Daoism Philosophy in the Cultures of the Koreans, Japanese and Chinese

Introduction

Daoism philosophy has developed since time in sundry. Specifically, this system of religious thought originated from Asia continent. Kohn has developed a comprehensive table of events in the development of Daoism philosophy. Thus, this reflective treatise attempts to explicitly review the development of Daoism philosophy in the cultures of the Koreans, Japanese and Chinese. Besides, the treatise explores the orientations of the Daoist tradition and the concepts of sages, deities, hell and heaven, and Confucian discourse.

Lai and Kohn on Daoism in China

In analyzing Daoism in China, Lai brings about the question of legitimacy of the different ideologies in the then free Chinese society. Lai asserts that issue legitimacy ensures stability of the society. Therefore, the religious power can only be fully exercised in accordance with the deities and beliefs endorsed in the light of principles and ideals acceptable to common human reason1.

This deity framework tolerates as well as respects others of different opinions. Hence, this provides a particular explanation for the diversity of traditions in the sundry Chinese society. These fundamental ideas from the public Chinese Daoism religious culture were then interpreted into the social conception of the ideal sages that differentiated the dualist existence of hell and heaven.

It was free standing since its content was set out independently of the comprehensive doctrines that members of Daoism culture affirmed. This led to overlapping consensus in which each reasonable Daoist affirmed the religious law from within own perspective.

On the other hand, Kohn strongly believes that highest morals rest of deity and safe systems which allowed mankind to undertake actions in the backdrop of peak morality or moral worth often based on the origin priority of the Chinese culture. For instance, when the underlying Daoism religious belief command plan originated from the opinionated inclination of a senior individual in the society, the results would basically be aligned towards self contempt2.

Kohn further reviewed the categorical and hypothetical imperatives of the Daoism to understand its metamorphosis within the unique Chinese culture of the time. Unlike hypothetical imperatives, Kohn argued that categorical imperatives motivated the daoists to undertake actions by the desires to complete such religious actions. These actions were ideal and expected of mankind, irrespective of experience since Kohn described them as universal.

The hypothetical imperatives of the Daoism culture were motivational stems from human errors that may exist in actions. For instance, Kohn identifies obligations which may be mistaken for happiness and self preservation. Reflectively, the arguments of Kohn and Lai unite the individual to religious deity which are not a must to be exercised over a long period of time to establish the level of goodness, as is the case in the modern Confucius society of China.

Rather, what matters in the intention of the action in inter and intra personal relationships within a community. However, the two authors lack on self exposition and virtuous sages since judgment may be based on only a few incidences of religious confusion. Besides, Kohn is sceptical on his own accountability of the good will, which he describes as a self determinant in the development of the Daoism philosophy.

Orientations in the Daoist Tradition

The orientations in the Daoist tradition balance the contrary extreme habits to maintain beneficial friendship despite assuming a compromising ground for religious actions. There are specific deities and sages that define what is ideal and the contrary. These beliefs create a standard and uniform ground from which all members are in a position to accomplish morality in more or less the same approach. In fact, the morality will is dependent on the intention and imperatives that function at every level of the Daoist society.

Similarities and Differences in Daoism Tradition in Korea, Japan and China

In these three societies, Daoism philosophy operates within the moral worth of an action. The moral worth does not lie in the effect generated but the underlying motivation to live within harmony and self discipline. Besides, members of Daoism tradition can only be declared progressive after years of consistent practicing morality and virtual superfluity ways. Therefore, the actions of an individual determine his position in either hell or heaven.

In the Chinese and Korean Daoism society, man was only moral by making excellent use of religious doctrines to accomplish categorical duties3. On the other hand, the Japanese Daoism tradition accommodated self discipline which has remained consistent despite varying human emotions controlled by the ideal moral standards. Besides, these Daoism traditions have different views on the universal scale of the societys categorical imperatives.

Generally, the legitimacy led to the acceptability of the deities and religious roles that were internalized in the norms of the society. The moral standards of the Daoism tradition answered questions of both freedom and equality in the traditional society. This is through the basic structures of the society. Moreover, every member of the Daoism society had equal basic liberties, fair equality of opportunities and the least advantaged members got the greatest benefits.

In the contemporary civilized Confucian society, proactive morality defines integral aspects of interactive beliefs that positively facilitates life effectiveness and promote social life interaction4. Since the world consist of many cultures, a universal Daoism definition of proactive morality is not possible since it depends on the cultural dialects and symbols employed by each culture and personality.

Bibliography

Jung, Jae-Seo. Daoism in Korea. In Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, 792- 820. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

Kohn, Livia. Introducing Daoism. New York: JBE Online Book, 2009.

Lai, Chi-tim. Daoism in China Today: 1980-2002. In Religion in China Today, edited by Daniel Overmyer,413-427. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Masuo, Shinichiro. Daoism in Japan. In Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, 821- 842. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

Footnotes

1 Chi-tim Lai, Daoism in China Today: 1980-2002. In Religion in China Today, edited by Daniel Overmyer,413-427 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

2 Livia Kohn, Daoist Dietetics: Food for Immortality (London: Three Pine Press, 2010), 67.

3 Jae-Seo Jung, Daoism in Korea. In Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, 792-820 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 44.

