The Vision of Messiah in Judaism

Before the destruction of the Second Tempe, people believed that in the time of the Messiah, wars would stop, and there would be universal peace and prosperity. All people, enjoying peace and harmony, will be able to devote themselves to the knowledge of God and spiritual improvement. In the Jewish tradition, the Messiah is a king, a descendant of King David, who God will send to deliver the people of Israel and save humanity.

After the destruction of the Second Temple, the faith of the Jews in the Messiah became more firmly rooted in religion. Thus, the Messiah was seen as a savior who would one day come to protect and deliver the people of Israel from the persecution they suffered (Judaism: The foundation of three great religions of the Middle East). The dualistic concept of exile and deliverance became one of the central themes in religion, and, accordingly, the Messiah became the deliverer of all Jews from persecution.

It is believed that the Judaism of the Second Temple era is the Judaism of the scribes, as opposed to the early Judaism of priests and prophets. Circumcision and Sabbath-keeping were to be the hallmarks of a Jew (Fox, 2018). A distinctive feature of Judaism of this period was the patrilineal kinship system, the national character of religion, and the need for a pilgrimage to the Jerusalem temple.

The Judaism of the Second Temple was not a single trend and fell apart in some directions: Sadducees (temple priests), Pharisees (scribes), Essenes, and Zealots. The destruction of Jerusalem profoundly affected the Jewish people and brought about dramatic changes in Judaism itself. People were again separated from God. But this time, there were no prophets to comfort and assure them of their future restoration in the holy city. After the destruction of the Temple, the Jewish world was gripped by shock, bitterness, and pessimism.

Despite the prevalence of Judaism and its peaceful existence with other religions, cases of anti-Semitist campaigns are still recorded in the world. The attitude towards Jews is based not so much on their individual qualities or achievements as on the ingrained ideas of Jewish greed, stubbornness, demonic, laziness, and greed. Thus, the non-acceptance of the people and hatred of an ethnic group and religion is an urgent and modern problem.

References

Fox, T. J. (2018). Soteriology in mainstream monotheistic religions: The Messiah conundrum (Publication No. 10933961) [Masters thesis, Liberty University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Judaism: The foundation of three great religions of the Middle East. (n.d.). Adtalem. Global Education. Web.

Miriam and Other Women in Judaism

Miriam

A significant action performed by Miriam is described in chapter 15 of Exodus. She inspired Jewish people when the pharaoh and his army were chasing them. When the pharaohs chariots and horse riders went into the sea, God drowned all of them, but Israel was able to step on the dry land. After that, Miriam took a timbrel, and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Exodus 15:20). Miriam inspired many people, asking them to sing thankfully for their Gods triumph.

Deborah

Deborah, the Lapidoths wife, was Israels judge and a prophetess. When children of Israel came to mount Ephraim for her judgment, she reminded them that they were supposed to go to Mount Tabor as per Gods will. Barak, the son of Abinoam, answered her, saying he could not go to that mountain without her. Thus, Deborah agreed to go with Barak and the other children of Israel, claiming she was able to withstand such a journey (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Judges 4:9). Deborah was a woman who was ready to go to any lengths to bring to life her Lords will.

Jael

Jael was one of the biblical murderers, and her actions described in Judges were highly dramatic. Sisera, the commander of King Jabins armies, trusted Jael to watch over him while he was sleeping in the tent. When Sisera fell asleep, Jael took a hammer and one of the nails from the tent and smote it into Siseras temples, which led to his immediate death (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Judges 4:21). Jaels action helped the children of Israel to destroy the army of King Jabin.

Judith

Judith, the daughter of Merari, was a widow who feared God greatly, which is why not a single person had ever said an ill word to her. She bravely stood against the governors of Bethulia, saying they were not right to touch the oath given to God (The Bible: King James Authorized Version, 2008, Judith 10:11). Judith was able to bring the governors faith back and reinstate their oath to God.

Huldah

Like Miriam and Deborah, Huldah was a prophetess who dwelt in the college of Jerusalem. She was Gods messenger who told Hilkiah that God would bring evil to Jerusalem and its inhabitants because they had forsaken their Lord to obey other gods (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, 2nd Chronicles 34:25). Huldah represented the Voice of God, bringing deadly warnings to Jews about his wrath.

