Category: Journalism

This essay will analyze the article by J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur, Immersion Journalism, and the article by Edward Humes, What is an American. The common theme of these essays is implicit and implied. Both authors describe different topics and issues but construct their works on the opposition between the topic under discussion and its relations to the outside world. The elements under analysis are ritual and traditions which shape the subjects, the principle of opposition, and the idea of Americaness. The authors use such nonfiction elements as personal experience and a slice of history to unveil the uniquely American values and traditions of the nation.

Both essays are based on the personal experience of the authors and are told from the first point of view. This helps to underline the personal experience of the authors and their attitudes towards the subject matter. I suppose that this technique adds subjectivity to narration and storytelling. The nonfiction element in these stories underlines personal experience and personal opinion, as evidenced by the following quotes.

From involuntary idleness, servile dependence, penury, and useless labor, he has passed to toils of a very different nature, rewarded by ample subsistence (Humes). The author underlines a difference between European culture and traditions and unique American values which shape the nation. Similar to Humes, Crevecoeur states that traditions and rituals shape Immersion journalism. Traditions of this type of journalism go back to muckraking.

When a reporter crusades on an issue and decides to expose what he sees as evil, he sheds the objective stance. Implicit in the decision to write an exposé is the belief that something needs to be done about the problem or person being exposed. This, of course, represents a point of view. To muckrake in order to effect change brings to a head the larger questions of purpose and effect. That the press relies on commerce for support (as Tarbell bemoaned) but also acts as a critic of commerce is an integral part of the story of immersion journalism.

The rituals and traditions of journalism can be expressed in the objectivity which has evolved over the decades and, even today, and it has different meanings from publication to publication. However, whether it is couched in words like fairness, accuracy, or impartiality, or in phrases like separating fact from comment, there is some uniform agreement on the principles of objectivity. Let me go from the theoretical underpinnings of the concept to some of its specific attributes.

The authors use different syntax and sentence structures because of different genres and styles. Crevecoeur follows publicistic style while Hume writes in belles-lettres style. Using historical scenes and places, both essays are based on the idea of Americaness and the uniqueness of the American nation. Using his own experience, Hume explains that the American nation was shaped by historical traditions and colonization experiences.

The American lifestyle is reflected in all spheres of life, including housing and food, clothes, and communication. Similar to Humes, Crevecoeur sees immersion journalism as a unique phenomenon of the American nation. The uniqueness of this style is that: the stories we seek are private ones, for every place or character or institution, even public ones, have a private life, behind the façade, where the real business of families and governments and schools happens (Crevecoeur). Immersion journalism becomes a part of the American culture and an important tool to support and protect social victims.

This notion is closely related to Americaness as a unique phenomenon of the USA. The most important aspect of this formula is that the lead, the beginning paragraph or paragraphs, calls for a judgment about which of the facts is the most important, a judgment that, on its face, would seem quite subjective. News professionals commonly invoke time-honored definitions of news to defend their choices of leads, but this attribute is probably the least defensible and the most difficult to describe. Nonetheless, when describing why a certain story is objective, a reporter will note that it meets a certain accepted formula.

I suppose that historical elements help the authors to unveil the main features and principles of immersion journalism and an American lifestyle. Humes underlines that an American man differs from a European because of his unique worldviews and personal relations. The American ought, therefore, to love this country much better than that wherein either he or his forefathers were born (Humes).

The main difference is that Europeans take their ancestry and history for granted, while Americans value and appraise the hard work of their fathers who came to America many centuries ago. In contrast to Humes, Crevecoeur sees immersion journalism as a distinct style of traditional journalism shaped by social needs and demands.

In contrast to traditional journalism, Immersion journalists have no particular right to go where they go. (Crevecoeur). It is widely recognized that the mass media provide citizens with ample information that they then use to construct some sense of the world around them. The theoretical rationale for the notion of objectivity is that readers and listeners can best make up their minds about public policy issues when they are given verifiable facts. These facts are delivered by independent, neutral observersreporterswho provide for the reader competing versions of the truth; in short, a marketplace where ideas do battle.

In sum, the essays by J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur, Immersion Journalism, and the essay by Edward Humes, What is an American, discuss different issues related to an American culture and immersion journalism. They reflect the personal experience of the authors and their unique point of view on the subject, attitudes towards the problems, and issues discussed in the articles.

Works Cited

Crevecoeur, H.J. Immersion Journalism. 2002. Web.

Humes, E. What is an American. 1995. Web.

The perception of the present false news that revolves around the area of journalism is created by the persuasive language used in communication. This concept is expressed by several individuals in various ways, which helps the audience absorb the information. Each strategy for journalism must persuade the audience and keep them attentive throughout each sentence. Due to the audiences perception and interest in the offered material, fake news is one of the most important issues nowadays.

In modern rhetorical contexts, Aristotelian rhetoric could be the most efficient for conveying. The goal of communication under this method is to bring people together rather than just communicating for the sake of communicating (Whittaker, 2019). Its goal is to persuade individuals to alter their opinions regarding circumstances that call for immediate action, which is the primary issue of contemporary rhetorical situations and is why such scenarios are best suited for it.

Information that is plausible in light of current events is disseminated to the public via fake news sources. Boczkowski claims that the influence of incorrect information on our contemporary informational climate is leading to unnecessarily high levels of stress, indignation, and fear among the populace (Boczkowski, 2016). This is done to distribute misleading information, skew peoples perceptions, and cause them to question everything so that when the truth is exposed, it will be questioned because of the false information that was also disseminated under the pretext of news reports.

The duality connected to the architecture of the information infrastructure is one of the three impacts that harm society. Secondly, in keeping with the media context where editorial selection today enhances the power of algorithms, there is a growing notion that there are some limitations to identifying bias. The third issue is the cultural authority crisis brought on by knowledge, which has an impact on journalism and the character of institutional changes. As he sees bogus news and information destroying the future of journalism, Boczkowski is gloomy about the near future of mass communications and media.