4 Shinichiro Masou, Daoism in Japan. In Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, 821-842 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 21.

Japanese Culture And Communication

Intercultural communication is the interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds. Intercultural communication enables individuals to interact with others from different cultures and being aware of culture differences.It also helps individuals to undetstand each other’s cultural differences and to communicate effectively without misunderstanding which enhances teamwork.

The culture that I have chosen is Japanese culture. Tea consumption is a part of the Japanese lifestyle. Green tea is the choice of Japanese in the morning and sometimes in a break because it helps protect heart health and promote brain health. Besides,Japanese emphasize cleanliness. Cleanliness of Japanese is known worldwide. There are neighbourhood clean-ups frequently. They impress the world by cleaning up the world cup stadium after a last-gasp defeat to Belgium. Furthermore, Japanese have a extremely relaxing way to spend their time, that is in onsen, a hot spring. Hot springs are considered therapeutic. Therefore, many Japanese spend their day in onsen.

Bowing is one common custom of Japanese culture. A bow is an expression of humidity and it shows respect. A longer, deeper bow shows sincere respect. When greeting friend, Japanese usually give a little nod of head and shoulder. Besides greeting, Japanese bow also when they thank, apologize, congratulate and also start a meeting. Next, Japanese start the meal by the phrase “itadakimasu” and end the meal with phrase “gochisou-sama deshika”. They usually raise their bowls to their mouth to prevent dropping food. Japanese will take off their shoes at the entrance of all homes, restaurants and hotels but they will put on slippers. However, they never wear slippers when they step onto a tatami mat. Basically, there are two types of clothing that Japanese wear. They are Japanese clothing, like kimonos and Western clothing.Kimonos are usually worn during the graduation ceremony and the coming of age ceremony.

Japanese language is the official language of Japan. The Japanese writing system include Kanji, Hiragana and Katakana. Kanji consist of several thousands of Chinese characters. There are many homonyms. For instance,the pronounciation of word “four” is the same as the word “death”. In Japan,number “four” is always avoided. Therefore,the buildings in Japan have no fourth floor. Besides, Japanese has dozen of dialects. Nevertheless, the main dialects are Tokyo dialact and Osaka dialect.

In a nutshell, learning and understanding other cultures can diminish stereotyping and encourage effective communication which prevent misunderstanding and lead to a harmony society.

Japanese Patriarchal Values And Its Effects On Women In Different Dimensions

Religion has been the main reason that influence such ideology since the beginning of history. Shinto was a indigenous religion in Japan and its social values at the time appeared initially in the classical chronicles of Japanese history from the early 8th century, the Kojiki (An Account of Ancient Matters) and Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan). These chronicles not only recorded the myths, early legends, oral tradition, or genealogies but also the perspectives toward women in general (Silva-Grondin, 2010). The Shintoism back then made Japanese people think highly of women and treated them equally because of the story of Amaterasu in Nihon Shoki. Amaterasu is the Sun Goddess, she is the primary divine being in Shinto religion whose feminine qualities are admired and worshiped because it’s said that the world was created from her tears. Amaterasu’s femininity based on the mythology resulted in a respectable attitude towards women. Moreover, there were 1st century Chinese documents shown that women were both allowed and encouraged to be rulers due to a confidence in them to bring peace and order to the country. Both Chinese history records and the Shinto mythology indicate the same perception on women which can be implied that the women social status was similar to that of men. Unfortunately, this equal values only lasted until 6th century.

In 552 A.D the Buddhism was introduced to Japan and it impacted the perception of women in Japan ever since. The concept of enlightenment was limited to only men was one of it. In Buddhism, women were represented as an evil nature. Therefore, positive attitudes towards women that had been established by Shintoism had gradually been regressed. Amidism (Pure land Buddhism) was one of Buddhism branches, it was considered to be the most well known concept in 7th century.

The Amida Buddha’s 35th vow stated that “any women determined to reach enlightenment must first receive a male body and only then be able to enter the Pure land of Amida Buddha” (Aiko, 1993). What the teaching tried to say was a woman’s body is impure so that can not reach enlightenment by it own. This misogynist teachings induced such a strong sense of sexism and severe discrimination against women in that era.

After that the introduction of Confucianism happened the midst of 6th century from Korea. Confucianism was a philosophy rather than a religion, it brought strong ideas that caused a turning point on Japanese social values. Hierarchies of human relationships: three bonds and five relations (Linsun Cheng, 2009). The three fundamental bonds refer to primary pairings: ruler and minister, father and son, and husband and wife. The five relations focus more on bigger scope of relationships: loyalty between ruler and subject, filiality between father and son, harmony between husband and wife, precedence between elder and younger sibling, and trust between friends (Sekiguchi, 2003). Prince Shook Taishi was interested and he published a moral code about the confucian concepts called Seventeen Article Constitution of 604 to everyone in the country. Women were taught Confucian ethics through books called Jokunsho in Tokugawa Ieyasu period. Women were instructed to live according to the kafucho system or patriarch system which based on five constant values of Confucianism: benevolence,, justice, politeness, wisdom, and fidelity (Sugano, 2007). Additionally, there were an advocacy stated submissive wife and mother are the most honorable place of women in home. In Nara and Heian period, Ritsuryo law was enforced base on Confucian beliefs. There was a policy regarding expected behaviors in families: obedient grandchildren, righteous husbands, and virtuous wives.

