral Torah. The temple and its sacrifices services were central to their worship.

Chasidism was considered a radical movement during the 16^th century. However, opposition was from those held pre-existing view of Judaism. These were known as mitnagdim, which means opposition or opponents. Disputes between Chasidism and mitnagdim were often brutal. Today mitnagdim and chesidem relatively unite in their opposition to liberal modern movements. Orthodoxy and other liberal movement of Judaism today are being strongly influenced by charidic teachings. Redde is a spiritual leader of Chasidic sect. He is considerer to be more enlightened than other Jews. A Chasidic consults his Redde about life decisions. Chadisms lubaritcher chasidim are very vocal especially in the words of media, For example, an introduction to Chasidism in plain English has been written by a modern Breslover Chasid.

Modernization of the American Culture

The first Jews group to arrive in America did not support intermarriages between and among other groups. It was so bad that even a son or daughter who married into a different group was disinherited. But due to the changes that have taken place in Judaism, intermarriages are now acceptable. The intermarriages between the Jews and the gentles are now acceptable but they were almost impossible in the first years of the Jews migration into the United States. In the earlier years divorces was quite rare this is despite the fact of it being acceptable in the Jews community. This scenario has really changed because divorce is becoming like a common thing in marriages in America. This even includes the Jewish also.

Another thing that has affected the Jews religion is in terms of work. Traditionally it was the role of the husband or father to provide for is family. But over the years this has changed, as we see many women, mothers and wives alike, going to work and also assisting in the provision of the needs of the family. This is as a result of the liberation of the women in America and has thus given them the freedom to work (Wade 2002).

In the 1950’s and 1960’s most American Jews kept the religious festivities such as Kosher, this has changed over generations. Another issue which is a part of the Jewish – American religious generation gap is the Yiddish language. Most Jewish -American children do not know the Yiddish language. In the mid 20^th century parents spoke Yiddish offer but they did not teach it to their children and this has contributed to the generation gap in terms of language. And consequently, today the language is rapidly dying because only specific generations are in a position to speak the language.

Today, Judaism in America is not taken as a way of life but rather as a religion. People are given choices on how and if to be Jewish. This is as a result of the contemporary lifestyle in America. Traditionally, being Jewish was a way of life and thing like learning about the Jewish rituals and traditions, observing certain holidays and going to the temple or joining a Jewish organization was not an option. There is just no one way of practicing Judaism (Barrett, 2001).

Fragmentation of the Jewish People

American has had an influence on new kind of Judaism making the traditional Jewish religion to be rushed to the near periphery. Judaism as it is found in the United State today is divided in several modern religious movements. It is only a small percentage of Jews who identify with more or less extremist traditional Jewish religion. Some prefer to remain ”secular” for ideological reasons. Some of these movements include:

Zionists and Zionism

Zionism is the desire to rebuild a Jewish national presence in the Promised Land. Many Jews who had no ties at all with religion became involved in the establishment of the state of Israel in the years just after World War II. Today there are Jews whose only tie to Judaism is their belief in Zionism and their support for the state of Israel. (Barrett, 2001)

Secular Judaism

Some Jews are ideologically secular. Some are atheists, that is, do not believe in the existence of a god. Some are agnostics, that is, they are unsure of whether or not God exists. These Jews albeit express their Jewish ties they do not maintain a lifelong membership in a synagogue or temple. This is possible because among world religious in America, Judaism is the only one that makes room for both atheists and agnostics to remain Jewish.

It is pointed out that there is no positive commandment in the Torah requiring a Jew to believe in God. According to the secular Jews, a person can theoretically live an exemplary Jewish life without a belief in God. Moreover a connection with the Jewish people is determined by birth, not by belief. But Nevsuer (1989) disagrees with this; Judaism is described as a way of life. This involves the observation of certain rites and rituals which are ordained by God. These practices are conducted in order for man to stay in tune with God. In this sense therefore Judaism should be understood to be more than a religion but a way of life and any one who practices this way of life then beliefs in it.

Judaism as a religion came into existence because the Israelites were obedient to god. God was their overall ruler and he made choices for them. This is the basis of Judaism. Since they accepted God as their leader, they in turn accepted his responsibility to sustain and obey him through this religion.

Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Jews claim to hold the true religion of Judaism. This type of the Jewish religion holds onto the original traditions of Judaism. Since it is the least organized of modern Jewish religious divisions it is far smaller than its counterparts. To the traditionalist Judaism was revealed completely on Mt. Sinai and cannot change. Under all the various ways it has been restated down the ages it has persisted as one and the same from Moses to the present time. To the modernist the law of change is universal and Judaism in not exception. It continues to grow. Traditionalists hold the view that the revelation of the Torah overflows into the rest of scripture and into classical Talmodic literature and in diminishing degree into later rabbinic writings. Both Torah book and the Torah tradition are divinely inspired. To the modernist they accept the rest of the scripture and tradition as generally inspired. It is not regarded as beyond criticism but the natural unfolding of a particular people’s pilgrimage from darkness to perception. It is a record of how people face and try to answer the deepest question of human existence.(Jacob, 2000)

Reform Judaism

Reform Jews believe that the Torah was written and edited by human beings. It’ does not hold that one must wear a kipper or one must pray 3 times a day like the orthodox. Its emphasis is on ethics, how a Jew should believe. It encourages women and men to condone to the same standards of ethical practice. Since currently it has the largest membership of Jews in the United States of America the practice of the traditional Jewish religion in America has greatly been reduced.

Reconstructionist Judaism

This movement broke away from the Conservative Judaism in the 1920’s. In it’s philosophy, re constructionist Judaism. In practice, however it adheres closely to conservatives. The re constructionist Jews sent their children to public schools. It is a staunch supporter of women’s rights in Judaism. Women in the re constructionist rabbis (as opposed to the original Jewish religion), the first ordination of a re constructionist woman rabbi was held in 1974.

The only two movements that still manifest the pure Jewish religion as it were are the conservative movement and Hasidic Judaism. These are radical right wing movements in the history of Judaism through the last gasp of movements which once brought new vigor to the Jewish world. Ironically they have very small numbers to enable Judaism in America to reinvigorate and reclaim its spiritual heritage. (Wade, 2002)

Jewish Women and Judaism

In 1654, Jewish women first arrived in North America as refugees. A boatland of refugees’ four women six men and 13 children fleeing Dutch Brazil after its conquest by the Portuguese landed in New Australia, now New York City. Most to the refugees know as Sephardim returned to Holland and sailed for the West Indies where they were unable to maintain a viable community of their own in New Amsterdam.

During the colonial Era, public Judaism was reserved for males. Women expressed their religion in the homes. They were the keepers of the spiritual legacy. They however publicly founded first female Hebrew benevolent society established in 1819 or the first Hebrew Sunday school in 1938.Towards the end of the nineteenth century; women especially the middle class played a very important role in philanthropic life. They manifested the role of pure and pious homemakers who stressed the ethical rather than ritual and ceremonial. (Barrett, 2001)

In the twentieth century, the new America Jewish women, basically of German descent sought higher education, as a way of expressing Judaism and give solutions to the challenges of the progressive era. Hannah G Solomon (1858 – 1942) founded the National council of Jewish in 1893 at the world’s parliament of religions in Chicago. The movement created mission schools and settlement houses and provided aid for newly arrived Jewish immigrant women and children. In 1881 and 1921, more than two million Jewish immigrants in family units came to the United States of America.