I carefully verify the contents accuracy to ensure the sources I rely on to develop my worldview and provide evidence for my claims are reliable. Moreover, I constantly contrast information I already know with data I got from the original source to make sure it is accurate. Researching the information and double-checking it with a reliable source before releasing it is essential. Despite the use of technical terms, it is still conceivable that the sources information is inaccurate.

The idea that the general people would not be able to tell the difference between true and misleading information has actually come as a result of the rising public interest in fake news. In America, spreading false information is viewed as a strategy to exert pressure on the direction of change (Whittaker, 2019). The dissemination of fake news has sparked a rebellion against the established order, shown in a shift in the perspective of the reporter.

Social media is at the forefront of the propagation of false news, despite the fact that the majority of people feel confident in their abilities to recognize and reject it online. Further development of digital communication is likely to exaggerate the problem, which can be detrimental to American society (Boczkowski, 2016). Even if these technologies have the ability to employ machine learning models to ascertain the veracity of a news report or to automatically verify the facts, society is still prone to believing in fake news.

Concluding, due to frequent phony posts that widely circulate information that is not entirely true, the usage of fake news on social media has exacerbated the availability of information. People need to be interested in false news if the country and the rest of the globe are to be secure in the media department. Because individuals in todays environment are unable to think for themselves, fake news may be used to position them both in favor of and against a specific stance.

References

Boczkowski, P. J. (2016). Fake news and the future of journalism. NiemanLab. Web.

Whittaker, J. P. (2019). Tech Giants, artificial intelligence and the future of journalism. Taylor & Francis.

New Journalism is a term that refers to the phenomenon that took place in the 1970s. It can be defined as a radical new way to describe the times in which people live (Goc 279). It was a revolutionary approach to journalism as new forms and styles were used. Truman Capote and Gay Talese contributed greatly to the development of New Journalism. These two journalists opened up new horizons in journalism, and many reporters are still using methods developed in the 1970s. It is possible to consider elements of New Journalism in Taleses Wheres the Spirit of Selma Now and Capotes In Cold Blood to understand how this approach differs from traditional journalism.

Wolfe is one of the major theorists of New Journalism (Goc 279). He revealed the distinctive features of this approach. One of these features is the presence of points of view of many people (Goc 280). In traditional journalism, a limited number of viewpoints are usually given.

The writers opinion can also be found. Of course, in both works, this element of New Journalism is present. Capote provides viewpoints of many inhabitants of the area where the crime took place. Voices of witnesses, police officers, and even murderers can be heard in the book. Even though the whole world was against Dick Hickock, the author provides the opinion of the cruel murderer (Capote 167). Clearly, this was a revolutionary technique, as in the majority of cases, criminals did not get so much attention.

Talese also uses this element as he gives opinions of mainstream America, those living in the North and those living in the city depicted in the article. It becomes clear that the issue is not that simple, and rallies or marches can have some positive and many negative effects. The author provides the words of one of the inhabitants of Salem who notes that it is easy for outsiders to come and march here&, but when they leave, they leave us the pieces (qtd. in Talese par. 19).

Opinions of different people are included and it is obvious that the problem is complex and marches organized by people coming from different cities to Salem are not effective and bring more issues instead of solutions.

Another element of New Journalism that is also present in both works is the use of scene-by-scene construction with a spare back story (Goc 280). For example, in Capotes book, each chapter is a scene devoted to a specific topic or idea. The author also gives various facts form the past of the characters. Talese makes us of this element as well. The journalist describes events that took place in Salem during the Civil Rights Movement.

The author also gives a back-story when he tells the story about another man named King who set a style of life that was soon emulated by other early settlers (Talese par. 7-10). This helps the reader understand the atmosphere in the city.

Of course, these elements were not used in traditional journalism as journalists focused on an event and simply told the story as it went. There can be back-stories in traditional journalistic pieces but they are very short (a few sentences). Talese and Capote give many details that refer to the past and the present of places they are writing about.

One more element that is typical of New Journalism is the length of the work. Authors who use techniques of New Journalism could write papers of any lengths. The two pieces under analysis are two extremes. Taleses article is quite short for a piece of New Journalism while Capotes writing is very long. It is hard to call Capotes book a pure journalistic work as it is a novel. As for traditional journalism, there are quite strict limits and journalists have only particular number of words to tell their stories. Capote and Talese break these rules and use as many words as they need.

The use of dialogue is also important in New Journalism (Goc 280). This element is used differently in the two works. Capotes book is full of dialogues. They make the story easy to follow. Talese does not use dialogues but the author provides many quotes that create a sense of a dialogue with the reader. In traditional journalism, no dialogues are used. There can be some quotes but their number is also quite limited.

Another element of New Journalism, which is also one of major elements of fiction, is the use of characterization. In Capotes book, this element is used more distinctly. The author provides descriptions of many people involved in the case. Capote tells back-stories of each character and these characters are often dynamic. Talese also uses characterization. However, it is often a characterization of the population of the city, not an individual. Of course, the city and different groups living there are also dynamic characters as they develop and change.

It is also obvious that New Journalism is different from the traditional one as new journalists insert a lot of fiction into their works. Traditional journalist use facts only and they do not pay much attention to the literary value of the piece. New journalists try to create a literary work that is based on pure facts. There can be some literary devices in the piece and authors can also add more descriptions and more details to make the work more interesting.

Hence, it is clear that the two works are examples of New Journalism. They both can be defined as a fact-based writing that combines the story elements of fiction with the truth-telling elements of traditional journalism (Goc 281). Nevertheless, it is important to remember that New Journalism is not a pure fiction. In pure fiction, authors do not bother about facts very much. However, both works under analysis are based on facts only.