Marriage is one thing that used to ensure the continuation of blood lines or even political alliances. It was common for daughters to get married into other families as a confirmation of relationships between two clans. Arranged married was normal at that time because they valued their clans’ name and reputation. Due to that, the heirs must go on to continue saving the clans. Onna daigaku (A text book in school) shown that education in early Japan also focused on preparing women for marriage. Marriage came with certain obligations, after marriage women are expected to bear a child not, also to look after of husband’s parents, and if a child was a boy, the mother must respect the son and raise him with fully care while if a child was a girl, she will not need to look after her that much unlike what she must do to a boy. The motherhood role in Japanese society endorsed women to believe that their complete devotion to their child is the greatest duty one woman must achieve in their life. Hence, they could bear any hardships just to caring a birth of their children. One of the hardships was Matahara or maternity harassment when a woman being fired. They will be convicted to leave their jobs if they get pregnant because it is believed that they will perform poorly in their work. Comes to think of it, women in patriarchal society do not even have lives of their own, they are expected to take a good care of everyone, to be virtuous, silent, good-mannered, and obedient.

Applications of Motivation Theory Using English Songs into EFL Learners in Japan

Introduction

A large number of researchers have tried to explore the efficacy of utilizing songs to enhance English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ motivation (Millington, 2011; Limbong, 2012; Nipattamanon, 2018, Paquette & Rieg, 2008). In recent years, there has been a renewal of interest of the relationship between improving learners’ English lexical, grammatical and phonological abilities and implementation of English songs in the classroom (Chen & Chen, 2009). However, how the usage of songs on learning English affects to reinforce learners’ enthusiasm has not been investigated assiduously (Aguirre, Bustinza & Garvich, 2016). In Japan, the English instruction employing the grammar-translation method through the teacher-centred approach has been a matter of intense controversy in the six-year junior high and senior high school pedagogy (Molnar, 2019). Furthermore, with the Tokyo Olympics held in 2020 (though it got postponed because of unanticipated circumstances), the Japanese government has proposed innovation in third-grade elementary school since 2020 (Ismail, Koffi & Uchikawa, 2020). Now is the time to focus on diverse approaches to motivate Japanese learners aiming at desired English proficiency. For the purpose of this assignment, three empirical pieces of research implying English songs in the process have been related for discussion as they have applied for teaching.

Motivation theory is associated with English learning and Using songs

The motivation toward learning English is, so to say, the reason why people learn English (Sakai & Koike, 2008). According to Dörnyei (2001), motivation is “an antecedent of behaviour rather than of achievement” (cited in Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005, p. 20), the fuel of a trajectory of people’ awareness towards English learning, which makes them study English and continue to learn. Therefore, it is significant for educators to examine why this motivation strengthens or weakens in pedagogy (Dörnyei, 1994; Ikeno, 2003; Nakata, 2006; Sakai & Koike, 2008). Motivation towards not only English learning but also holistic learning has been widely researched since approximately 1970. In a paper, Deci and Ryan (1985) threw new light on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in association with self-determination theory (SDT) in the field of in prevailing psychological needs (Hiromori, 2003), which have instigated in a second language (L2) study incorporating some factors of the theory so as to have a deeper understanding of L2 motivation (Dörnyei, 1998). In the domain of second language acquisition (SLA), many studies including Ellis (1994) at the vanguard, and also recently Dörnyei (1999) have posited the importance of motivation repeatedly (Hiromori, 2003). However, Ushioda (1996) proposed that a loop of motivation considered as a “cause or product of learning success” (cited in Sahinkarakas & Inozu, 2017, p. 96). By contrast, SDT demonstrates that “for learning to be motivating”, which encourages self-efficacy and leads to additional challenges, and innovation (Sahinkarakas & Inozu, 2017, p. 96). SDT has been investigating the necessity of triggering interest for learners associated with a societal application, which motivates EFL learners development (Hiromori, 2003). However, even if individual learners have several reasons for learning English, educators are required to explore how to motive learners effectively (Sakai & Koike, 2008) by broadly considering dynamic facets of values, enjoyment, demands and empowerment in the current era (Gao, Lamb & Murray, 2011).

Considerable studies have emphasized the positive effects of the usage of songs into English learning of young learners to increase their motivation (Nipattamanon, 2018; Limbong, 2012; Millington, 2011; Paquette & Rieg, 2008) as well as young adult learners (Liva, Sutapa & Bunau, 2015; Nipattamanon, 2018). Utilizing songs is one of the listening activities, which leads students to easing anxiety and accelerating fun with their teachers and classmates (Džanić & Pejić, 2016). Nipattamanon (2018) demonstrates that incorporating songs in the EFL class stimulates the students’ imagination, creativity and willingness to learn towards the target language. Songs play an influential teaching role in increasing EFL learners’ motivation in the classroom, which encourages further attraction to realia and activities around them in accordance with the transformation of the modern age (Džanić & Pejić, 2016; Jolly, 1975; Shin, 2006).