By 1920, Jewish women had concentrated in the large urban centers. Most of the women, made a living in the garment industry and sweatshops. Many of the Jewish women took advantage of higher education and became teachers, physicians, dentists or lawyers. Other first generation Jewish women become union leaders and political radicals.

By this period, marriage was held in high esteem by most American Jewish women. Most Jewish homemakers were filled with child bearing, local female mutual aid societies and involvement in religious life. They did this primarily through synagogue auxiliaries and women groups such as the National council of Jewish women. (Barrett, 2001)

By 1963, American Jewish women began to be involved in Feminism movements. Some women participated in campus upheavals, civil rights marches and protests against the Vietnamese war. Currently the Jewish population of the United States numbers about six million individual. Jewish women in this group try to adapt to the changes and challenges as they seek new ways to maintain their Jewish identities. The introduction of reform into American Judaism was associated with immigrants from Germany and other parts of Europe following the republican revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Personalities That Have Shaped the Jewish Religion in America

The Reform Judaism is often associated with German born rabbis such as David Einhorn of Baltimore and Issac Marge wise of Cucinnati. The other stars of America reform had roods in congregation K.K Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina. (Barrett, 2001)

In 1824, forty seven Charleston Jews petitioned the leaders of betheloim for major changes in the Sabbath service. They were led by Isaac Herby. They asked that each Hebrew player in service be immediately followed by an English translation. This they argued would reflect the contemporary American life that would explain the scriptures and apply them to everyday life. They also sought for the service to be shortened. Isaac (1978) became a notable teacher, playwright, literary critic’s journalist and newspaper editor.

To make Judaism more accessible, Harby and his fellow revolutionists who criticized the services at Beth Elohim had become more American. They said that they had become more like protestant churches through retaining orthodoxy’s core liturgy and teachings. They wished to worship no longer saying that this was being slaves of bigotry and priest craff albeit being in an enlightened world

Meeting at separate site, the reformed society of Jews wrote their own prayer book. They introduced music into service and worshiped without head covering. Isaac Harby was an orator and active leader of the society. In 1827 he became their president. (Barrett, 2001)

The spirit of reform in Charleston did not die with Issac Harby in 1828. The Great organ controversy split the Judaism congregation. Thirty eight members petitioned the synagogue trustees’ that an organ be erected in the synagogue to assist in the vocal part of the service. This would not go down with the synagogue leadership who claimed that playing the organ during the service would violate the injunction against labor on Shabbat.

The reformers, following the congregations by laws, convened a general meeting and after much debate a two third majority reversed the decision.

The Socio – Economic lives of Jews in America

The cost of living for Jewish Americans is very high and the only way it can be lowered is by taking their children to after school programs such as evening classes instead of day school programs. Jack Wertheimer studied Jewish Education in the late 1990s and found out that of approximately 1.1 million Jewish children in America about 180000 attend day school while the rest attend after school programs. Jewish in America are required to live in urban centers with other Jews so that local Jewish institution can be supported. Only 5 % of America Jewish lives in small town or rural areas as a result of this. In fact finding a home in a neighborhood in which other Jews live and where a synagogue is located becomes an add value to the social- Economic life of Jews in America.

The bottom line however is, as a Jew to live in America is costly. Those who place premium on Jewish living will have to make sacrifices necessary to afford it no matter what their level of income. But those who are well off financially do not require significant sacrifices. 10% of America Jewry is orthodoxy. These, have accumulated less wealth and earn less money that other non-orthodox Jews. Notwithstanding their level of income, the orthodox Jews in America manage to send their children to Jewish schools, pay synagogue fees and keep Kosher. They also have large families. It is estimated that orthodox Jews in America spend 25-35% of their income on Jewish living expenses. This leaves them with less income to use on housing, clothing, cars and even savings. Orthodox Jews have managed to find ways of helping to make the Jewish education accessible and affordable to their community. For the other 90% Jews in America (non-orthodox) cost is a barrier to Jewish living kind of expenses. The high cost of Jewish living is a greater cost to be born by the Jewish families with low income.

Conclusion

Developments in the Jewish history and other alternatives have led to the decline in the Judaism as a religious group. Jews in America have been prominently involved in both national and communal affairs which has through the years changed their way of life key among them Judaism as a religion. Today Judaism is taken as a religion but not a way of life. People have been given a chance of choosing how to be Jewish. This is because of the way Judaism has been influenced by the different changes in the world. For instance due to the migrations that took place over the years, people are living behind their way of life and are now practicing other things. For example for the Jewish living in America they have to work hard in order to earn a living. This has meant that they are practicing less of their religious but in the real sense want to be identified as Jewish.

The changes in their way of life have also contributed to Judaism becoming less of a religion and more of a lifestyle. For instances women have taken up other jobs apart from their domestic work. This means that they have less time to practice Judaism.

Due to the socio-economic situation of the Jews, it is clear from what has been indicated earlier that the availability of a synagogue is not very possible for the Jews. This makes it even harder for them to practice Judaism. The above information illustrates why Judaism is becoming more secular and less religious in the American society. And further illustrates the factors that further contribute to this situation.

References

Barrett, D. (2001): World Christian Encyclopedia, London, Oxford university press.

Jacob, N. (2000): Torah from Our Sages, Chicago, Chicago University press.

Leo, T. (1999): Judaism: Development and Life, New York, McGraw-Hill.

Martin, E.(2004). Modern American Religion, New York, McGraw-Hill.

Neil, G. (1996): The Way into Encountering Judaism, New York, St Martins Press.

Nevsuer, J. (1989): Judaism in the beginning of Christianity, Philadelphia, Fortress press.

Norman, S. (1996): Judaism and world, Religion, London, Macmillan.

Steinberg, M. (1988): Basic Judaism, New York, Harcourt Brace.

Wade, C. (2002). Contemporary American Religion, New York, Prentice Hall.

Introduction

This paper aims to explain why Judaism is a monotheistic religion as opposed to claims that it is polytheistic. This paper will seek to disambiguate this notion and explain these misconceptions. Judaism is an ethical monotheistic religion and the relation of Abraham to this definition will be explained. Ethical monotheism has several properties of God that will be explained in this paper.

Monotheistic religion involves the belief in one God who is supreme. Judaism has always been a monotheistic religion despite the different verses in the Bible that people would what to quote to prove otherwise. Although the Israelites were sometimes influenced by their surrounding neighbors to sometimes worship idols, they largely remained loyal to their Supreme God. In the book of Hebrews which is quoted as an example showing that the Judaists were polytheists, we see Jacob telling his household and those around him to do away with those foreign gods and that they purify themselves. The reason for purifying themselves was because they had desecrated themselves in the eyes of God. This is because these gods were not part of Judaism and therefore they were deemed foreign. These gods were brought by the neighboring communities who worshipped idols as their supreme beings. Judaism can be said to be the first religion to proclaim monotheism.

Judaism can be termed as an ethical monotheistic religion because it thrives under the doctrine that it is almost impossible to discard holiness and at the same time lead an ethical life. One basic rule of Judaism is that God calls for ethical behaviors. This shows that He cares about how human beings relate to one another and the other things that come after.

Therefore this religion is based on ethics that have been passed from one generation to another since the times of Abraham. God revealed his wishes of how the Israelites should live through the issuance of the Ten Commandments. These commandments formed the basic ethics that the Judaists would follow. Abraham can be said to be the father of this religion. Abraham would go and talk to God one on one and later bring God’s message to the people. Therefore the Israelites learned to put into importance the laws between them and God. Ethical monotheism teaches that there should only be one God. This God is holy, supernatural, good, and personal.