Capote tells about a crime that happened in a certain place. Talese also describes events that happened in a famous city. The two authors tell about people who lived there at certain periods. Moreover, the authors provide quotes and it is clear that those are words of the people involved in the situations that happened. The authors had interviews to collect data and based their writing on this information. This is one of the major differences between New Journalism and pure fiction.

As has been mentioned above, New Journalism was developed to tell about the life in a new way. The authors did not want to provide only facts but they did not want to create purely fictional writings, which are not associated with truth. They found the way to combine journalism and fiction. Capote and Talese used elements of New Journalism to describe the way people lived at certain periods. They focused on a specific event and managed to show the way people behaved and the way people thought.

Of course, it is possible to write a report on an event and people will learn about it. It will start a debate on some issues. However, a novel devoted to a crime and the wrongs of the American society will have a greater impact. Notably, the book under analysis had an enormous effect on Americans who started discussing two sides of the American Dream. People saw lives of ordinary Americans and they also saw the life of people who could kill. The book helped the reader see the way criminals think.

Talese also chose only one event, the march in Salem. However, he managed to start a debate on the role of these marches and the effects they created in specific places. The author makes people think about the other side of activism. Those coming to different cities advocating certain principles can understand that they come and leave but people are left with their problems. Sometimes the problems become even more serious and even dangerous as the marches reveal the tension that could be hidden for decades.

On balance, it is clear that New Journalism was a revolutionary technique used to make people think about major issues that existed in the society. Journalists were not satisfied with the limits of traditional journalism and they started using elements of fiction in their works. They managed to tell the reader about some events but, at the same time, they drew peoples attention to trends that led to appearance of certain issues.

Works Cited

Capote, Truman. In Cold Blood. New York: Vintage, 1994. Print.

Goc, Nicola. Case Study 4: Whats in a name? New Journalism and Creative Nonfiction. Media and Journalism: New Approaches to Theory and Practice. Eds. Jason Bainbridge, Nicolá Goc, Elizabeth Tynan and Liz Tynan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 279-287. Print.

Talese, Gay. From the Archives: Wheres the Spirit of Selma Now? The New York Times. 2015. Web.

With the development of new technology, the most popular and cost-effective ways of presenting information widely used in the past become outdated. In the United States, the abovementioned tendency manifests itself in a variety of trends such as the decline of local newspapers. Nowadays, more and more companies in the newspaper business that do not possess the status of industry giants stop producing printed publications due to financial considerations. Using the projects of Newseum and other sources, this essay argues that the decline of local newspapers jeopardizes peoples right to information.

Many exhibits available to people visiting Newseum, a museum of journalism, raise the topic of free press and shed light upon the problem being discussed. Issues at the confluence of the decline of local newspapers and the credibility of information may arise during armed conflicts and terrorist attacks. After the sadly remembered 9/11 events, news broke in three places almost simultaneously (9/11 Gallery Sponsored by Comcast par. 3).

It is possible that in such situations, the reaction of both local and regional newspapers and, importantly, the similarity between facts provided at different levels remain the indicators of information accuracy. Given the absence of local information sources, the data provided by large agencies can be regarded as well-controlled by the government, thus giving rise to conspiracy theories.

It is widely accepted that newspapers, along with TV programs, present the key information sources that can be used by anyone. Unlike the situation with online sources that become more influential today, people are not required to have well-developed computer literacy skills to use newspapers. Therefore, the lack of easy-to-use options that represent local news can be detrimental to people who have no access to the Internet.

This tendency also jeopardizes the consumption of information when it comes to older adults  in the United States, about 35% of them do not use the Internet at all (Hunsaker and Hargittai 3742). With that in mind, the acquisition of small newspapers by media giants poses a threat to people who cannot use other options.

The lack of local sources that provide an adequate representation of specific events also poses a threat to the consumption of information due to political functions that these newspapers fulfill. The attempt to highlight the importance of local social and political news is made by the Newseums project, Todays Front Pages (Todays Front Pages). There is no doubt that all large-scale events and catastrophes in the United States like 9/11 or presidential decrees are widely discussed by media giants (9/11 Gallery Sponsored by Comcast par. 2). The same principle should work with local political events to increase peoples awareness of new initiatives and make them feel involved in political decision-making.

News reporters from small companies can monitor the cases of the excess of power among local civil servants. However, large media sources such as The Washington Post successfully solicit the subscribers of local newspapers by introducing special offers (Saperstein). Modern researchers prove that the presence of adequate local news coverage encourages legislators to better represent their districts (Masket par. 6). Therefore, the opportunity to miss the cases of local politics unprofessional behavior is not the only negative consequence of the decline of local newspapers.

To sum it up, the lack of local newspapers can be detrimental to peoples awareness of the most recent events and impact the degree of trust in the national media. Additionally, the decision to reduce media coverage of local events negatively impacts small newspapers regular readers. In the end, an inadequate representation of local news limits peoples opportunities to participate in political life and helps to conceal some mistakes of city administrations.

Works Cited

Hunsaker, Amanda, and Eszter Hargittai. A Review of Internet Use Among Older Adults. New Media & Society, vol. 20, no. 10, 2018, pp. 3937-3954.

Masket, Seth. The Decline of Local News is Bad for Democracy. Pacific Standard. 2018. Web.

9/11 Gallery Sponsored by Comcast. Newseum. Web.

Saperstein, Tess. The Future of Print: Newspapers Struggle to Survive in the Age of Technology. Harvard Political Review. 2014. Web.

Todays Front Pages. Newseum. Web.

Introduction

Communication between individuals who are very different from each other may yield positive results of these peoples understanding of cultures and occupations. Thus, it may be helpful for one to inquire about others professional values to understand why some peoples worldviews vary. The interviewee for this assignment is Anthony, a 22-year-old man who works at a sawmill as a laborer. He is eight years younger than me, and his occupation is entirely different from mine as well. The young man is an American, and his parents came from Italy to the United States before he was born. Thus, he has an Italian heritage, and some of his relatives live in both Italy and the U.S. As the man has a close relationship with his family, they influence his understanding of the American and Italian culture. The following reflection will address the mans occupation and his view of personal and professional values.