Hadassah

Hadassah, or Esther, was a beautiful woman, and king Ahasuerus loved her above all his other women. She obtained the kings favor, which is why he chose her over Vashti as his queen and put the royal crown on her head (The Bible: Authorized King James Version, 2008, Esther 2:17). Esther had a significant influence on the king, which is why she could help her brother Mordecai to become a vizier.

References

The Bible: Authorized King James Version. (2008). OUP Oxford.

Sacred Time or Sacred Place in Judaism

Following the traditions of the Jewish religion is a theological doctrine that includes a combination of different approaches and practices that have been formed over the centuries. Sacred place and Sacred time are the crucial components of this commitment since the rise of Judaism is based on numerous historical references explaining specific norms and requirements. Synagogue visits, pilgrimages to the Promised Land, and other aspects associated with the criterion of place in Judaism form a solid background for this religion. However, in terms of role and influence, Sacred time is a more significant factor in determining the importance of Judaism and the impacts of its core tenets on peoples lives.

Sacred Jewish holidays are rooted in ancient times and explain the specific principles of Judaism that true believers are to follow. Kukla (2021) cites excerpts from the Torah and mentions the concept of Shabbat as one of the most important elements of the Jewish religion. According to the rabbi, strict adherence to behavioral, eating, and other norms at a specific time is a prerequisite for the implementation of religious dogmas interpreted in the context of the Scripture (Kukla, 2021). A person is to honor the holidays and fulfill the mandatory conditions, for instance, eat matzah, on certain days, while the place for these purposes is not of fundamental importance. Therefore, the concept of time is more important than place in Judaism.

The Jewish religion is built on rituals that are designed to maintain faith. As Marks et al. (2018) state, Sacred time is a concept that helps structure life, put it in order, and provide reverence in the face of chaos. Regarding Sacred place, there are individual requirements for visiting the synagogue, but most of the time, Jews spend outside the places of worship. In this regard, this is more relevant not where but when specific principles and dogmas of the Jewish religion are observed, which explains the importance of the Sacred Time.

References

Kukla, E. R. (2021). Sacred time and space. My Jewish Learning. Web.

Marks, L. D., Hatch, T. G., & Dollahite, D. C. (2018). Sacred practices and family processes in a Jewish context: Shabbat as the weekly family ritual par excellence. Family Process, 57(2), 448-461. Web.

The Role of Women in Judaism

Judaism is thought to be founded almost 3,000 years ago. This religious idea is based on the Jewish ways of life. A lot of reverence is annotated from the account of Abraham and Moses in the Biblical writings. That is the covenant affiliation between the patriarchs and matriarchs and God (Blu 36). There are several forms of Judaism. For example, traditional Judaism belief has a different setting where the women are postulated as separate but nonetheless equal to the masculine gender. It is meant to promote spirituality and joy through the harmonization of the teachings learned from the Patriarchs named above. As said earlier, women live under extreme restrictions that seek to challenge their responsibilities, roles, and several obligations. However, womens roles are just the same as mens. Women in Judaism are given a central and important role that was reflected by God during creation; this means that equality and responsibility are both accorded to the woman who serves as a helper and a companion in the family which is a basic unit of life.

The basic belief of Judaism is founded on concepts from the Old Testament account in the Bible. The Hebrew Bible is the main reference of facets that form the basis of Judaism. The book gives this account with a representation of the origin of man. In the Book of Genesis, the first chapter verse 27 the text states that God created the human being in His own image. Therefore, God made Adam with feminine and masculine attributes. He later separated these attributes by making Eve. Hence, from this argument, the women should have similar gender roles bestowed upon them with the least of scorn and neglect. This basis of equality makes Judaism religion correlate changes in its doctrines for over the past 30 years.

The role of women in Judaism has raised issues hence making confusions about their roles. The role bestowed upon the women is full of more feminine roles that are handsome than the current American civil law. The respect accorded to women was similar to the respect shown to them during the Bible stories. The Jewish law dates back, as result, it accorded women both negative and positive roles. For example, the negative role was given to the first woman, Eve, belittled her function. Eve was the first person on earth to sin. This is seen in the third chapter of Genesis where Eve breaks Gods Law. She eats the forbidden fruit from a tree that knows. She makes the step that later influences Adam to commit the same transgression of Gods law. This gives women seductive prowess and in some instances, they are depicted as prostitutes. Contrary to this negative image portrayed, some other women in the Bible contribute to salient leadership that becomes one of the most referred doctrines by Judaism. For example, Moses as one of the patriarchs is helped by his sister called Miriam to safeguard his life and infancy.