Personal

By indicating that God is personal it explains that He has great care for everything that He created. This religion teaches that there is no way that God could create everything then abandon it. Therefore this ethical monotheism teaches that God cares about us and He, therefore, cares how we treat one another.

Goodness

Ethical monotheism also teaches that God is good and thus demands goodness from us. He ensures justice for the evils that are committed. This justice is meted out in this life or the afterlife.

Holy

Holiness is what makes the human being to be elevated and become a creature modeled in the true image of his creator. Human beings according to these teachings are expected to be holy and act as if they are the face of God when on earth.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed why Judaism is a monotheistic religion and also explained the misconceptions. An ethical monotheistic religion has been explained and also why Judaism is one. The connection of Abraham to this has also been explained.

Introduction

Judaism is all about the life of the Jews as it encompasses their spiritual, physical and emotional life. This religion has its origin from Abraham. According to the tradition of the Jews, he is the first person to have come up with Monotheism. From Abraham, the followers of this religion can be traced through Patriarchs to the Egyptian exile. From then came the Exodus, the receipt of the Torah, fulfilling of the Covenant, the conquering of the promised land (Canaan), Judges, the kingdom and its split in two, the exile in Babylon and the Jews homecoming under Ezra, the ensuing independence loss and demolition of the Temple by the Roman empire, the Jews dispersal all through the globe for centuries, the documentation of maltreatment and pogroms ending in the Holocaust, the formation of prosperous societies in the West, and the reinstitution of a Jewish state.

Judaism is one among 3 of Abraham’s faith. By 2007, the population of Jews was about thirteen million. Most of them were found in Israel or the US. “This religion is characterized by its monotheism, its belief in a special covenant with God making it his ‘chosen people’, ethnic and territorial identity (the ‘promised land’), specific laws and practices, and their belief in the Messiah” (Kanarfogel, 37). Kanarfogel goes ahead to explain that, “the followers of Judaism believe in the ultimate God (the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob)”. They have tagged the chosen people for the reason that God gave them the Torah and his commandments.

This religion started as the Hebrew’s prehistoric faith which is based on the teachings of the Torah (Hebrew Bible). The followers of this religion believe Yahweh picked them to be like a light to all other nations of the world. Their first temple was destroyed in 586 BC while the second one was destroyed in 70 BC. Currently, Judaism is not encompassed in the ancient practices and beliefs related to temple worship although they are still observing their culture and religion via scholarships and strict adherence. To date, Judaism is still being maintained in spite of the Jews’ brutal persecution by a lot of nations. Consequently, this paper will elucidate on Judaism as a religion.

Historical context

Followers of this religion believe that Abraham (Biblical patriarch) was the 1^st Jew. Rabbinic texts show that, Abraham was the first person to rebuff idolatry and advocate for monotheism. “As a result, God promised he would have children, starting with Isaac, who would carry on his work and inherit the land of Israel (then called Canaan) after having been exiled and redeemed” (Jacobs, 392). At one point, Jacob and his offspring were taken to Egypt, they were enslaved for a long time but eventually God used Moses to redeem them. After the redemption, God took the Israelites to Mount-Sinai where they were given the “Torah”. After this, He delivered them to the Promised Land. Here, “God set the descendants of Aaron, Moses’ brother, to be a priestly class within the Israelite community. They first officiated in the tabernacle (a portable house of worship), and later their descendants officiated in the Temple in Jerusalem” (Jacobs, 392).

Following the settlement, the tabernacle was placed at Shiloh for more than three hundred years; in this period Yahweh provided great leaders to rally the Israelites during numerous enemy attacks. “At one point, their spiritual level declined which led to the capture of the tabernacle by the Philistines” (Kanarfogel, 37). Later, the Israelites demanded a permanent king. Yahweh knew this was not good for his people but still had Samuel appoint Saul as the king. “The Jews pressured their king to go against Samuel’s command, consequently, God appointed David instead. The king (David) told Nathan that he wished to build a temple” (Jacobs, 392). As a result, God promised him that his son would build it and that the throne would be in his bloodline. David was not permitted to build it as he had fought so many wars and thus it was unsuitable for him to construct a place symbolizing peace. Therefore, King Solomon constructed a permanent temple in Jerusalem for the Jews to worship from.

“Following King Solomon’s demise, his realm was divided into 2 kingdoms (Israel and Judah)” (Jacobs, 392). The kingdom of Israel had several kings, although after some time God allowed Syria to defeat, conquer and exile Israelites because of the widespread idolatry. On the other hand, Judah continued to be under David’s bloodline. This was where the temple was situated. Once more, the worship of idols became rampant and God allowed Babylonians to conquer it. The Babylonians destroyed the temple that was over 410 years old and exiled the people of Judea. But God still promised that they would be redeemed after 70 years.

After the 70 years, they were permitted to go back to Israel under Ezra. They built another temple (second one) that stayed over for hundred and twenty years only to be destroyed by Romans. “This is the state in which it is to remain until a descendant of David arises to restore the glory of Israel (the current existence of the Islamic Dome of the Rock doesn’t matter to the rabbinical view)” (Kanarfogel, 49).

The Torah that was given to the Israelites on Mt Sinai, on which Judaism is based entirely, was recapitulated in the 5 books of Moses. “This together with the books of the prophets is called the Written Torah. The details which are called the Oral Torah were to remain unwritten” (Kanarfogel, 49). Nevertheless, as Jews persecutions augmented and the information was at risk of being forgotten, it was documented in the “Mishna”, and the “Talmud”, this was besides a few other holy books. To date, the religion of Judaism is centered upon the Torah.

Key teachings

The followers of Judaism believe in the God of Abraham, Isaac & Jacob. These names were later changed to Avraham, Yeetzaak and Yaacov. “They are the Chosen People as they are known because God chose to give them His law in the form of the Ten Commandments and the Torah, through the prophet Moses. They derive their basic teachings from the Torah” (Geemen, 162). As shown by the same author (162), “the teachings of Judaism emphasize that the Torah has 613 commandments. Much of what they regard as religion is in fact” cultural tradition. This has been minted with the Rabbi’s explanation of God’s laws together with particular Rabbinical Assemblies over time.

The core believes and teaching as aforementioned is based on the Torah. But this is not complete without the thirteen principles or foundations of Judaism. The first one is engraved in believing in the existence of the ultimate creator. The followers of this religion are taught that the creator (God) is faultless in every existence. He is the reason why everything exists and without him nothing would be present. They also believe everything depends on him to exist.

The second principle exemplifies God’s unity. This typically shows the exemplary idea of oneness. In this principle God is made known to be one and there is no oneness like God’s. This is shown in the teachings that say “Hear Israel, Hashem is Our God, Hashem is one” (Geemen, 162).

The third principle signifies the rejection of physicality in relationship with God. It states that the aforementioned principle (oneness) has no body or form. It also shows that if God was to assume a body he then would not be God. This also explains why followers of Judaism believe that in heaven there is no tiredness. In the Torah, this is indicated in a verse that says, “For you saw no image”. This means nobody saw the image of God at Sinai since He has nobody power.

Principle number 4 talks of God’s antiquity. It is shown that He subsisted prior to all and subsists after all. This is shown many times in the scriptures.