Interview Reflection

According to Anthony, his job often produces some adverse reactions from people. His parents, for example, are unhappy that he has chosen to work instead of going to a university and pursuing a career that would require less physical labor. He says that they mainly worry about his health and the lack of time for studying. It is possible that ones level of education influences his/her status in society. According to Agu, Umeokonkwo, Nnabu, and Odusanya (2016), a major part of sawmill workers is young men who have completed only a secondary school. Anthony meets all these criteria  he is a man in his twenties, and he started working after high school. This decision may have put him in a box of the working or lower class  a socioeconomic factor that is often considered to have a different ideology and values as opposed to the middle or upper class (Manstead, 2018). Anthony noted that some people inquire why he has chosen this job when he could have had a better education.

However, his occupation as a sawmill worker also affects peoples and his own view of his personal characteristics. For example, Anthony noted that he did not find it strange that women were an absolute minority at his place of work. He stated that women were less likely to work there not because they were not considered for the position but because they either did not apply at all or were unable to endure the physical challenges of the work. He also commented that heavy and strenuous duties were challenging for older people. That is why, in his opinion, the majority of employees were young men. There was no definite connection between the mans occupation and race. However, it can be assumed that Anthony did not think about this factor because of his American citizenship and European ancestry. The young man stated that he did not have any problems finding a job and securing his position. It is possible that his physical condition, age, and gender played a role in this process.

According to Anthony, sawmills choose workers who are self-motivated and robust because this occupation implies many physical and environmental challenges. It is also vital to note that the mans workplace highly values safety. Thus, all employees must follow specific regulations, and ones lack of attention to standards is usually condemned as irresponsible and dangerous to other persons. As Akorede et al. (2018) note, safety is a real concern for many sawmills because some workers are not given proper instructions by their supervisors and employers. Therefore, such a focus on safety, while not unique for this particular organization, may not be present in the majority of similar companies. Furthermore, peoples communication, openness, and a positive outlook are encouraged by the community of workers. Their physical labor and tiring work call for a lighter attitude and camaraderie, according to Anthony. The man also values financial independence from his family and the ability to see the results of his daily work.

Interestingly, I have found that Anthony and I share some similar values about work and personal life. For example, the mans desire to build strong relationships with his coworkers corresponds with my views of interactions at ones workplace. The necessity to have a positive attitude instead of focusing on negative comments from other people is also familiar to my experiences. Furthermore, as the man completely agrees with his organizations safety requirements, he shows that his health and the well-being of his peers are important to him as well. I believe that my adherence to safe practices and concern for others are similar to that behavior. It seems that most values upheld by Anthony resemble my own. However, I believe that education is a valuable part of everyones work, and Anthonys view of all training that does not relate to his current occupation does not give him many perspectives for future improvements.

Conclusion

This interview shows that people from various cultures and occupations may understand each other better if they compare and analyze their experiences. For example, the interviewee and I share some values concerning work, although our age and profession are different. The focus on ones work culture may also reveal some general concepts that can become a foundation for prejudices and negative views of certain jobs. For example, the negative judgment of people who do not possess a higher education may be debated by presenting the positive attitudes of people who have strong ethical values despite not having a college education.

References

Agu, A. P., Umeokonkwo, C. D., Nnabu, R. C., & Odusanya, O. O. (2016). Health problems among sawmill workers in Abakaliki and workplace risk assessment. Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care, 28(2), 1-10.

Akorede, S. N., Alebiosu, E. O., Jamiu, Q. O., Nofiu, O. D., Ahmed, S. G., Ayuba, C. S., & Mustapha, A. A. (2018). Influence of safework practices on occupational health hazards prevention among sawmill workers in Ilorin South Local Government Area, Ilorin. KIU Journal of Humanities, 2(2B), 13-20.

Manstead, A. S. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267-291.

The writing piece of Nicholas Kristof on gun laws provides an invaluable argumentation for implementing proper legislative regulations alongside technological improvements by making the issues analogous to cars and their regulation. However, Dennis Barons argumentative writing focuses on banning the English language in the United States by promoting the radical opposite of making the given language an official one. Although both writings provide valid points, the former one is evidently more effective in comparison to the latter.

The two essays differ in both the topic being discussed and approach for argumentation, where Nicholas Kristof argues with solid reasoning through the use of facts and Dennis Baron merely opposes by utilizing conventional knowledge. Nicholas Kristofs writing is significantly more effective because it offers a clear comparison of guns to cars, where the arguments are backed by historical facts. However, Dennis Baron seems to simply oppose the legislation of making English an official language by basing the arguments on the notion of forbidden fruit being more appealing. Both sources use evidence, but Nicholas Kristofs writing is vastly more superior since the evidence is factual historically, and the other author uses anecdotal evidence. Kristoff writes: A century ago, we reacted to deaths and injuries from unregulated vehicles by imposing sensible safety measures that have saved hundreds of thousands of lives a year (Kristof, 2014, para. 18). It works because cars are an ideal analogy for guns, and the gun regulation addresses the safety measures in regards to guns since they are deadly to users.

In conclusion, Nicholas Kristofs writing and arguments are more effective than Dennis Barons because the former author uses historical facts, logical reasoning, and clear analogies to claim that guns require some form of regulation.

Reference

Kristof, N. (2014). Our blind spot about guns. The New York Times.

Societies cultures are constantly evolving, and people of different generations tend to embrace new values and beliefs. Publications such as magazines and newspapers always reflect the current state of the culture. Moreover, practically all elements contained in a magazine are defined by the current times and created to be relevant for the reader. Cosmopolitan, a notable womens magazine, has been in existence for more than a century, and it is interesting to compare its issues from 1954 and 2005 to see cultural differences.