In traditional Judaism, women are given prestigious roles that are quite different but equal and far much greater. As noted earlier, man and woman were created to be equal; to be given equal roles and responsibilities. God creates a being that resembles Him and has absurd features that define man and woman. This means that there is no genitalia hence the formation of man and woman from such a being explains the original purpose of God to make equal feminine and masculine partners. Well, the basic reason that God did in separating the dual-gender was to make a unique purpose in each sex. The vital reason was to fulfill Gods aspiration in the Universe that He created. One of the profound Judaism concepts is the Family. A few roles given to the Family by God are one, to invest in children by caring, raising them according to Taharat laws. These laws are meant to instill purity or holiness and avoid impureness in a dead body. This is can be shown by when a woman menstruates, it is a sign of life and death. To give the woman purity she must be immersed in water that signifies life called Mikvah. Secondly, during the observance of the Sabbath light should be there to signify the Torah or the gift of peace. When a woman lights the candle she brings light or peace to her house. This is because light drives away the darkness, and the woman must be there to light the candle to show love and peace. Lastly, Taharat law acknowledges the tithe given to the high priest. This tithe or Chalah should be from bread dough that weighs approximately 1,500 grams. This tithe is burned in a respectful manner. This gives prosperity in terms of spirit and economic endeavors in the home of the woman. This is because traditionally women are meant to bake bread dough called Challot on Friday to prepare for Sabbath (Schochet 63).

Judaist women are bequeathed with respect because of their brainpower and insight into a law called Binah. From Gods creation, Genesis 2:22, we see how Eve was built and not created or formed. Therefore, the matriarchs like Sarah, Miriam, Rebecca, and Rachel are superior like the patriarchs named in the Bible. During the Exodus trip from Egypt to Canaan most women did not participate in the idolatry of the Golden Calf although they just donated their rings and ornaments; hence symbolizing their withdrawal from the slavery of sin. Hence, they can be depicted to be closer to God than men. This is ideally showing the role women play in Judaism, rather than the equality intended during the creation process.

A few Judaism writings show the essence of learned women and their important roles. For example, Talmud which was adopted to be rabbinical writings makes notes on the wisdom of a woman called Berurya (Hauptman 172). She was an adorable wife of a Rabbi or Judaist teacher called Meir. She was instrumental in the making of the Jewish Laws called Halakhah. Her opinions were incorporated in the law and were accepted by men. In fact, the woman is supposed to be consulted about marriage and entitled to teach the man concepts of the Torah. Hence, the woman is an instrumental companion in a mans life (Biale 94).

However, there are weaknesses or negative aspects of Judaism. Women are vehemently discouraged to go on with further or higher studies. This is meant to safeguard them from exploitations that may make them forget their marital duties (Nadell 91).

From the above discussion, we can conclude that the women in Judaism are given a central and important role that was reflected by God during creation. This means that equality and responsibility are both accorded to the woman who serves as a helper and a companion in the family which is a basic unit of life.

Works Cited

Biale, Rachel. Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Womens Issues in Halakhic Sources. New York, NY: Shocken Books, 1984. Print.

Blu, Greenberg. On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition, Ohio, OH: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Print.

Hauptman, Judith. Rereading the Rabbis: A Womans Voice. Colorado, CO: West-view Press, 1998. Print.

Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis. New York, NY: Beacon Press, 1999. Print.

Schochet, Immanuel. Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov. Canada: Liebermann, 1961. Print.

The Positive and Negative Aspects of Judaism

Judaism is a Jewish religion where members believe in a single deity who is the creator and redeemer of human beings, all forms of life on earth, and everything in the Universe. It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions in history, said to have begun with Abraham in Canaan. Judaism calls for strictly adhering to laws provided by God and following the values of practices documented in the Hebrew Bible, also known as Torah, and subsequent sacred writings. This essay describes how Judaism has both negative and positive impacts on society as it is associated with violence but encourages human values and taking care of the environment.

Even though most Judaism doctrines support peace and understanding, the religion and its history are associated with extreme violence. The Hebrew Bibles narrative about the development of Canaan and obeying Gods laws are highly conditioned, leading to an upsurge in violent activities. Judaism supports the excessive use of force, corporal punishment, and even warfare to exterminate practices like idol worshiping and disobedience to Gods laws (Avalos, 2019). This notion has led to increased extremist organizations that sometimes quote the Hebrew Bible to justify their acts of terror on individuals globally. However, the religion also supports positive human values and taking care of the environment.