The fifth one says that God is blessed because “He is worthy that we serve Him, to glorify Him, to make known His greatness, and to do His commands” (Geemen, 164). This also means no man is to worship any other form be it angels or anything created by man or even God himself. Most parts of the Torah cautions on this (Idolatry).

The sixth principle is on prophecy. The Torah attests that prophecy is instilled in certain people by God who then gives them incredible intelligence that is attached to God’s intelligence.

In the seventh principle Judaists believe in the prophetic/predictive ability of Moses the teacher, and peace is to be upon him. He is believed to have the status of an angel and he also spoke to God with no intermediary. Moses was special in the sense that, other prophets were sent angels or got visions or even dreams but he sort of came face to face with God.

The eighth one shows that the Torah upon which they believe, is from heaven. “The teachings of Judaism emphasize that every statement in the book came from God which is filled with wisdom and benefits anyone who understands it” (Geemen, 164). As shown by Geemen (164), the believers of Judaism consider the Torah to know deep and wider than the land and sea.

The next principle is about the Torah’s completeness. This shows it is perfect and nothing can be removed from it or added to it.

The tenth principle is about the relationship between man and God. The teaching on this principle shows that God recognizes every man’s action and never removes His eyes from man.

In the eleventh principle, Judaism gives emphasis to the fact that “God gives reward to he who does the commandments of the Torah and punishes those that transgress its admonishments and warnings” (Geemen, 164).

The principle talking about the era of the Messiah is the twelfth principle. It teaches believers to anticipate the coming of the messiah and therefore to mend their ways. The principle goes further to explain that anyone who doubts this refutes the Torah. Part of this, also says that the Kings of Israel are only from the bloodline of David. “It again states that anyone disputing this denies God’s words and all the words of the prophets” (Geemen, 164).

The last principle in the teachings of Judaism is about resurrection. It teaches the believers that one day all the dead will resurrect and only those who believed and lived in accordance with these principles will go to heaven. Therefore as explained here only those who follow the fundamentals of this faith will gain entry into Israel.

Sacred texts/scriptures

The basic sacred texts and scriptures used by the Jews are the Torah and the Talmud. The latter is an all-inclusive written edition of the oral law of the Jews and the consequent commentaries. This text that originated in the second century means teaching/ learning. It is also the basis of the Jewish law. The Talmud is further divided into two Mishnah and Gemara. The first one is the original oral law account while the latter is based o the records of rabbinic conversations. The conversations were documented in Jerusalem and Babylon consecutively. The Talmud is also known as the Babylon version which has the most authority.

A rabbi (Judah Ha-Nasi) is accredited for completing the Mishnah. He did this after the many rebellions which resulted in the demolition of institutes used in studying the Torah. This motivated him into writing it down as there was no more direct passing over the law from rabbi to learners.

Many Judaism followers do read one page of the Talmud every day. “This is known as Daf Yomi which is the Hebrew expression for page of the day. The tradition began after the first international congress of the Agudath Yisrael World Movement in August, 1923” (Yehezkal, 172). It was initiated as a way of bringing believers together. It was put forward by Meir Shapiro by then the Rav of Lublin, Poland.

As shown by (Yehezkal, 172):

• The Mishnah (original oral law written down) is divided into six parts which are called Sedarim, the Hebrew word for order(s). Zera’im (Seeds), is about the laws on agriculture, prayer, and tithes; Mo’ed (Festival), is about the Sabbath and the festivals; Nashim (Women), is about marriage, divorce and contracts and oaths; Nezikin (Damages), is about the civil and criminal laws, the way courts operate and some further laws on oaths; Kodashim (Holy Things), is about sacrificing and the laws of the Temple and the dietary laws; Toharot (Purities), is about the laws of ritual purity and impurity (Yehezkal, 172).

On the other hand the Torah is 1^st fraction of the Hebrew Bible. It is the foundation/basis of the Judaism as a religion. This text is what has been used by the Jewish people all through the ages. The text refers to the 5 books Moses wrote, these include “Bresheit (Genesis), Shemot (Exodus), Vayicra (Leviticus), Bamidbar (Numbers), and Devarim (Deuteronomy)” (Yehezkal, 172).

During a service, scrolls of this text are removed from the Ark and some sections of it readout. This is done mainly on (Sabbath) Sunday morning.

The exceptional segments in the readings are referred to as parshioth which are normally 3-5 chapters. The person reading is supposed to be extremely skilled since the writing of the letters was done without matching vowels. The reader has to be acquainted with the portion very well so as to avoid making errors. The reading is not spoken but is rather done in a very old sing-song-like tune. This scroll is not touched directly when unfolded on a raised pulpit at the center of the church (synagogue). “A pointer/Yad is used instead. This is in the shape of a hand with an outstretched finger. The reading/chanting is performed by a person who has been trained in this task. However it may be carried out by the rabbi”. (Yehezkal, 179)

The scrolls are hand-written in the ancient language (Hebrew by a scribe). This is done on a parchment from a Cow. The whole process can even take a year and half as immense accurateness is required. In the event of a minute mistake, the whole process is invalidated. The complete work is referred to as the Sefer Torah or the Torah book. The scroll is very sacred to the extent that when it gets dropped during the service all people attending the service will have to fast for forty days. Another aspect that displays the symbolical and physical importance of the scrolls is that all through the invasion of Israel, immense efforts were directed towards preserving the scrolls.

Ritual/worship service

In Judaism, “the synagogue is the place of worship. Orthodox Jews often use the Yiddish word shul (pronounced shool) to refer to their synagogue. In the USA, the synagogues are often called temples” (Steinberg, 15). Inside these places of worship, men cannot sit with women and everybody except little girls would have their heads covered.

Their service is normally led by the rabbi. On the other hand for traditional services, a group of 10 elders (Minyan) leads the service. Most of these services are done in ancient Jewish language (Hebrew). Currently, the services are accompanied by choirs in the US and a small number of synagogues in Britain. In these nations men and women may be allowed to sit together and part of the summons can be done in English.

During the service every person apart from young girls would wear a hat for the purpose of showing reverence to God. An undersized cap (yarmulke/kippah) is used by men although normal street hats are generally allowed. These are also availed to visitors with hair grips to keep the hats fitting. There are some occasions when the congregation kisses the fringes of specially made prayer shawls especially during the mentioning of the tzitzit or fringes.

All synagogues have an Ark acting as a closet for keeping the Scrolls of the Torah. They also contain a desk from which the scrolls are read out (this is normally raised and placed at the center of the church). Again the 10 commandments are inscribed on the Ark in the ancient language.

In the synagogue, “an Eternal Light (called Ner Tamid) hangs above the Ark. This light is always burning, as a symbol of God’s presence. It also represents the pillar of fire that guided the Jewish people on their early journey” (Steinberg, 15). It is again common for all people to stand when the Ark is opened.

Personal reflection

My reaction to this service is that it is somehow old-fashioned and too rigid requiring the strict following of specific procedures and rituals. What I disliked most is that, when attending the service, you are required to wear specific attires even if one is not used to them. One is also required to follow certain procedures that involve standing and sitting all the time. The service too is characterized by a somber mood whereas in our churches we are used to pianos, keyboards, guitars, drum sets and other musical instruments where there is singing shouting and dancing.

After attending this service, I really comprehended the fundamental principles of Judaism. I learned how they worship, how they carry themselves, the constituents of the synagogues and how their rituals during worship are performed. It also made me understand that religion can be designed and followed by certain groups of people for a long time. About my supposition, this experience made me believe that, despite the kind of religion one believes in, purity and holiness come from one’s heart and not from the following of the many procedures and rituals of a particular religion.