The first aspect of the publications which is worth analyzing is the coverage, namely, the stories and articles featured in the magazine issues. In the issue from February of 1954, the topics of the articles are quite reserved and mostly concern biographies of celebrities, short stories, and diet advice (Parsons, 1954). For instance, there is also an article called Fantastic Florida, which talks about the main attractions of the state in which readers can be interested (Kobler, 1954). Overall, the publication reflects the cultural norms of the period before the sexual revolution of the 1960s and does not contain any provocative content. Compared to the 1954 issue, the one from February of 2005 has articles that mostly concern the topics of sexual behavior and relationships, as well as gossip. For example, there is an article that contains mens confessions about their dirtiest deeds (Guy confessions, 2005, p. 48). The issue from 2005 also has many articles about men and how to build better relationships, including the article What his mouth moves reveal (Trench, 2005, p. 72). Thus, based on the analysis, a shift can be observed from general topics such as celebrities in 1954 towards more sexually explicit content in 2005.

It is also interesting to assess the differences between the two issues in terms of the writing style adhered to by the authors of the articles. The 1954 issue once again reflects the modest cultural norms of the period and mostly utilizes formal language. There is no explicit wording, and the general tone of the publication is rather neutral. The language of the 2005 publications is to a considerable extent different than that of the 1954 issue. The first quality of the writing style is that it is highly informal and almost conversational. For instance, the authors use words such as butt, porn, and provocative wording such as lust-bust (Guy confessions, 2005, p. 48). It is possible to assume that by using informal words, the writers wanted to create a casual atmosphere for the publication and to overcome a barrier between the magazine and the reader. Thus, the analysis demonstrates that over the fifty years, the writing style in Cosmopolitan has changed significantly.

Additionally, the visual arrangement is a crucial part of magazines, and in Cosmopolitan, the visual content has also seen notable changes. The first difference between the two issues of the magazine is that the 1954 version is predominantly black-and-white, while the 2005 issue is colorful. In terms of the images used in the magazine, the 1954 issue has many photos of celebrities, who are nevertheless modestly dressed. The 2005 issue has many photos of scantily dressed people, including a topless man (Men in bed, 2005, p. 40). The difference between the two publications highlights how people approached the question of a persons nudity in public in the 1950s and the early 2000s. Moreover, unlike the 2005 issue, the one from 1954 has a variety of art and drawings. The 2005 issue also has many photos of people openly demonstrating their romantic relationships, which is absent in the 1954 issue. The analysis of the visual content once again shows that during the two periods, people had different perceptions shaped by their cultural values.

Finally, advertising plays a major role in magazines such as Cosmopolitan, and some differences can be observed when comparing the two issues. First of all, the 2005 issue has more advertisements in general, which, nevertheless, can be explained by the fact that it contains more pages. The notable aspect of the 1954 issue is that it contains many book advertisements offering readers to get subscriptions (Fine Editions Club, 1954). Such advertisements are absent in the 2005 issue, which, at the same time, has many cosmetics brands, including LOreal and Max Factor, and those selling products for men. While there are cosmetics advertisements in the 1954 issue, they are not as common as in the more modern issue. At the same time, the 2005 issue does not have any advertisements of alcoholic beverages, of which there are several in the 1954 issue (W. A. Taylor, 1954). The modern readers of Cosmopolitan may be younger than the primary audience of the 1954 issue; therefore, alcohol brands no longer advertise their products in magazines.

The analysis of issues of Cosmopolitan magazines from different periods, namely the 1950s and the 2000s, shows that there has been a considerable cultural shift. In the 1954 issue, the language usually had a neutral tone, and the topics featured in the articles concerned the biographies of celebrities and short stories. The 2005 issues predominant content is stories about the sexual behavior of people and gossip. Overall, the assessment of the issues indicates that the cultural values reflected in the 1954 magazine were more modest than those in the 2005 issue.

References

Fine Editions Club. (1954). Cosmopolitan, 136, 9.

Guy confessions. (2005). Cosmopolitan, 238, 48.

Kobler, J. (1954). Fantastic Florida. Cosmopolitan, 136, 14.

Men in bed. (2005). Cosmopolitan, 238, 40.

Parsons. L. (1954). Hollywoods nicest star. Cosmopolitan, 136, 10.

Trench, B. (2005). What his mouth moves reveal. Cosmopolitan, 238, 72

W. A. Taylor & Company. (1954). Cosmopolitan, 136, 67.

Introduction

Vogue is an American magazine about fashion, culture, and lifestyles. This is a world-famous journal, and there are various international editions. One of the most striking attributes of this periodical is its covers that reflect the current social and political environment. The main goal of this paper is to discuss the social, political, and cultural contexts of two Vogue covers considering style or trends, possible customers, and the overall message of the images.

Discussion

The first picture illustrated by Helen Dryden was published on the 1st of November in a U.S. edition. The picture presents a woman on the street who struggles with a strong winter wind (Vogue n.d). She wears an expensive brown fur coat and an elegant hat. The fashion in the United States in the 1920s was characterized by the new era of women who gained their independence. Loose clothing, casual dresses, and bright colours were the popular trends at the time (Croll 2014). Politically, this period was very distinctive. After the First World War, Republicans came to power. It resulted in the expansion of the business. Although the entertainment industry significantly developed, new religious morals and attitudes became popular as well.

This cover reflects the cultural and social context of that era. American citizens enjoyed prosperity and freedom (Blackman, 2007). People presented in the picture symbolize a high social activity as they came outside in spite of the terrible weather. The cover passes on the message that highlights the beginning of the era of liberty, relief, and leisure. Therefore, the possible customers were young and middle-aged men and women who successfully adapted to a new environment and were able to keep up with fast-moving situations.