Current empirical research

Study 1: Influence of Songs in Primary School Students’ Motivation for Learning English in Lima, Peru (Aguirre, Bustinza & Garvich, 2016)

Aguirre, et al. (2016) undertook a research on the third graders at a private primary school in Peru. Fifty-six pupils were equally divided into two classes: 1) a class that used songs 2) a class that did not use songs in the teaching-learning process of four EFL classes. Considering the young age of the pupils, Aguirre, et al. carried out a mixed-method consisting of testing each pupil through a questionnaire and being observed by two researchers.

From examining the findings, pupils in classes without music they seemed disinterested and apathetic. By contrast, pupils learning with music expressed enthusiasm to participate in group activities with their peers and teachers. In addition to this, even without any teacher’s suggestions, students wanted to go in front of the class and sing songs voluntarily (Aguirre, et al., 2016). A research conducted by Sevik (2011) illustrates that 100 per cent was derived from the 52 Turkish English teachers’ response. This shows that especially young learners are highly motivated and entertained through singing in the classroom. The Affective Filter Hypothesis by Krashen (1985) addresses that when learners feel relaxed, self-efficient, and motivated, the affective filter is low and the input becomes easily intake (Nipattamanon, 2018). Furthermore, listening and singing activities make pupils feel reassured by interacting with peers in class and draws their full attention to the learning contexts (Aguirre, et al., 2016; Anshel & Kipper; Lems, 2006). In addition to this, being exposed to songs increases the opportunity to mimic them frequently. As a result, this stimulates learners’ speaking and phonological development unconsciously (Aguirre, et al., 2016).

Study 2: Assessing English vocabulary and enhancing young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ motivation through games, songs, and stories (Chou, 2014)

The study was conducted by Chou (2014) targeting 72 participants of Grade 2 aged eight to grade 5 aged eleven students who are taking intensive English courses and four teachers at a primary school in Taiwan. Towards five English cultural events, the students prepared for the events by listening to the festival-related songs, singing together and moving their bodies with the rhythm incorporating storytelling and games. According to Millington (2011), using seasonal and cultural songs drives learners to raise their awareness towards language development.

The result revealed songs motivated most of the students to learn English and helped understand the topic in class. In addition, the lower graders felt encouraged to study English through songs more than the higher graders (Chou, 2014). Students were willing to express themselves singing with gestures, which resulted for the whole class to be more energetic and enthusiastic towards learning. Simultaneously, they enjoyed the rhythm of the songs related to the target culture with audio repeatedly (Chou, 2014). A teaching strategy developed by Asher (1977) is known as Total Physical Response (TPR) which explains that young learners are stimulated with physical movements and auditory and visual teaching materials (Chou, 2014). Therefore, in English pedagogy, students’ motivation and positive attitude to the learning contexts are boosted by utilizing songs (Chou, 2014).

Study 3: The use of English songs with social content as a situated literacy practice: Factors that influence student participation in the EFL classroom (Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014)

Palacios Mena and Chapetón (2014) carried out the qualitative archetype research that examines to reflect educational practice pinpointing how to improve it (Burns, 2010; Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014; Sagor, 2005; Wallace, 2006). The subjects of this study were 11th graders, whose age ranged from 16 to 19, taking an English course at a public high school located in a difficult social-economic milieu in Colombia (Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014). Based on Lewis’s (2001) suggestion, students can develop by engaging themselves in socially situated practices in the process of English learning. Therefore, Palacios Mena and Chapetón (2014) conducted this study that is incorporated with songs focusing on three aspects as follows; 1) the relation to the learner’s social environment 2) a reflection how to communicate with others 3) the recognition of the importance of individual values as a member of the community.

In line with the evidence, English songs with social content brought adolescent EFL students a significant motivation to participate in class activities conveying what they felt, accepting classmates’ ideas and sharing each other’s experiences. Simultaneously, this allowed students to raise their awareness of society, common realities, and their own identities (Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014). As Hiromori (2003) demonstrates, SDT is instrumental in developing learners’ individual needs correlated with the socio-cultural contexts, which motivates students to involve themselves in learning environment spontaneously. Alternatively, Al-Hoorie and MacIntyre (2020) point out that engaging in activities when learning contributes individuals to pleasing and meaningful lives, and these feelings are the driving forces to acquire a foreign language for improvement.

Proposed applications of this theory into my future classroom teaching

English learning with songs can help students reduce their anxiety and start to learn with a relaxing and warm atmosphere interacting with their peers and teachers. Listening to the song first with audio, then singing with the whole class repeatedly incorporating karaoke applications contribute to exposure to English stress and pronunciation as well as express students’ themselves without hesitation (Aguirre, et al., 2016).