Works cited

Geemen, Teddy. Principals of Judaism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 20088. Print.

Jacobs, Louis. Judaism. Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale.2007. Print.

Kanarfogel, Ephraim. Judaism. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000. Print.

Steinberg, Milton. Basic Judaism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 2002. Print.

Yehezkal, Kauffman. The Religion of Israel. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2000. Print.

Introduction

Shmuel Yosef was a writer and a key figure in contemporary Jewish fiction. His writings tackle “conflicts in traditional living in Judaism, language, and contemporary world” (Balaban 420). As he said, religious books, viz. Talmud and Torah, mostly swayed the works of Agnon.

He acquired the name “Agnon” from one of his stories influenced by the Jewish term Agunah that represents a woman that is not capable of remarrying after being refused a divorce or being abandoned by her husband. Some argument has been raised as to what could have led to Agnon choosing this name with some claiming that it is metaphorical to the abandonment of Israel by deity (Balaban 419-420).

The metaphor as illustrated in Torah concerns the moment that Israel had turned away from God and God abandoned them for their disobedience. In many stories, ordinary themes of Jewish traditions are portrayed through journeys. This paper discusses the stories of Agnon and the manner in which they metaphorically signify and characterize the customs and traditions of Judaism.

Agunot

At the start of the story “Agunot”, Agnon employs the styles of symbolism and metaphor that act as a foundation of the ensuing plot. In stating that “a thread of grace is spun and drawn out of the deeds” (Yefet 440) and that “Holy One, blessed be He, in His glory, sits and weaves” (Yefet 440), it is insinuated that God intertwines a shawl of prayers that is woven from substances consisting of deeds of the Jewish people.

Like the midrashic starting ends, the deeds of the Jewish people are structured in accordance with love. Out of the deeds of accomplished and pure love, God intertwines with the help of the threads (mercy and grace).

The aforementioned metaphor comes up at the opening of the story. From the “Agunot” story, the author acquired his name “Agnon”. In this story, the author has altered the term “Agunah” from a law in Judaism to psychological status of being. In Judaism, “Agunah” denotes a woman that is married but has lost his husband (perhaps in battle or indifferent settings where he could be believed to have passed on).

When the whereabouts of the husband s not identified, the wife turns out to be lawfully “attached”. The word “Agunah” is obtained from a Hebrew name “Ogen” that signifies “attached”. Therefore, the wife cannot be married again before being issued with a divorce by her husband. In this regard, the wife is in an indefinite state, caught up in two worlds.

In the “Agunot”, the author changes the lawful Agunah into a psychological Agunah, portraying multiple instances of personified souls destined to be terribly attached to their desire for things they cannot acquire. The real plot narrates the story of a rich person who arrives in Jerusalem to assist in the reconstruction of the city.

The rich man by the name Sire had a daughter, whom he wanted to get married to Ezekiel. Being an intellectual, Ezekiel was offered a teaching job by the rich man (Yefet 439). For the function of constructing an impressive ark in the temple, Sire employed a famous artisan whose name was Ben-Uri. Ben-Uri was a dedicated craftsman, and he dedicates his entire efforts towards his inventive function of constructing the ark.

During the construction of the ark, Ben-Uri starts to sing. At this point, Dina gets so much attracted to Ben-Uri. However, Ben-Uri pays no attention to Dina and dedicates all his concentration and zeal to his task of art until he is through with the construction of the ark, placing it near a window.

When Ben-Uri dozes off in a backyard when it is already dark, Dina gets interested in knowing why Ben-Uri has stopped singing. In her nightdress, Dina goes closer to where Ben-Uri had been working and finds the completed ark near a window. When she was admiring the complex and beautiful artistic work in which Ben-Uri had totally dedicated his time and efforts to, Dina is overcome by a swift satanic urge in the form of jealousy and she throws out the ark thru the window (Yefet 441).

Ben-Uri is blamed of the act and is forced to leave Jerusalem, and instead of the ark he had made, a simple one was prepared. Overpowered by guilt prior to get married to Ezekiel, Dina opens up to the rabbi and disclosed that she damaged the ark that Ben-Uri had made.

The rabbi termed it as an accident. Even if Dina got married to Ezekiel, their marriage was never consummated. Both Dina and Ezekiel sat in different corners in the bedroom reflecting on the different things that had earlier transpired. On the same night, Ezekiel decides to divorce Dina and flees from Jerusalem (Yefet 442). The story ends on a mystical instance with assumptions of where rabbi headed to after he also leaves Jerusalem.

Some of the metaphors that ensue are in some names of the characters. Ben-Uri symbolizes the Bezalzel in the bible who constructed God’s Tabernacle. Ezekiel symbolizes the Ezekiel in the bible who was a prophet and Dina symbolized the Dina in the bible who is represented as a raped woman. He says, “Our sages of blessed memory said that when a man puts his first wife away from him, the very altars weep, but here [with Ezekiel and Dina] the altars had dropped tears even as he took her to wife” (Agnon 7)

The Kerchief

In the story of “The Kerchief”, there comes up a boy as he moves through an entrance, when he starts to learn to join his childlike notions with the accountabilities of living in the world. While he lies in the bed of his dad, the boy gets a dream of the Christ, a “magical realism” (Agnon 8). He integrates his supernatural practicality of his juvenile and relates it to the function of mitzvot. As the boy grows up, his voice is augmented as the sounds of his parents diminish.

His parents are reprieved, shifting to the backdrop as his real individuality, his desires and thoughts shift to the forefront. During his father’s absence, the boy would spend the nights in his bed and think of the likelihood of the return of Messiah. The Messiah as the boy believed, having intermingled with beggars, was immediately set to be identified as the Redeemer and King.

In accordance with the boy, in the times that the Messiah would come back, his family could not have any distance separating them. Instead of journeys to work or to school, they would live together, matching together in the courts of deity (Balaban 424). The boy could keep a record of the times of the absence of his dad by attempting a fresh loop in his fringes, after waking up every morning.

The section outlined when the boy’s dad could come back from the fair is impressively gorgeous. This part carries the dream of the boy concerning his family, the value of closeness, and reverence, which are a radiance of light that grips the kids of a given family from cohort to cohort. The presents that the head of the family would bring home were valued, but temporary thus vanishing and lost after a moment (Balaban 425).

Past the contentment of his riches, the storyteller is somewhat taken by a kerchief that his dad gave to his mum. The boy’s mum wears the scarf on different occasions. Nevertheless, during the Bar Mitzvah (an initiation rite in Judaism indicating 13 years of age of a Jewish lad and representing the start of religious accountability) of the boy, the mother ties it perfectly around the neck of the boy as a symbol of reputation.

On the day of the ceremony, a beggar finds his way to the urban dwelling and he is avoided by everyone who gets near him. As the boy was on his way home, he meets the beggar and hands the exceptional kerchief to the beggar who uses it to cover his sores (Balaban 421-422).

When the boy gets home, his mum immediately assures him that instead of a punishment for handing the kerchief to the beggar, he is applauded in joy for his lovely deed. In this regard, the existence of his parents, his dream concerning splendor of loving and lasting affection of his family get strongly achieved.

The digit 13 is metaphoric of a custom in Judaism. It is a number that illustrates a given maturity, a signpost of the maturity of a child. This number also symbolizes the traits of God, as earlier comprehended from a biblical perspective. Additionally, in Judaism, there exist 13 standards of faith. In the story of “The kerchief” the boys appears to make his parents contented with his deeds, illustrating the lines delineated for him, which is just the same way as a person could complete a written Torah (Balaban 423).