The second picture was published in U.S. and British editions in November 1949. This cover is a photograph of a model Wenda Parkinson made by her husband, Norman Parkinson (Baring 2009). The picture presents a lady walking on a street and looking back at an object invisible for spectators (Withers n.d.). Her outfit is classic and elegant. She is wearing a black fitted jacket, black skirt, stylish gloves, and a hat. Western fashion in the years following the Second World War was characterized by exclusive custom-fitted clothing.

The clothing industry developed quickly after the end of the war (Forty, 1986). However, the political environment in the West was not stable during that period. The Soviet Union and the United States became the worlds new superpowers. It resulted in a serious tension between western and eastern blocks. However, the baby boom changed social trends. People began to move from cities to suburban areas. Also, the quality of life became much higher in comparison to the war period.

This cover presents fashion trends of glamour and elegance of the 1950s. Billowing skirts, white gloves, and handbags were very popular back then. The main message of this picture is that people returned to normal life and are ready to move forward, but memories of the terrifying past are still there. Therefore, the possible customers were new families and young citizens that aimed at reviving their countries.

Conclusion

In conclusion, fashion is always associated with social and political trends. The way people want to appear changes, depending on a situation in the world. The mentioned above examples illustrate the connection between the fashion industry and systematic transformations in societies.

Reference List

Baring, L 2009, Norman Parkinson: never out of fashion. Web.

Blackman, C 2007, 100 years of fashion illustrations, Laurence King, London.

Croll, J 2014, Fashion that changed the world, Prestel, Munich.

Forty, A 1986, Objects of desire: design and Society since 1750, Thames & Hudson, London.

Vogue n.d. Web.

Withers, A n.d., November 1949. Web.

New Journalism emerged in the 1960s as a way of writing news using literary devices. This approach was new in that era. According to Boynton (21), New Journalism emphasized truth and gave little importance to facts. When it started, many people thought that this was a new approach to writing fiction based on true events in society. The manner in which the authors would find immense themselves in their stories when reporting was considered unconventional.

As Boynton (34) notes, conventional news reporting occurs when the reporter detaches himself from the story. The reporter should be a third party. This is the only way that the report will be viewed as being impartial and objective. Identifying with part of the story would impair the judgment of the reporter. However, in New Journalism, the reporter became part of the story. This is common in fiction writing, but not journalism. That is why it was mistaken to be the work of fiction. However, the proponents of New Journalism, such as Gay Talese clarified that this was a form of journalism other than a work of fiction. In this paper, the researcher will discuss the elements of New Journalism found in Capotes In Cold Blood and Tom Wolfes Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers.

Discussion

The two books have used elements of New Journalism in various aspects. One way in which the scholars affirm that their works may be categorized as New Journalism is that they, as reporters, are part of the stories they tell. They do not just report what happened from a third-party perspective but immerse themselves in these reports. In order to discuss elements of New Journalism as presented in these books, it will be necessary to analyze them independently.

In Cold Blood by Capote Truman

This is a non-fiction story about the gruesome murders of Herbert, his wife, and two children. The family lived in Holcomb. As mentioned before, one feature that makes New Journalism stand out as a distinct genre is that it more closely related to fiction than conventional journalism. This is clearly evident from the first page of the report. Capote (1) starts his story by saying, The village of Holcomb stands on the high wheat plains of western Kansas.

The author goes on to describe the village, its people, their way of life, and the infrastructural development in the area. He even describes how this village was unknown to other Americans that were not from Kansas. In fact, the first two pages do not mention anything to do with the murder of the Herberts. This is strange when it comes to journalism. According to Boynton (97), journalists are always keen to attract the attention of their audience as soon as they make their first sentence.

Other explanations about the incident may follow, but what must come first is a direct explanation of what the story is all about. When he mentions the murder of this family, he does it in an approach that makes it appear to be more of a fiction than a news report. Capote (3) says, four shotgun blasts that, all told, ended six human lives. This is not an approach that would be expected of a conventional news reporter. This is the first factor that proves that it is a work of New Journalism. It is important to look at other elements of New Journalism that were presented in the story.

Obligation to tell the truth

One of the main elements of New Journalism is the obligation, to tell the truth. According to Boynton (76), New Journalism emphasizes on the need for the authors to maintain truth in their accounts without manipulating it in any way. This is what the author did in this book. The author went to this small town and did detailed research on events preceding the murder and what happened immediately after.

Capote (5) says, Few Americans- in fact, few Kansans- had ever heard of Holcomb. This fact was widely reported, not just in this book, but also in other mainstream media stations. Before this gruesome murder of this family of farmers that happened in November 1959, Holcomb was not known to many Americans. The incident brought this little-known town to the limelight as top American crime detectives and media focused on the murder that shocked the entire country. Although the story is reported in a way that brings together several other issues, some of which one may argue is not directly related to the murder case, the author ensured that the report was based on true accounts.

Loyalty to citizens

According to Boynton (82), one of the most important elements of New Journalism is its loyalty to the citizens. This scholar says that the proponents of New Journalism were concerned about the impartiality of conventional journalists. Journalists are expected to investigate an issue and give a report that is impartial and straight to the point. Sometimes they are forced to ignore the other environmental factors that led to the occurrence of the events, making it difficult for the citizens to have a comprehensive knowledge of a given event.

In this book, the scholar starts by describing the environmental factors and forces that existed in the place of murder. He goes ahead to explain to the readers factors that may make them understand the events that led to the killings. This issue raised public attention, and the American citizens wanted to know more about the story. As an author responsible to the citizens, he gave comprehensive information about this murder, making it easy to understand the possible causes and the approach the murderers used to commit the crime.

Discipline of verification

According to Boynton (76), one of the fundamental duties of journalists is to give a verifiable report. Responsible journalism requires a reporter to conduct a thorough investigation before giving a report. Anyone looking to verify such information should be able to do so easily with hard facts being available in the expected sources. In this book, the author gave a verifiable report. The author traveled to Holcomb and interacted with the locals very closely in order to understand their versions of the story. This means that anyone who may want to verify the content of the report can do so by going to this village and interviewing the same people the author interviewed.