One of the most outstanding principles of Judaism is its respect for the environment. Jews recognize God as a creator who placed them on earth to cultivate the land. Therefore, they have made it their mission to rebuke wilderness. Jews believe that man should take care of the environment to honor their duty with God. Judaisms values have helped individuals to develop innovations that focus on improving the environment. Jews have perfected several forms of agriculture, mechanization, and land development that guide other parts of the globe (Katz, 2021). Even though some extremist groups facilitate criticism, it is crucial to focus on the good and find ways to spread awareness and eradicate negative values for positive human development.

References

Avalos, H. (2019). The reality of religious violence: from biblical to modern times. Sheffield Phoenix Press.

Katz, Y. (2021). Judaism and human geography. Academic Studies Press.

Comparing of Judaism and Taoism

The purpose of this essay is to compare the two religions, their main characteristics, beliefs, and conceptual and ethical attitudes. Judaism and Taoism are chosen as examples for comparison. Judaism is one of the oldest Western monotheistic religions, distinguished by belief in the one true God. Judaism is based on the tradition of the creation of the world by God, who is above the world and controls it. God in the view of Judaism is not only loving but also angry, capable of punishing and erasing entire civilizations from the face of the Earth. An Eastern doctrine of Taoism was formed in the 2nd century AD, originating from a variety of shamanistic and philosophical teachings and cults. The treatise written by Lao Tzu is the basis of the teaching of the great Tao, and Lao himself is subsequently deified to a cult figure.

One of the fundamental similarities between Taoism and Orthodox Judaism lies in the historical practice of confessing these faiths. Judaism is the religion of a people doomed to wander, and the Torah is the story of how this people finds its identity and vocation. It is no coincidence that the concept of exodus is so important in the text of the Torah. Similarly, Taoism is a religion of solitary practitioners or the masses, which almost never had an official status. The historical destinies of these two religions are also similar, since both of them were waiting for a split. Taoism was divided into two different schools, competing with each other. Likewise, professing Judaists were divided into conservatives, who accept only the law of Moses, and reformists, with freer interpretations of Scripture.

The religion of Judaism perceives the knowledge of God as a devoted faith and the pursuit of virtue, expressed and enshrined in the text of the Old Testament. This text is perceived as the unquestioning Word of God and tells about the origin of the Jewish race  the generation of Abraham and his descendants, chosen by God (Judaism, n.d.). Their mission is expressed in this text and symbolizes the agreement concluded between the people of Israel and the one God himself. In this presence of a vocation, a mission, there is a resemblance to the principles of Tao, which, however, is more vague and abstract than a monotheistic God who speaks directly to the chosen.

The religion of Taoism represents a complex pantheon of gods and demons, which differs from the monotheism of Judaism. In Taoism there is a division into the ruler of the sky and the creator of the world, while in Judaism the father of the universe is the observer of it. At the center of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao  an abstract philosophical concept that implies the law of perpetual existential movement (Taoism, n.d.). This is also one of the differences with Judaism  in the view of the Jews, God is able to destroy the world, while in Eastern philosophy things are in a closed cycle of creation and destruction.

Thus, the similarities and differences between the two religious systems are established. Judaism and Taoism are similar in their concept of vocation and path, despite the fact that in Eastern philosophy the path is understood more philosophically and introspectively. Both of these religious schools have split over time and offer different interpretations of their key texts. The main difference lies in the concept of divine order  the monotheistic God of Judaism is justly punishing, while in Taoism the order of things is subject to a sacred balance.

Reference

Sophia. (n.d.) Unit 1  Challenge 3: Overview of the Religions. Web.

Egyptian Religion, Judaism, and Taoism: Comparative Analysis

Introduction

The emergence and development of world religions are frequently guided by practical considerations. They can be of moral or economic nature and reflect the critical needs of people of the time, and this fact explains their similarities and differences. From this perspective, comparing the Egyptian beliefs, Judaism, and Taoism is advantageous for understanding this mechanism while emphasizing the importance of varying conditions for Gods guidance.