The kerchief acquires a key and changing position in the attentiveness of the boy. The kerchief acts as the connection between the dad and mum and when the boy offers it to the beggar on the day of his Bar Mitzvah, the boy symbolizes Elijah, accomplishing a kind-hearted deed that could lead to redemption in the future.

In this regard, the boy embraces both the greatest ambitions of human lessons and every one of the Godly qualities, a principle that symbolizes the best of traditions in Judaism stranded by tight traditions and kind family. Torah satisfies the Talmud. Additionally, the Talmud satisfies the scientific investigation and finally, the whole story makes the traits of a well-built person.

From Lodging to Lodging

The importance of this story heightens with the remembrance that Agnon initially shifted to Palestine in 1908 at the time of the second occurrence of mass migration to Palestine that took place from around 1904 until the World War I started.

The aforementioned occurrence encompassed countless believers of Judaism that turned up not for the fact that they were idealists or Jewish backers of Zionism, but since riots and dire lack compelled them to (migration to Palestine was economical as compared to migration to America). The story commences with the narration of both winter and summer. The motives of sickness against those of well-being discussed at the beginning keep coming up throughout the story.

The lodgings rent out in Tel Aviv are very close to the main bus terminus (Vais 31). The noise at the terminus keeps the narrator awake during nighttime with the sleepiness making him weary throughout the day, in such a great way that he could not actually benefit from being near the sea. Escalating the sense of sickness, the reader learns that the landlord had a kid who after being abandoned by his mum, eats dirt and is in a very pitiful state.

The child cries through out the night. Even if flies could crawl over the wounds of the narrator, he was very tired to chase them away. The friends of the child’s father speak to him the way people speak to the ailing individuals.

Moreover, they persistently tell him to move from one lodging to another, especially because he seemed to hate being kept awake throughout the night in Tel Aviv (Hagbi 90-95). The narrator states that Talmud’s teachings point out that individuals must never keep moving from one quarter to another, but his pals ignored him and one of them searches new lodgings for him.

The lodgings are not just new, but as well ideal. In this regard, they symbolize the dreams of a restored, healthy Israel and healthy individuals. In this story, the small house is positioned on a grassy hill away from the rowdy residents of the city and in the vineyards grown by the landlord.

The portrayal of the house as well as nurturing of the land around it creates the metaphor of the resurgence of the land adored by the youthful Jewish innovators. The images of sickness and well-being keep occurring as the child’s father longs for the unique relaxation that he will experience when he gets into the house (Hoffman 147-148).

Meanwhile, prior to his doing so, he generates an illness of his eyes and he is cautioned against touching the eyes to prevent them from turning out to be worse. Nevertheless, when he goes back to the lodgings in Tel Aviv, the boy, who has sick eyes and unclean fingers, keep on touching the eyes of his father even after being stopped. The representation of the illness strongly differs with the speaker’s finding when walks to the roads:

I passed through the land and I saw that we had several more villages. Places that had produced only thistles and thorns had become like a garden of God. And like the land, so too the people were happy in their labors and rejoicing in building their land, their sons and daughters healthy and wholesome. Their hands were not soiled, and their eyes were not diseased (Agnon 18).

The fable of the goat

This story tells of an old man who falls sick and the sickness makes him get a severe and bad cough. As his treatment, the physicians prescribe the milk from a goat. The old man thus obtains a goat that demonstrates a queer pattern of conduct. Each day, the goat would disappear for a short time and come back with its udders filled with very sweet milk that calmed the cough.

Puzzled by this queer conduct, the son to the old man is determined to understand this occurrence (Hagbi 127). The son to the old man ties the goat with a very long rope and stealthily follows her. When he followed the goat by the rope, the goat directed him to a very lengthy cave. The journey through the cave landed them to the land of Israel. Turning his eyes about the land, the son saw an attractive land that looked like the Garden of Eden.

With the notice that he had reached the “promised land”, the son wrote a note to his dad directing him on the way to come after the goat on its way to this land. He attached this note at the ear of the goat as it started its journey back home. On seeing the goat without the company of his son, the old man assumed that the goat had led to the death of his son (Hagbi 129).

He thereby reacted with wrath and killed the goat, only to find the note when the goat is already dead. This story ends on a sad note of disconnection of the father from his son as the cave strangely vanished with the death of the goat. The father thus forever remains in exile.

The position of exile is represented as a sickness. A characteristic theme of exile from Israel in the bible as well as in the Jewish scriptures is a curse and reprimand. The affirmation of coughing from his heart rather than from his lungs symbolizes that the old man was not sick physically but psychologically (Hoffman 149-150). The reality that the milk carried by the goat originates from Israel and calms the coughing of the old man symbolizes Israel as a treatment to the psychological sickness of exile.

The journey to Israel through the cave is symbolic of a spiritual walk to the Promised Land. In Hebrew, the word cord used to represent the rope tied to the goat has a pronunciation of ‘Meshicha” that calculatedly is pronounced almost the same as the Hebrew term for Messiah. To accept to have a grip on the cord “then your journey will be secure, and you will enter the Land of Israel” (Agnon 23) represents a real messianic acceptance.

Conclusion

Shmuel Yosef was an author and a significant contributor in contemporary Jewish creative writing. As Yosef said, religious scriptures, Talmud and Torah, habitually influenced his writings. The stories of Agnon metaphorically signify and characterize the customs and traditions of Judaism. At the beginning of the story “Agunot”, Agnon utilizes metaphor that acts as a basis of the subsequent plot. It is from this story that the author gained his name “Agnon”.

The figure 13 in “Kerchief” is metaphoric of a tradition in Judaism. The lodgings in “From Lodging to Lodging” are not merely new, but as well perfect, symbolizing the dreams of a reinstated, healthy Israel and healthy persons. In “The fable of the goat”, the journey to Israel via the cave is symbolic of a divine walk to the Promised Land. As evident in this paper, the writings of Agnon embark upon conflicts in traditional living in Judaism, language and modern-day world.

Works Cited

Agnon, Shmuel Y. A book that was lost and other stories, California: Schoken, 1995. Print.

Balaban, Avraham. “A different reading of S. Y. Agnon’s story, “The kerchief.” Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 11.3 (2012): 419-425. Print.

Hagbi, Yaniv. Language, Absence, Play: Judaism and Superstructuralism in the Poetics of SY Agnon, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2009. Print.

Hoffman, Anne. “Language, Absence, Play: Judaism and Superstructuralism in the Poetics of SY Agnon.” European Journal of Jewish Studies 5.1 (2011): 147-150. Print.

Vais, Hilel. Agnon and Germany: The Presence of the German World in the Writings of SY Agnon, Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 2010. Print.

Yefet, Karin. “Unchaining the Agunot: Enlisting the Israeli Constitutional in the Service of Women’s Marital Freedom.” Yale Journal of Law & Feminism 20.1 (2008): 439-442. Print.

Introduction

In the Middle East, Judaism is synonymous with the state of Israel. The country and the religion are completely inseparable.

Of all the Middle-Eastern states, Judaism is practiced almost exclusively in Israel. 74.9% of the population identifies as Jewish (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics t. 1). 26.5% of those identify themselves as Orthodox. 10%, known as Haredim, are a part of the Ultra-Orthodox movement. 3.9% and 3.2% named themselves Conservative or Reform Jews respectively (Ettinger par. 4). Only isolated communities exist outside the country. The distribution is explained by the unending conflict over between the Palestinians and the Jews over the former Palestine land. That tension was amplified by the Six-Day War when the Israeli forced crushed the opposing Islamic armies. Thus, in the Middle East Judaism is centered in Israel.