The author visited the courts to follow the proceedings of the case. Part of the story involving the prosecution of the suspects can be found in the library of the court. The author also relied on the report of other journalists. It means that anyone who may want to verify this information can do so without much struggle. As a responsible journalist, Capote (16) was concerned about giving a report that is not just based on his emotional understanding of this incident, but also the views of others who were affected or who knew about the murder.

The need for the practitioners to be independent of the people they cover

In the current society, many reporters have been accused of poor journalism because of their relationships with the people they cover. Boynton (57) says that it is almost impossible for a journalist to be impartial when he has a relationship of any sort with the people he is covering. If it is hate, the reporter will try to make the person they are covering a villain, while if it is love, then the person will be presented as a victim. In his book, Capote took a very neutral stand. He had no relationship with the victims of the murder, and neither was he related to the suspects. He was an independent reporter whose attention was drawn to a story that was of interest to society. This made it easy for him to be impartial and committed to presenting the news in its truest form possible.

The need to keep the story interesting and relevant

Unlike conventional journalists who are expected to be very specific in their reporting- probably because of limited time to air their programs or limited space in the newspapers- New Journalism allows its reporters to be a little creative in their work. In order to capture the attention of their audience, reporters in New Journalism are allowed to make their stories more interesting by injecting their own views as long as it remains relevant and verifiable.

Capote (8) says, Members of Rupps family were Roman Catholics- a fact that should be sufficient to terminate fancies. This is a personal opinion that has been injected into the story. The statement, however, is relevant and makes the story interesting. It helps the reader to know why some things could not happen the way they were expected to. This statement is also verifiable. It is true that the family members were Catholics.

The author based his argument about the impossibility of marriage fancies between the two individuals on the doctrines of the Catholics. These doctrines are widely published in Roman Catholic manuals. One assumption that he made was that as staunch Catholics, the family would follow the Catholic principles. The author notes, in this book, that majority of residents in Holcomb were Roman Catholics who were keen on following Catholic principles. This was a further justification of his assumption that the actions of these two individuals were influenced by their religious affiliations.

Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers by Tom Wolf

This is a New Journal text written by Wolf when he was working in San Francisco at the Office of Economic Opportunity. This office is the main setting of the entire text. The term Mau-Mauing was used by this author to describe the deep-rooted mistrust that existed between the poor Mau-Mauers (Blacks, Chinese, Samoan, Filipino, and Indians) and the officers at the OEP. These officers were expected to transform the lives of these marginalized groups.

Instead of doing this, they used the funds set aside for the welfare of the poor to enrich themselves. As a responsible journalist, Wolf presents this story, but in an artistic manner. It is important to note that this was a true story of what Wolf experienced when he was working in this office (Wolfe 67). The following are other elements of New Journalism presented in this text.

The need to serve as an independent power monitor

Those who are entrusted with power and responsibilities to take care of members of the society sometimes abuse this privilege. New Journalism seeks to find ways of monitoring how they use this power and report on the excesses of those responsible for the welfare of society. The Office of Economic Opportunities was assigned the responsibility of elevating conditions of the poor members of the society who had been marginalized since the country gained independence.

The officers were expected to interact with these people, understand their problems, and find solutions to the problems in a way that will make the marginalized groups be more responsible American citizens. However, Wolfe realized that the officers were doing the complete opposite thing. They harbored mistrust against the marginalized group and did everything possible to limit direct interaction with them. The finances meant for this program would be redirected to individuals bank accounts. As an independent power monitor, he reported this crime, hoping that a solution would be found.

Provision of a public criticism forum

According to Boynton (34), the need for a provision of a public forum where people can criticize issues affecting them is another important element of New Journalism. The reports should focus on cores issues affecting society in a way that can motivate public debate. In this text, Wolfe (45) says that the Office of Economic Opportunity claimed that the marginalized communities were waging a Mau Mau War against the Whites, making it difficult to give them help.

However, when volunteers went to the field, collect the weapons used by the mau mauers, what he found were ice-picks, straight razors, and switch-blades. This demonstrates the hypocrisy of the officers. It is demonstrated that these marginalized communities had no capacity to wage any war with the government. This text was meant to promote public criticism of the activities of the officers. The book uses various literary devices in order to portray the indifference of this office towards the people it was created to protect.

Conclusion

Capotes In Cold Blood and Tom Wolfes Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers are some of the texts, which have widely been used to when talking about New Journalism. As discussed in this paper, New Journalism emerged when a group of authors and journalists tried to use some literary devices to modify their work. The two books bring out specific elements of New Journalism that make it different from conventional journalism.

The first element is that New Journalism, just like conventional journalism, is based on true events. These events are reported in an artistic manner that may make the work to be mistaken to be fiction. Another element is that New Journalism seeks to address issues that affect members of the society in a way that will motivate public discussion. Public problems can only be solved through public consultations and participation. Finally, it is clear that this genre places emphasis on responsible journalism.

Works Cited

Boynton, Robert. The New Journalism: Conversations with Americas Best Nonfiction Writers on Their Craft. New York: Vintage Books, 2005. Print.

Capote, Truman. In Cold Blood: A True Account of a Multiple Murder and Its Consequences. New York, NY: Random House, 1975. Print.

Wolfe, Tom. Radical Chic &, Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print.

New Journalism appeared and became very popular in the 1960-1970s. It was seen as something revolutionary as journalists had not employed techniques that came into existence at that period. This approach is characterized by the presence of a significant portion of fiction, an abundance of facts and details, and a focus on the psychological aspect. Truman Capote and Gay Talese are often regarded as major developers and users of this approach in journalism. Their works have been studied and analyzed as the main examples of New Journalism. It is possible to consider two works of these authors, In Cold Blood by Capote and Frank Sinatra Has a Cold by Talese, to understand peculiarities of this approach in journalism.