Egyptian

The development of the Egyptian religion took a long time, and it started even before the kings. However, its wide dissemination did not occur until the sixteenth century, when temples were built (Garland). Meanwhile, the roots of this system were in respect of citizens for both the dead and the gods, as they both were viewed as a symbol of immortality (Garland). The significance of deities, including those in animal and human forms, was underpinned by their economic role as religion as an institution creating jobs for the people (Garland). The powers of gods were usually limited to specific areas, such as motherhood, and the most known of them were Ptah and Amun-Re as humans and Horus and Hathor as animals (Garland). In this way, the polytheistic belief was quite complex and linked to different regions.

Taoism

The history of Taoism is directly linked to the philosophy developed by Lao Tzu. He wrote the book named Tao Te Ching in the sixth century BC, which laid the basis of this religion while incorporating the wisdom of previous generations of thinkers alongside original ideas (Chakra). According to this system, harmony is the main goal of humanity, and it can be achieved if one follows the path or, in other words, Tao (Chakra). In other words, the natural order of things is believed to be appropriate guidance in life (Chakra). Hence, this religion is opposed to self-interest, which is the wrong way.

Judaism

The development of Judaism was conditional upon the importance of communication with god for Jewish people, who followed what their prophets advised. This religion was founded by Abraham, a Hebrew man, who is considered to be the first person to ever talk to God (Judaism). In turn, the main text is known as the Tanakh, consisting of several books that reflect on the significant position of the nation in the world (Judaism). In Judaism, the generations of Israelites, starting from Abraham and his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, respect the Ten Commandments (Judaism). Thus, as per this system, salvation is possible when these provisions are applied.

Comparison

The three religions described above seem different in their origin and main characteristics; however, they also have several similarities. Even though they are not interconnected and did not affect one anothers emergence, they have shared values. Thus, both Judaism and the Egyptian tradition highlight the importance of following Gods will or, in the latter case, that of numerous deities, while Taoism does not speak of this aspect. The common struggles are attributed to finding proper guidance for followers in life. Since their approaches are completely different, they do not have any similar festivals. As for gods, the only common characteristic linking Judaism and Egyptian beliefs is the respect for ancestors, which is indirectly expressed in Taoism by adopting the wisdom of previous generations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the review of the history and development of the Egyptian religion, Taoism, and Judaism showed that they still have some common elements despite being different in their origins and intentions. They include the respect for ancestors transmitted through recognition of divine power and the significance of these institutions for peoples morality. Thus, the lack of mutual influence or similar struggles distinguishes their approaches, whereas the motives of their creators remain the same.

Works Cited

Chakra, Hayden. The History of Taoism. About History, 2021, Web.

Garland, Robert. Religion and Deities of Ancient Egypt. The Great Courses Daily, Web.

Judaism. History, Web.

Women In Minyan Services In Conservative Judaism

A woman participated in the opening of the Minyan service at the Conservative Jewish synagogue on that Friday evening. There were several other women in the congregation. Based on my research prior to my visit, I knew that a Minyan service needed 10 males present in order to begin; I was curious to know if I counted toward that quota. Therefore, I was interested to know what the standard was and how it had changed. The research revealed that while this appeared to be normal now to that Jewish congregation, many generations before never had any women participating in the service, let alone present. Although it took some time, women’s roles in synagogues today are different from 100 years ago. Change within Judaism as a whole lead to branches of Judaism, including Conservative Judaism. In today’s Conservative synagogues in America, the way women are allowed to participate, learn, and lead look quite different than the Orthodox synagogues.

Before true progress can be evaluated, it is very important to understand what Orthodox Jewish services looked, and mostly still look, like. While women’s rights as a whole, inside and outside of the service, have progressed mightily over the past years, I will be focusing mainly on their rights and roles within the services and ceremonies, such as the minyan. Traditionally, women’s religious activity was based within the home. They were in charge of making sure that the family observed holidays and laws regarding purity. The women were only required to obey negative commands, such as not killing, and only the men had to obey the time-bound laws. A time-bound law is something that has to be done at a specific time, such as a prayer service. Therefore, women could not pray in services, or participate in other time bound laws, because it is assumed the women would be busy with household duties and not even present in the service. If women did attend, they worshipped separately from the men. Sometimes they were even separated with a divide, or balcony because it was thought they would be too distracting for the men.

Because some rabbis described this traditional treatment of women as “degrading” and even “barbaric,” it is only logically to assume that change would occur. Fortunately, as time and society progressed, Judaism progressed as well. These changes began in the 19th century when Wester European Jews were set free and given citizenship. This, following the 18th century Enlightenment which had a key focus in equality, began to create rumbles within the religious community about the differences between women and men and why these existed. Although it took some time to see the fruits of their efforts, many people banded together in order to reform Judaism and create what is now known as Reformed Judaism.