The utilizing songs related to the season and culture with visual realia heightens students’ curiosity and deepens understanding of the learning contexts embedded in the target language. The characteristic of repetition and simple linguistic forms is one of the probable reasons (Džanić & Pejić, 2016), which develops students’ cognitive process (Chou, 2014). Using gesture and dancing with the rhythm of the songs boost students creativity and imagination (Chou, 2014), which reinforces them to recall the cues for the lyrics (Good, Russo & Sullivan, 2015). Brown and Larson-Hall (2012) demonstrate that young students can be instructed visually, auditorily and kinesthetically.

Implementing the songs associated with their social contexts can facilitate students to observe what they experienced in this era. This allows them to embrace the contents with the melody and rhythm that songs convey in English and a deeper understanding of it from different angles. Students can reflect on what they felt with their peers through the songs and become more aware of the relationships among their classmates, family, community in a society (Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014).

I will propose “Let’s enjoy singing in English” class between the 3rd graders of elementary and junior high school students aged 9 to 15 at a community centre in Japan. I will ask the local education department to hold a one-day program for free during the summer vacation and students will come from different schools in the region signifying a heterogeneous class. It is still rare for Japanese students to communicate in English in their daily lives. Thus, this unique program would promote the students to take advantage of what they have learnt in school with people whom they do not normally encounter in class. I will also ask some university volunteer students beforehand. The participants will be encouraged to communicate with each other in English by older staffs. The volunteer staffs facilitate the activity in order for the participants to build a good rapport and to interact with other participants in English smoothly paying attention to easing anxiety. Students will sing “I love the mountains” (nursery rhyme) as an icebreaker. Consequently, they will listen to “Over the Rainbow” (Ariana Grande) and sing it varying group dynamics (Džanić & Pejić, 2016).

Benefits from this practice

The effectiveness of this proposed practice implementing songs in EFL classes outside of school will be identified from two pedagogical viewpoints. Firstly, Students can achieve growth in a community and physical environment through collaborating and cooperating with a diversified aged group (Oxford, 2017). There have been homogeneous facets in the English learning environment in Japan, hence this opportunity will provide a different learning experience with various people. Lai, Zhu and Gong (2015) illustrate the importance of outside of classroom in order for students’ linguistic development. This English pedagogy utilizing music is learner-centred, which is not artificial settings but authentic contexts (Palacios Mena & Chapetón, 2014). Jumping into the unusual milieu is probably further challenging for students compared to their daily English classrooms. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of developing the students’ speaking ability, in order for EFL learners to sing lyrics would “require more processing effort and involve smaller units of chunking” (Ludke, Ferreira & Overy, 2014, p. 42). Nevertheless, Brown and Larson-Hall (2012) claim that intrinsic motivation occurs when learners feel the task is interesting, challenging, rewarding, novel and aesthetically catchy.

Secondly, performing “Over the Rainbow” is intended to reflect on what students have weathered in the current unexpected lockdown due to the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020. Moreover, this song has been used on TV or other media to have hope for the future, which is also familiar with young students since experiencing the Great East Earthquake in Japan in 2011. In the process of practising this song with their peers, they can share the common social issues not only in Japan but also in the entire world. Singing songs in the EFL classroom promotes not to accumulate academic knowledge but to reproduce and express the songs which can convey their honest thoughts as their own piece of art cooperating with friends. Therefore, this practice nurtures students’ autonomy towards English learning, which simultaneously brings them “to gain the experience self-determined” (Liu, 2015, p.1166) as a language learner in the modern era.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of my proposed teaching practice

Students will perform at the end of this class together in front of their families. After singing songs, each student will be passed a certificate of this class and a small comment by the teacher. Each Volunteer staff will give some feedback to the whole class. In addition, some of the parents and siblings will be asked to give a comment regarding the performance. Dörnyei (2003) states explicitly in his research that L2 motivation has considered goals as a central factor. Performing at the end of the class makes students and teachers share the common goal wherein they plan and practice for the desired goal. Setting a performance at the end causes the whole class to drive-force. Before the lunch break, students will what they have done reflecting on their attitude and what they will prepare themselves for the rest of the time in a small group, including volunteer staffs.

Furthermore, Dörnyei (2003) posits that it is crucial for learners to evaluate motivation by themselves. Zarrinabadi, Ketabi and Tavakoli (2019) articulate that learners’ expectations about how to work on tasks and the extent of value they envision to achieve the goal are the keys to the understanding of EFL learning motivation (Baleghizadeh & Masoun, 2013). Both to set goals concretely and to provide feedback are necessary regarding self-assessment, which attributes learners to heighten self-efficacy.

Conclusion

The implementation of singing songs is the valid verbal teaching material in English pedagogy. This opportunity will give the students openness, engagement, willingness to interact with distinctive people as language learners. From the evidence, utilizing songs can promote learners’ motivation for English learning development, expressing themselves emotionally and fathoming voice beyond the lyrics and contents of songs. However, a point that cannot be ignored is that there is a deeply-rooted saying in Japan, which is “A nail that sticks out gets hammered down.” This conservative ideology leads students to impeding to express themselves freely and narrowing their self-efficacy towards English learning in the classroom. Therefore, taking account of this cultural mind wall, educators will be required to practice various pedagogical approaches both in and outside of the classroom in Japan. Concurrently, it is imperative for EFL learners to embrace individual values and to appreciate sociocultural diversity through varied experiences. In conclusion, my insight into this assignment could allow English teachers to bring out each student’s challenges as a global citizen in the 21st century.