First, it is important to define the major peculiarities of traditional journalism. Journalists rely on facts and tend to refer to their sources that have to be reliable. A traditional report is crammed with facts and meaningful details, while many other details (that can be important as they provide a broader perspective) are often missing due to the lack of space. Traditional journalism is also characterized by a conventional structure as the reporter provides facts as they appear.

The retrospective structure is very rare in traditional journalism. There can be no fiction or assumptions. If there are some suppositions, the reporter underlines that those are not facts. Hence, the reader can see what actually happened, what people think about it. As has been mentioned above, there are always references to other peoples opinions. The reports are crammed with action rather than contemplations and psychology.

When it comes to the works in question, it is possible to identify particular aspects that differentiate them from traditional journalism. One of the most obvious differences in the structure of the two works. As has been mentioned above, retrospection is quite rare in traditional journalism, and if it is used, it serves to provide background information. In the two works in question, retrospection can be seen as an integral part. The plot is not linear as the journalists often refer to the past and then focus on the present.

Thus, when depicting Frank Sinatra, Talese uses a few days from his life. Thus, the author describes the great showman at a party and refers to Sinatras past talking about the achievements of the embodiment of the fully emancipated male (Talese 64). Capote also employs retrospection when he provides details of the crime. The plot is not linear as the journalist wants to provide a broader perspective. They were writing about things that were largely known to the public and, hence, they needed some striking details and specific order to make their works interesting for the reader.

Apart from the structure, the two works are characterized by great attention to psychology. Thus, Talese writes about Sinatras mood. The author also tries to explain such a psychological condition of the famous singer. He notes that Sinatra is a man of many moods and great dimension (Talese 71). The journalist does not simply tell about the actions of Sinatra, as he tries to describe his character. It is even possible to state that the entire story is an attempt to understand the character of the famous showman.

Capote goes even further as he tries to understand what two murders could feel. The journalist is trying to explore their characters. For instance, he adds such details as the memory of the laughter of Smiths father that increased his tension; his head hurt, his knees ached (Capote 174). The journalist provides insights into the inner world of the murderer. This is one of the characteristic features of New Journalism as journalists do not remain on the surface, and they want to dig deeper. They want to understand the inner world of people rather than simply report on peoples actions or certain events.

At the same time, New Journalism is not pure fiction. The two stories in question rely on particular facts. The authors implement in-depth research. They study various documents (written ones, video, and audio records). They have interviews with many people. Hence, when writing the book, the journalist took information from various official records, and he had numerous interviews with people who were involved in the case. Talese also had many interviews with people who agreed to give one to the journalist.

Of course, no fiction has so many facts and real-life details. Fiction writing is not as precise as the two works in question are. Although some fiction works can be based on true stories, writers do not pay much attention to various details. However, Talese and Capote integrate facts and particular data in their writings. At the same time, they only occasionally refer to particular sources. This creates the feeling that writing is a journalistic work with some elements of fiction. This is another peculiarity of New Journalism as it is characterized by an abundance of facts and details that are wrapped in some elements of fiction.

It is possible to provide a brief analysis of some elements of fiction to understand the way they work in such conventional examples of New Journalism as Capotes and Taleses writings. One such element is the setting. Hence, Capote provides a detailed description of the place where the story is set. The author depicts a lonesome area in great detail, just as many writers of fictional works do (Capote 3). Talese also starts his story with a detailed description of the setting.

The journalist notes that Sinatra was standing in a dark corner of the bar between two attractive but fading blondes who sat waiting for him to say something (Talese 63). The setting helps create a certain mood and often serves as the necessary background for the development of the story. It often emphasizes the major idea of the writing. The two authors employ this element to the fullest as the reader is exposed to the atmosphere that has a significant impact on the main characters of the two stories.

Another element utilized in the stories is the plot. As has been mentioned above, it is not linear as a lot of retrospective accounts are used. However, it is still quite conventional as it has the beginning, climax and the ending. Capote provides details of the crime and tells about victims, the investigation and it ends with the trial. Talese starts his story with telling about Sinatras mood and his health, after that, some events that characterize the showman are depicted and the story ends with the restoration of health and good mood. The use of these and other elements are a characteristic feature of New Journalism.

It is also possible to consider the reason why the authors chose this approach. As has been mentioned above, Talese and Capote were writing about things the reader knew quite well and, hence, the stories had to be interesting. The authors had to provide details that were unknown (as traditional journalism often skipped many details). The way the stories were told could also make the stories more appealing. Besides, the authors tried to reveal the psychological aspect. The two writings did not simply report on some events or personalities. They revealed factors that affected peoples behavior.

For instance, Talese shows Sinatra as a man not as a celebrity. Sinatras dreams, desires, fears are revealed. The reader can see Sinatra as a person who has his life, which is often similar to the life of the rest of Americans. Capotes story about the horrible crime makes people have a broader perspective on the US society and the reader can see that there are people who are outside the system that is based on certain values. The journalists use techniques of New Journalism to provide a broader view on the world.

In conclusion, it is possible to note New Journalism differs significantly from the traditional one. The two stories in question illustrate these differences. Thus, New Journalism is characterized by specific attention to details, the focus on psychological aspects, and the use of fictional elements. New Journalism enables authors to report on some events and provide all the meaningful details. It also helps the journalist to reveal a broader perspective on events, people, things that seem to be familiar to the reader. It is possible to note that contemporary journalists often resort to some techniques of New Journalism to attract readers attention.

Works Cited

Capote, Truman. In Cold Blood. New York: Vintage, 1994. Print.

Talese, Gay. Frank Sinatra Has a Cold: And Other Essays. New York: Penguin Classics, 2011. Print.