Conservative Judaism started in America in 1887 as a response to the lack of change in Orthodox Judaism and the rapid change in Reformed Judaism. This movement was created to “conserve Jewish tradition and at the same time to respond to the challenges of modernity.” They wanted to stay as traditional as possible and only change if “absolutely necessary” in order to keep up with modern changes. Therefore, changes and progress within Judaism, especially Reformed Judaism, are important to note because if these acts align with Conservative Judaism’s platform, they are slowly filtrated in.

Around 1845, serious efforts started being made toward equality. It was in 1845 at a Reform conference that Sage Rabbenu Gershom, who had already made steps towards rights for Jewish women outside the synagogue, teamed up with Rabbi David Einhorn. They introduced the topic of women’s rights and were told to create a presentation for the 1846 conference. This presentation included six key aspects. The ones pertaining to the service are as follows: performing religious acts dependent on time, participation in prayer services and allowance to count towards quote, change to the religious majority age for male and female, and removal of controversial phrasing, which appeared sexist, in the morning prayer. While this may be the earliest documentation of effort towards equality, the presentation was not discussed due of lack of time, but it did lead to conversation.

While ideas for efforts were documented early, it took much longer to put them into action. A big step towards equality in Judaism took place in 1922 with the first bat mitzvah. Until this point, only bar mitzvahs existed. These were coming of age ceremonies for boys when they turned thirteen. Although a girl turning twelve marked her coming of age, there was not a ceremonial aspect. This now meant that girls could also read from the Torah. The first bar mitzvah was thrown in 1922 by Mordecai M. Kaplan for his daughter. While it did not have the great extravagance that the bar mitzvahs did, it set a precedent. Kaplan was an obvious trend setter as the bat mitzvah had been introduced to almost all Conservative and Reform synagogues by the 1960s. A couple of decades after the bat mitzvah was introduced, mixed seating was under discussion. As of the 1950s, some Conservative congregations had introduced mixed seating, but not all. This does not mean that the movement was not in favor of mixed seating, but the movement wanted each synagogue to make an individualized decision on mixed seating. Based on one researcher’s article on her observations and findings of four New York synagogues, it appears that it was not a given that every congregation had mixed seating, even in 2005. However, even though they were now allowed to be present in the service, they still did not have the opportunity to be active in the service.

There is speculation that change within America as a society helped spur bigger changes within Judaism. Feminism came along with the Civil Rights Movement and gave women away to fight outside religious bounds as well. Therefore, many feminist leaders actually were Jewish. They used their platforms to speak about inequality in the church. Betty Freidan used her platform to continue to push some of the ideas that Einhorn attempted to tackle. In 1970, while speaking at the Women’s Strike for Equality, she said, “I want something more than my husband and my children and my home.” In the same year she said this, the United States started to make some more steps toward equality. The Equal Pay Act passed and then the following year the Civil Rights Act, which did not allow for discrimination for a job based on sex, was passed. The change outside of the church continued to push women to call for change within the church.

The struggle for active roles may have taken the most time to resolve. This can be seen as it was not until the 1970s that some women became rabbis; it took even longer for this change to affect Conservative synagogues. These women were not allowed hold the position of rabbi until 1983. This is when the decision to allow women into the rabbinical program at the Seminary was made. It then took until 1990 for women to be admitted into the Cantor assembly. These were big changes that women had been working towards for years. Women could finally sit, read the Torah, be celebrated at coming of age, and lead like the men had been doing.

However, these changes did not satisfy women; they still strived for equality in every aspect of Judaism, including dress. As a result, they made a push towards equal dress in the services. Traditionally, men wore multiple items in a synagogue service: “a yarmulke, a head covering, and a tallit, a prayer shawl.” Women then started to wear yarmulkes and tallits, some of which were multi colored. The tallit is significant for many reasons. The tied fringes are said to create connection and sacredness. When these fringes are cut, it shows “unraveling of life and the reality of death.” They are also in close connection to rite of passage ceremonies. After Bar Mitzvahs and Bat Mitzvahs, males and females receive these to show that each one is now accountable for a direct relationship with God. They are now seen as mature in the synagogue and count toward the quota for the minyan.