The Rules And Manners Of Japanese Wedding

Second describe topic is congratulatory money present. Congratulatory money means heartfelt gifts for weddings, births and other celebrations. It was originally used as a taken of gratitude and tip given to those who helped us during the celebration, which is a milestone in our lives. Now it is a custom for guests attending a wedding reception to wrap money in a gift bag to celebrate their marriage (Wedding Park Magazine, 2018). There are two manners about congratulatory money.

Price

First of all, guest must be putting in new bills. It is a basic manner. In general, people should put 30,000 yen in an envelope (Minnano Wedding, 2018). This includes food and presents. The amount of money you put in as age increases. Also, it is prohibited to putting an even number of money because it means it will be divided.

Envelope

There is also a rule in the envelope. There are various kinds of envelopes including weddings, funerals, adults’ ceremony and entrance ceremony. It chooses ‘mizuhiki’ envelopes at weddings. The word ‘mizuhiki’ means ‘one-time celebration.’ (Marry, 2018). Also, People write name on this envelope with a Fudepen rather than a normal pen.

There are many manners in each congratulatory money presents. Other countries such as Germany do not have a custom of celebrating, and in America, gifts are usually given. There are cases where cash is handed over, but compared to Japan, it is relatively low. There is also a custom in which bride and groom make present list of things and guests give it to them.

Dress code

Women basically wear dresses. It’s against manners to wear the same white dress as the bride. Also, wearing only dark colors such as black is bad manners. There are rules in the case of Japanese dress. It’s not different to wear a kimono. However, Unmarried women wear a “Furisode” and married women wear a plain kimono. Men usually wear black suits, white shirts and ties. Both male and female guests should not stand out more than the main character. Rules on clothes are not well known, so many people get embarrassed when they arrive at the venue. According to Kurashi Nisuta, ‘I attended my first wedding ceremony a white jacket. I was worried about the eyes around me, but I didn’t know the white jacket was bad, so I was embarrassed.’ (KN, 2018).

However, Japanese weddings are declining in recent years. There is a problem that the number of people getting married is declining due to the declining birthrate and aging population, but the biggest cause is it increasing in the number of brides and grooms holding weddings abroad. According to Zexy, 10 percent of the groom and bridegrooms hold wedding ceremonies abroad (Zexy, 2018). According to Wedding Style, there are two reasons. First, there are many bride and groom who want to have a wedding that they cannot experience in Japan. Second, Japanese people are easy for go to abroad by globalization (WS, 2017). Also, 26 percent of the bride and groom have examined about getting married overseas. However, most people drop out because it takes the high cost (Zexy, 2018). There are no celebratory money present for wedding abroad, and guests must bear the transportation and accommodation expenses. Also, the rules and manners vary depending on the country and wedding styles, so the burden is great for guests.

Conclusion

This paper describes rules and manners of Japanese wedding. There are Temple type, Christian type and Public type in Japanese wedding. Also, there are specific manner for congratulatory money present and it has rules in dress codes. Not only the host, but guests should also follow the manners and rules and contribute to the memories of a lifetime.

Tokugawa Shogunate: Influence On The Culture Economics And Politics In Japan

In approximately 1633, a policy of isolation was introduced in Japan which, according to Britannica, created “… a time of internal peace, political stability, and economic growth…”. This period is commonly referred to as the Edo period. After Japan was torn apart through the warring states, the Tokugawa Shogunate took power and commenced an era of isolation that lasted for more than 200 years. When the Tokugawa Shogunate saw the state of Japan, being an unfathomable group, decided to shut off Japan completely, which led to many future developments in culture, economics, stability and helped in avoiding political entanglements.

The warring states made Japan suffer through a lawless era of civil war with political and social upheaval. When the daimyos were vanquished in 1633 by the Tokugawa Shogunate, it gave them virtual control of Japan allowing their leader, Tokugawa Ieyasu, to enforce a policy of isolation. The Tokugawa Shogunate was so strong that it gave them the ability to enforce any policy, as well as giving them power over the emperor, the court, and all religious orders. Inevitably, this caused the group to create new laws and to balance the power of hostile domains with allies. These laws were called edict laws which were a series of laws describing how trade shall work and what will happen to priests due to the banning of Christianity. This allowed the Tokugawa Shogunate to remain in control of Japan for over 200 years, which kept the policy of isolation intact for a long enough period of time to affect the culture of Japan. Tragically, in 1868, after 255 years of the policy of isolation, the Tokugawa were beaten by the coalition of Satsuma and Choshu, and the policy was ravaged. Without the Tokugawa Shogunate ending the war of daimyos, the policy would have never been created and Japan would’ve remained in crisis and possibly have become a warzone. With this in mind, it is clear that the role of the Tokugawa Shogunate was profoundly paramount. The Tokugawa Shogunate have a large role in the policy of isolation but without the warring states period, they would have never taken power.