Main body

The Jewish denizens of the Middle East are generally less militant and less aggressive than their Muslim counterparts. On the other hand, Judaism, unlike Christianity, is not completely overshadowed by the Islamic influence in the region. Jewish population actively works with the Western nations to ensure their influence in the region remains significant. Most of the Jews are driven by the concept known as Zionism. It is a movement dedicated to reinstating and maintaining the Jewish dominance on the territories of the historic Land of Israel. The sectarianism within Judaism is limited. Some of the Orthodox groups can sometimes be prone to violence but, for the most part, Jewish people hold similar beliefs, and there are no dramatic schisms like the one between Shia and Sunni Muslims.

However, some of the Haredi Jews oppose the idea of Zionism. They condemn the secular nationalism and even state that the creation of Isreal was a sinful act. That does not, however, stop them from creating alliances of convenience with the nationalist groups (Jelen and Wilcox 178). Haredi parties are influential in Israel holding, at some point, 23 of the 71 seats belonging to the ruling majority. Despite their constant disagreements with the official government, the Ultra-Orthodox Movement is influential. Haredim are considered to be the keepers of the Jewish culture and traditions. More moderate Conservative and Reform groups are not largely recognized and have little real weight in the political life of Israel (Ettinger par. 8).

While, as a state, Israel seeks to secure its position in the region, the Orthodox movement is detached from the global questions of war and peace. Haredi Jews are even exempt from the compulsory military service since it is considered to be unfit for a modest religious student. Ultra-Orthodox students even receive significant scholarships for their religious studies while the military conscripts only get minimal pay. The main focus of the religious movement is on maintaining the Jewish traditions. For example, Haredim have secured gender segregated flights for the Orthodox (Nahshoni par. 1). They also frequently protest against the disruption of the traditional values.

Conclusion

Most of the Jewish population in the Middle East is working to keep their lands which are besieged by the Muslim forces claiming the same right for the land as the Israeli government. As a result, the Jews are probably the most consolidated people in the Middle East with little inner disagreement or conflict. The Jews are the most West-oriented and modern of the Middle-Eastern cultures. They are also the most likely reason why the other communities are so aggressive towards the US and their allies. The creation of Israel is one of the major causes of the current instability in the region.

The map illustrates the overwhelming influence of Islam on the Middle East, as well as the precarious position of Isreal.

Works Cited

Ettinger, Yair 2013, “Poll: 7.1 Percent of Israeli Jews Define Themselves as Reform or Conservative”. Haaretz. Web.

Israel Central Bureau of Statistics 2016, “Population, by Population Group”. Web.

Jelen, Ted Jerard and Clyde Wilcox. Religion and Politics in Comparative Perspective: The One, The Few, and The Many. Cambridge, UK: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 2002. Print.

Nahshoni, Kobi 2009, “El Al to launch kosher flights for haredim”. Ynetnews. Web.

When hearing a word “rabbi” an average person might imagine an exceptional personality, which in some mysterious way can solve our personal problems, read our thoughts and foresee the future. However, if to take a closer look at the history of Judaism it can be seen that rabbi is not some unfathomable cleric, but a preceptor for all those who seek wisdom, a teacher of virtuous life.

In Hebrew language rabbi means “my master”, “my teacher”. Originally, this term referred to honorary teachers of traditional laws of Tora and Talmud. Jewish sages started to develop Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple by Romans in 70 AD. Rabbis were to preserve and transmit religious knowledge regardless of presence or absence of any particular place of worship, thus making the religion more personal and independent (Avery-Peck and Neusner 126).

The institute of rabbis in its modern form traces its history from the in the Middle Ages. Its formation is associated with the decline of Babylonian Jewish communities, which were the primary subjects of Jewish diaspora responsible for rabbis’ appointment to local communities around the world (Stefon 162-169). With the growth of Jewish communities in different countries, the role of local rabbis had become more significant. Rabbis could occupy different positions starting from the regular master of Jewish laws and morality to heads of judiciaries and presidents of local communities. Unlike rabbis of the last two posts, ordinary rabbi-teachers were not paid and had to combine some other work with voluntary educational activities (Singer par 4).

From the beginning of the 14th century, rabbis started to receive salary and became more like civil servants. Their time was now dedicated solely to the religious and educational matters. Moreover, in European Jewish communities rabbis were required to obtain diplomas confirming their qualifications. The concept of the rabbi as a principal scientist, mentor and local spiritual leader receiving a reward for his services was also developed during 15-16th centuries in European communities and gradually accepted by the religious structure of Israel. The status of the rabbi as a supreme educational and spiritual figure in Israel was later reflected in the institute of Chief Rabbinate (Homolka and Schöttler 314).

At the beginning of the 19th century, “the necessity and value of a well-rounded, general education has been recognized” (Stefon 163), and the role of the rabbi was substantially revised. That was the period of significant reforms in Judaism, with Germany and the United Stets being the major centers of progressive religious movements. German Jews, characterized by liberal views and nearly protestant spirits, were at the forefront of scientific, literature and cultural development. Such prominent figures as Abraham Geiger, Israel Jacobson, and Leopold Zunz were among the leaders of the reformist movement in Germany. The United States proved to be an even more favorable place for the implementation of Reform Judaism. A newly reformed rabbi was no longer supposed to be responsible for overseeing the production of kosher foods or observing redundant religious ceremonies. He was more an enlightener, a philosopher and harbinger of reasonable positive changes (Robinson 56-59). During the second part of 19th century, a considerable number of specialized educational institutions were opened across Europe, giving rabbis the opportunity to get sophisticated knowledge (Singer par. 14).

Along with Reform Judaism, such movements as Progressive and Orthodox also emerged. As one can imagine, the later one, on the contrary to Reform and Progressive Judaism, preserved traditionalism, strict conservative norms and viewed rabbis as predominantly religious servants obliged to be present at all Jewish ceremonies (Stefon 163).

Another significant even revolutionary achievement of Reform movement in Judaism was acceptance of female rabbis. Starting from the 30-ies of the XX century single cases of women performing rabbi functions can be traced in Europe and America. After the end of World War II, that became a noticeable trend. In 1972, an American Sally Priesand was the first officially ordinated female rabbi. However, the Orthodox wing of Judaism still refuses to grant woman sweeping religious and educational powers (Homolka and Schöttler 223-227).

A modern rabbi, thus, appears to be a broad specialist, which encompasses the life in its complexity and divinity. Feinstein and Hyman in their work provide remarkably apt words of Rabbi Kushner:

It seems to me that a rabbi, more than any other profession, experiences the wholeness of life. A rabbi will celebrate a bar mitzvah on Shabbat morning and counsel people on Shabbat afternoon…A rabbi will understand the range, the breadth, and the depth of life, and will have the opportunity to do something about it (97).

The rabbi must have a solid knowledge of secular and religious issues, be a professional philosopher, theologian, and Jewish historian. He or she may at the same time be a preacher, a governmental officer, a spiritual figure in public ceremonies or even a private psychologist. But any time he remains a titan of spirit, almost a living saint.

Works Cited

Avery-Peck, Alan, and Jacob Neusner. The Routledge Dictionary of Judaism. London, UK: Routledge, 2014. Print.