Without the effort that people such as Rabbi David Einhorn and Mordecai Kaplan, I would not have been able to attend that Minyan service. In Orthodox Judaism, I would most likely not have been allowed in the ceremony either. In Reformed Judaism, it appears I would have been able to do whatever I wanted. However, in this Conservative service I was able to attend and female members were allowed direct participation. In some congregations, I may have worshipped with a female rabbi and/or cantor. While more than likely the men and women fighting for change within the movement wanted change in equality faster and easier, there efforts were rewarded in the long term as women can now attended, lead, learn, and dress equally in most Conservative synagogues.

The Struggle For Women’s Ordination In Judaism

In Judaism, ​rabbis​ possess one of the most critical roles within their communities. They are scholars, teachers, and leaders. They resolve disputes about religious law and lead prayers at synagogues. Despite having no proper authority over any other member of the community, rabbis are well respected as the people closest to God. Being a rabbi is a full-time profession, and therefore all rabbis must complete degrees at ​rabbinical universities. For centuries these universities were for men only because women were not encouraged to study religious texts due to their busy role as mothers and caretakers. In the 1 mid-1900s, women in America began studying at rabbinical universities to enhance their religious knowledge. Despite being allowed into universities, many women who graduated were not allowed to be ordained​, or officially appointed as rabbi, and instead took on other roles in their communities like becoming teachers or leading prayer groups.

In the 1960s, American Jews struggled to define the role of women in religious life. The burning question of if women could be rabbis was heavily debated. The barrier between possibility and impossibility was broken in 1972 when the Reform movement​ ordained Sally Preisand as the first female rabbi in American history. Preisand encountered many 2 difficulties in being the first female rabbi. Members of her local congregation were hesitant about her performing funerals, claiming their loved ones were “more traditional” and therefore would oppose a female rabbi. In addition, she says she felt immense pressure to perform well because she was setting the lone example for what a female rabbi would be. When male rabbis would travel from around the world to see her perform a seminary, their impression of female rabbis would be based on how well she did that day. This left no room for mistakes. Since Preisand’s ordination in 1972, more and more women have been pursuing leadership opportunities within their congregations that were previously restricted to them.

The call for the inclusion of women rabbis has been received with mixed reactions amongst the various denominations in Judaism. While many believe that adding women to the rabbinate will only diversify religious perspective, some think that women being ordained is strictly against ​halacha​ – Jewish law which governs daily and spiritual life. Within the ​Orthodox movement​, which makes up 10% of American Jews, the ​Orthodox Union​ upholds a firm stance against women holding clergy titles. The OU is the governing body of Orthodox Judaism and has the power to issue 4 official statements on halachic issues within the movement. In 2017, they published a 17-page statement on the debate and concluded it breaks halacha to ordain female rabbis. They explain that although women fulfil a significant role within the religious community, it is simply against halacha to allow them to hold clergy​, or council, positions.

Despite the direct opposition in Orthodoxy, a small group of women have pursued ordination. Female-led Orthodox synagogues are even being created. 28-year-old Rabbanit Hadas “Desi” Fruchtur has plans to open a synagogue in Philadelphia, where the Orthodox community is growing. She says it will still follow halachic law and be in line with traditional Orthodox practices, like having a segregated sanctuary. She will not lead prayers and will deliver her sermon to the female side of the synagogue. The purpose of this new congregation is not to detach from traditional Orthodoxy, but to normalize female leadership within modern Judaism and inspire women to pursue roles within their communities.

Outside of Orthodoxy, nonprofit groups like the ​Jewish Women’s Archive​ strive to inspire young Jewish women to learn about their history and break down barriers that still exist today. The JWA uplifts the unheard voices of Judaism, with one of the most extensive archives of Jewish women’s stories in the world. Their mission is to use the past to understand the issues women have faced, share incredible role 7 models, and inspire people to see they can change the world. The JWA holds conventions, teaches classes and provides resources to those who want to learn more. They work with women in every denomination of Judaism to forge a better future for those who come next.

Though women rabbis have created a path for themselves, they are still greatly impacted by the hardships that weigh against them. The unequal representation of men in power has caused generational oppression towards women. When half of the population is considered invalid, many viewpoints are missed. The women who came before have forged their way to create peace within the religion. Today, more than 350 women have been ordained as rabbis and changes are being made throughout Judaism.