Lasting from 1467 to 1567, the Sengoku period was a time that saw the breakdown of central authority and many wars fought between very powerful men. Due to this period becoming a time of war and destruction, the Togukawa Shogunate knew that when they took charge, they had to stop it. The On War was a great factor in a lot of the lawless acts that daimyos did. It lasted between 1467 to 1477 and it was what started this era of destruction. Although there was a shogunate which held control of the central part of Japan there were still many daimyos who believed they deserved to lead Japan. Because the Ashikaga Shogunate only took control of central Japan, the outer provinces were left mostly independent, this allowed daimyos to build up an army and attack other states. Many of these daimyos were military leaders who went independent due to the weak shogunate. The remainder were aristocrats with a long heritage of land ownership. Daimyos formulated their own laws so they could better regulate the thousands of people they ruled this allowed for them to more easily keep in control of their states. The warring states period or the more known referral, the Sengoku period, was a time that saw Japan fall into violence and turbulence due to several daimyos believing they could rule the whole of Japan, this caused the policy of isolation.

Nowadays, Japan is noticed for having unique cultures and traditions but without the policy of isolation, the country would just be like any other from the west. Separating themselves from the rest of the world for over 200 years caused the Japanese to have different thoughts and religions developed, leading to them having such a diverse culture. Before Japan was isolated from the rest of the world, they stole ideas from other countries but with the isolation in place, they were without influence, causing them to engender their own, unique culture. For more than 200 years, Japan remained instability, this was due to the fact that there were no external threats, and till the 1850s they were free from an intrusion. This also created a favorable background for Japan which led to economic and social prosperity, this was mostly due to agriculture being inspirited and cities growing one by one. The Sakaki policy additionally allowed for the reviving of classical and traditional learning by making Confucianism the state learning technique, this ultimately resulted in the widening of the technological gap between Japan and the west which can easily be seen today. But along with these benefits were negatives, this includes a stop in cultural fields due to the little or social mobility as Japan only had contact with a few countries who were all for trade. As well as this, it resulted in the retardation in Japanese overseas expansion as foreign settlements were kicked out and people abroad were not allowed to travel home. Without the policy of isolation, Japan would be just like any other country, as they would have continued to be influenced by them.

In conclusion, the Tokugawa Shogunate had a major influence on the culture, economics, and politics in Japan. This is because they had a major role in the creation of the policy of isolation which benefited Japan long term in many different forms including them making their own ethics, their economy rising and Japan having a fixed feudal system. This means that the Tokugawa Shogunate was probably somewhat celebrated for their work and how much they have actually done for Japan.

Process of Modernization and How It Affected the Cultures of China and Japan

Introduction

Modernization is a complex phenomenon, which is understood differently by different individuals in the world. People consider modernization as a process through which traditional ideas and values are buried in a silent grave.

Science considers modernization as a standardized evolutionary transition from the traditional society into a modern Society. Many scholars and scientists refer modernization as an act of adjusting something to cope with the current prevailing situation.

Civilization is an important component of modernization because it involves brushing off the traditional beliefs, values, attitudes, and ideas among individuals in the world.

This is meant that modernization is a process that entails bringing renovation, repairs and changing something from the past into the present. Several scientists over the world consider modernization as the process that involves changing a something with an aim of making it to conform to the modern standards.

Modernization has originated from the world modernize that refers to changing or altering a something through renovating, repairing and remodeling among others (Gbosoe 5).

Discussion

There are quite several terms or words that are used to mean the same as modernization for instance, the transformation, reconstruction, renovation and repairing among others. Such words complicate the modernization process as people tries to unveil their usual or real meaning.

Many East Asian countries became victims of modernization process long time ago (Ancient times). Among such countries, China and Japan were voted as the most affected nations by modernization process because of the emergent of simple and advanced technologies.

Modernization process is considered important though it affects peoples’ cultures in the world. China and Japan through modernization process have achieved new dimensions of culture that contradicts the existing or the traditional ideas, values and beliefs.

China underwent two phases of modernization since the start of the 18th century. These two phases are namely; first modernization and the second modernization.

The first modernization phase was deemed necessary because it involves or entails the development of the industries economy. The second modernization phase was concerned with development of the intellectual economy (Meng 9).

These two phases altered or changed Chinese cultural system since it eroded the traditional ideas, values, beliefs, and attitudes that were considered critical in the traditional society. For instance, in the pre-modern China people contented themselves with farming that was done or carried out on small-scale systems.

The most preferred crops were the indigenous crops because people had little knowledge about cash crops. The transition of from traditional society into modern society led to the emergent of new cash crops that include coffee, coconut, sisal hemp, and oil palm among others.

Production of good changed from the home production into industries production. This is to say that during the traditional era, production was home based as opposed to the industry production experienced in the modern society in China.

Farming changed from small scale to large-scale farming because of the introduction of agricultural machines that were used by farmers (Grasso, Corrin and Kort 41).

Agrarian revolution in China led to the emergent of new farming tools that include tractors, harvesters, mowers and ploughs among others. Animal power came into existence along side with the use of power driven machines in agriculture.