Feinstein, Edward, and Paula E. Hyman. Jews and Judaism in the 21st Century: Human Responsibility, the Presence of God and the Future of the Covenant. Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2008. Print.

Homolka, Walter, and Heinz-Günther Schöttler. Rabbi – Pastor – Priest: Their Roles and Profiles Through the Ages. Gottingen, Germany: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2013. Print.

Robinson, George. Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs & Rituals. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 2008. Print.

Singer, Isidore. n.d. Rabbi. Jewish Encyclopedia. n.d. 2015. Web.

Stefon, Matt. Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. New York, NY: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2012. Print.

Judaism preaches the adequacy of the human mind to the image of God, the consequence of which is the belief in the immortality of the human soul. In accordance with the norms of Judaism, the believer maintains contact with God through prayer, God’s will is revealed through the Torah. The most important of the postulates of Judaism is the concept that all people are created in the image and likeness of God. The holiness that comes from God extends to a person’s personal life. The commandments of respect for parents follow from here, Saturday rest for everyone, even for pets, respect for other people’s property, prohibition of lies, slander, feelings of revenge, and envy. All this fully applies to a person because this increases in his eyes the respect for God of the Jews.

The main symbol of the faith of Judaism is expressed in the prayer of the Jews, who sometimes collectively call themselves after one of the biblical patriarchs of the people – Israel. The Jews call their Holy Scripture Tanakh. This word is an abbreviation of three Hebrew words: Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim, the structural elements of the Talmud are the Mishna and the Gemara. The Mishnah is an extensive commentary on the Old Testament, which is divided into 63 treatises, arranged in 6 sections. Gemara is a collection of interpretations of the Mishnah treatises. Taking into consideration the fact that commenting on the Mishna took place in Palestine and Babylon, there are two Talmuds: Palestinian and Babylonian. As far as my personal perception of rabbinical dialogues is concerned, I find these conversations quite strict in relation to the follower, as they have many restrictions. Nevertheless, such a format not only promotes concentration on faith, and, accordingly, dialogue with God, but also disciplines the believer. The rabbis themselves are faithful followers of their religion and advocates of the faith. Their centuries-old commitment to their traditions and faithful adherence to God’s path in their understanding are respected. Many religious institutions in the modern world are changing to meet the spirit of the times and public opinion. Judaism and its followers are guided by the precepts of their ancestors, which are expressed in their scriptures and lifestyle.

Before the destruction of the Second Tempe, people believed that in the time of the Messiah, wars would stop, and there would be universal peace and prosperity. All people, enjoying peace and harmony, will be able to devote themselves to the knowledge of God and spiritual improvement. In the Jewish tradition, the Messiah is a king, a descendant of King David, who God will send to deliver the people of Israel and save humanity.

After the destruction of the Second Temple, the faith of the Jews in the Messiah became more firmly rooted in religion. Thus, the Messiah was seen as a savior who would one day come to protect and deliver the people of Israel from the persecution they suffered (Judaism: The foundation of three great religions of the Middle East). The dualistic concept of exile and deliverance became one of the central themes in religion, and, accordingly, the Messiah became the deliverer of all Jews from persecution.

It is believed that the Judaism of the Second Temple era is the Judaism of the scribes, as opposed to the early Judaism of priests and prophets. Circumcision and Sabbath-keeping were to be the hallmarks of a Jew (Fox, 2018). A distinctive feature of Judaism of this period was the patrilineal kinship system, the national character of religion, and the need for a pilgrimage to the Jerusalem temple.

The Judaism of the Second Temple was not a single trend and fell apart in some directions: Sadducees (temple priests), Pharisees (scribes), Essenes, and Zealots. The destruction of Jerusalem profoundly affected the Jewish people and brought about dramatic changes in Judaism itself. People were again separated from God. But this time, there were no prophets to comfort and assure them of their future restoration in the holy city. After the destruction of the Temple, the Jewish world was gripped by shock, bitterness, and pessimism.

Despite the prevalence of Judaism and its peaceful existence with other religions, cases of anti-Semitist campaigns are still recorded in the world. The attitude towards Jews is based not so much on their individual qualities or achievements as on the ingrained ideas of Jewish greed, stubbornness, demonic, laziness, and greed. Thus, the non-acceptance of the people and hatred of an ethnic group and religion is an urgent and modern problem.

References

Fox, T. J. (2018). Soteriology in mainstream monotheistic religions: The Messiah conundrum (Publication No. 10933961) [Master’s thesis, Liberty University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Judaism: The foundation of three great religions of the Middle East. (n.d.). Adtalem. Global Education. Web.

Reference

Fisher, M. P. (2014). Living religions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Introduction

The key religious beliefs of Judaism

First of all it should be pointed out that Judaism is considered to be not only a religious belief, but also a mode of life. Thus, one can conclude that Judaism is based not only on a variety of spiritual values, but it involves a wide range of moral principles, people are to live according to. When speaking about the key conceptions Judaism includes, one can probably notice that its beliefs and practices are similar to those ones, which Christianity and the Muslim religion involve. Judaism’s key aim is to bring the world to conciliation and happiness.

According to the monotheistic religion of the Jews, there is one God in the world Whose Law is to be observed by humanity. God provided human beings with a right of choice; therefore, they can choose between good and bad. Serving God in a proper way means imitating God’s moral conduct and principles. People are to live according to the Torah, which reflects the basic rules of Judaism. Thus, there is a strong need to “care for the poor, love neighbors, celebrate Sabbath and festivals; respect God’s rules of honesty in business and daily life; observe Jewish law on matters of birth, education, marriage and death” (Marans, n.d., p. 1).

The persecution of Jews throughout the centuries

When discussing the persecution of Jews, it must be noted that no one of a wide range of religious groups experienced so much punishment, tortures and massacres as the Jewish religion did. The earliest records of the Jewish people’s sufferings are related to the times of King Nebuchadnezzer. The followers of Abraham’s teaching were uprooted from the holy city of the Jews and sent into exile. When the era of expatriation ended, people experienced the piece for about three centuries; then the Jewish communities started to be victimized by Christianity.

In times of the Crusades, non-Christian believers were recognized to be the threat, as their spiritual values and principles differed from ones propagandized by the Christian religion. The supporters of Judaism were cast out of all over. Within Spain, the Jewish people were not regarded as the threat, as they pretended that they believed in Jesus Christ, but practiced Judaism indeed. However, when the Spanish Inquisition was formed, the Jewish people continued to be persecuted.

Generally, the Jews were persecuted in all the times, although it is necessary to keep in mind that the cultural and economic progress of the 19^th century seems to be impossible without the contribution of the Jewish communities.

The Europeans’ injudicious horrors of Judaism cannot be neglected, as the horrors played an important role in the persecution of the Jewish people in times of the Second World War. Most of the Europeans were sure that Christian children were used in numerous secret rituals non-Christian believers performed to communicate with their God. Hitler, in turn, used such irrational fears to annihilate the Jews. It should be noted that the Germans attributed the blame to the Jewish people for their defeat in times of the First World War (Moss, n.d., para. 7).

Conclusion

In our days, Judaism is considered to be one of the strongest religions all over the world. Despite the fact that the Jewish communities suffered more than any other religious groups, the Jewish faith still exists and will do.

References

Marans, R. (n.d.). An Introduction to Judaism for Catholic Students. Sju.edu. Web.

Moss, A. (n.d.). The History of Jewish Persecution. Arizona.edu. Web.