Synagogues are beginning to see a new form of leadership. Many men rabbis have said that their female counterparts have taught them to be more empathetic and make more personal connections with their community members. As time goes on, children growing up with women rabbis will never feel the bias of wanting a man as their leader because it won’t be something that they’ve been taught. Women’s voices are being heard and respected. They now have the power to change the minds of millions of people who may believe that women should not be rabbis. It is an extremely important position that requires suffering through aspects of culture that try to prohibit success and teaching others to unlearn their own personal bias.

Sources

  1. “Bereishit Rabbah 18:2.” ​Sefaria​, https://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.18.2?lang=bi.
  2. “Welcome to the Jewish Women’s Archive!” ​Jewish Women’s Archive​, https://jwa.org/aboutjwa.
  3. “2019 Annual Report.” ​Jewish Women’s Archive, https://jwa.org/sites/default/files/2019annualreport.pdf
  4. Nadell, Pamela S. “Rabbis in the United States.” ​Jewish Women’s Archive​, https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/rabbis-in-united-states.
  5. A Portrait of American Orthodox Jews.” ​Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project​, 31 Dec. 2019, https://www.pewforum.org/2015/08/26/a-portrait-of-american-orthodox-jews/.
  6. Mjl. “Overview: Women in Traditional Jewish Sources.” ​My Jewish Learning​, https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/overview-women-in-traditional-jewish-sources/.
  7. “The Trailblazing Legacy of Rabbi Sally Priesand.” ​NPR​, NPR, 7 Jan. 2007, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6638554.
  8. “Women in Judaism.” ​A History of Women’s Ordination as Rabbis​, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/a-history-of-women-s-ordination-as-rabbis.
  9. Zauzmer, Julie. “In a Break with Tradition, Orthodox Jewish Women Are Leading Synagogues.”
  10. The Washington Post​, WP Company, 29 Apr. 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2018/07/28/in-a-break-with-tradition-orthodox-jewish-women-are-leading-synagogues/.

The Peculiarities Of Jewish Marriage

Marriage within the religion of Judaism is not thought to be a secular legal partnership. Instead, it is closer to a union sanctified by God. This is known as a ‘kiddushin’. From this, it can be said that marriage obligations are not so much personal, but have in fact more implications for universal harmony. It is important to note that both the concept and processes of marriage within the Jewish frame do not only have an impact on the lives of adherents through an individual perspective, but also through both a familial and communal lens.

From an individual perspective, marriage enables adherents to obtain a deeper understanding of their faith, it allows for a couple’s relationship to reach more elevated levels, it acts as a foundation for building a stronger relationship with God and also provides structure within their families as they are able to fulfil the first mitzvah of “be fruitful and multiply”.

The significance placed on family within Judaism is further emphasised through the practice of marriage and impacts such families as it allows lessons of respect and gratitude to be taught to children, it provides the need for gender-specific roles within families such as women being given the privilege of commencing Shabbat by lighting the candles on the Friday, and lastly, it allows for a familial level of spiritual and faith development, whereby family life is considered to be the “training ground” for the teaching of Jewish customs and traditions.

Lastly, communities of Judaism are significantly impacted by the practice of marriage as it contributes to the ongoing growth of the community, it is one of their public expressions of faith and provides a renewal of the Jewish faith. It also affirms God’s recognition of Israel as his people, for example, through the recitation of the words “mazel tov” as a glass is smashed. Furthermore, marriage was seen as a gateway in times of persecution and upheaval, and so historically, Judaism has been reinvigorated through the practice of marriage in such times.

Marriage within Judaism is seen as significant as it provides an individual fulfilment of the Mitzvah as all Jewish men and women are expected to marry, which is the first commandment observed in the Book of Genesis. It structures the lives of the couple and allows for the assigning of roles to each member of the relationship, providing both with a sense of responsibility. It signifies a sense of belonging and the beginning of a new family and also acts as a means of identification with Judaism. Marriage allows for the expression of principle beliefs such as those found in the Ten Commandments and in the Torah, such as in the Book of Genesis where God recognises that “it is not good for man to be alone”, in turn creating the first human couple. This obligation to engage in Jewish marriage is implying that it is a man’s duty to find love with a Jewish partner and begin a life together. It is an avenue for celebrating the distinctive way that an individual can experience God’s love, which transforms their life. For the individual, it shows how Judaism can deepen the lives of adherents by giving them a sense of belonging, well-being and spiritual union with God. In terms of the ceremony itself, marriage also allows for a physical representation of one’s devotion to God as each marriage ceremony is a re-enactment of the unification between God and the Jews that took place atop Mt Sinai.