This clearly demonstrates how modernization affected the Chinese cultural system. Development of intellectual economy encompass the introduction of new syllabus that entails both writing and reading of written materials such as books, journals, newsletters among others.

New disciplines emerged that included medicine, engineering, law and religion that captured the attention of many scholars in China. Education system changed from non-formal into informal education. This happened because of high level of civilization among the Chinese people.

China through modernization learnt new or foreign languages that were universal to those of other countries in Asia for instance the use of French and English became common in China. Marriage system changed from the traditional ones into modern ones that involve church weddings and court marriage.

Japan also experienced several implications of change through modernization process just like the China (Grasso, Corrin and Kort 57).

Modernization in Japan was confused with westernization by many people because they believed that modernization was an act of accepting western culture that had a great influence in people lives.

It came alongside with the industrial revolution that began in England and extended or expanded into other nations including Japan and China. Japanese culture was altered by the introduction of spinning machine during the industrial revolution era.

People began using modern tools and equipments (machines) that were considered faster because some of them were power driven machines. Agriculture shift from animal keeping into the growing of crops both indigenous and cash crops. Japanese embraced modernity by adopting western culture whereby they began wearing clothes that belongs to western people (Gbosoe 21).

They inherited new hairstyles from western and also their houses and other structures were made from western design. The advancement in technology gave birth to the introduction of new machines critical in communication field such as emergent and use of telephones, airplanes, TV, computers and surveillance cameras. All these illustrate the achievement of modernization in Japan.

Through technology advancement, Japan had experienced rapid economic growth. I pre-modern Japan, communication was made through face-to-face expression which was a slow means of conveying public information.

Telephones speed up the spread of information in Japan within a short duration or period of time. In the traditional or pre-Japan society, people used to spend most of their times in farms.

Modernization altered people ways of living through rural-urban migration that came because of industrial revolution that led to development of cities. Japanese migrated into the city looking for jobs, which was contrary to the traditional ways of living in pre-modern era (Barrett 45).

Modernization process brought transition from traditional small scale social institutions into modern large scale social institutions that include the government, industry and businesses among others. This is a clear implication of the effects or impacts of modernization process in Japan.

Modernization led to increasingly spread of science that resulted into high levels of literacy in Japan just like in any other Asian nation. In traditional Japan, religious activities were conducted in shrines whereby people used to slaughter animals such as sheep, goats and cows as means of giving thanks to their God or creator.

This changed gradually with the spread of industrial revolution in Japan that led to modernization. People started carrying out their religious activities in temples or churches.

Conclusion

Modernization process as discussed within the context of this study paved in through industrial revolution. Many East Asia countries such as China and Japan were severely affected by modernization process since it brings about alterations in their cultural systems.

Through modernization, both China and Japan witnessed the development of large-scale social institutions that played vital role in countries economy. The study is of much help or useful to the reader because it explores the concept of modernization process based on its origin and impacts on people ways of living (culture).

Works Cited

Barrett, Brendan. Ecological modernization and Japan. New York: Routledge Publishers, 2005. Print.

Gbosoe, Gbingba. Modernization of Japan. United Kingdom: Universe Publishers, 2006. Print.

Grasso, June, Corrin, Jay and Kort, Michael. Modernization and revolution in China: From the opium wars to the Olympics. London: M.E. Sharpe, 2009. Print.

Meng, Fanchen. China on the way to modernization: perspectives from Chinese view. London: Cuvillier Verlag, 2005.

American vs. Japanese Cultures as Adaptive Systems

Introduction

The world has many cultural ties where every country bears its unique values that underline how people live in it. Despite the glaring differences between the cultures of different nations, some parallels exist highlighting the fact that people adopt living styles, which are similar in more than one level, regardless of their geographic locations. This paper will give a detailed review of my culture (American) and the one, which interests me (Japanese), with the sole focus of comparing and contrasting them.

It will also describe the natures of these two cultures, including other cultural aspects such as communication, mental and physical health, time orientation, measures and perceptions of intelligence, and group relationships. Since the analysis of these cultures will be done from the perspective of the cultural theory, the paper will also examine how each culture influences the development of people, identity, and personality within it. An explanation of how these cultures influence emotional expression, morality development, aggression, and gender, among other psychological processes will also be provided in this research. Lastly, the paper will also outline the biases that are likely to influence the study of these cultures.

The Japanese Culture

Almost all the world’s cultures have undergone evolution. The Japanese culture is not an exception. The largely multifaceted Japanese culture is a blend of the deepest traditions that are synonymous with the ancient times (Osterud 91). It features regular shifts of fashion, fads, and technological advancements that break almost all the boundaries of what most people view as impossible. An intensive overview of this culture reveals that it is not a simple mix of ancient traditions and modernity (Varley 12). For this reason, the following is an in-depth examination of the Japanese culture.

The People

From a general perspective, the Japanese citizens appear as one of the world’s most ethnically and socially homogenous people. Until recently, the people of Japan in the labor force closely identified themselves with their employers. For example, a businessperson would introduce himself as “I am Paresh of Nissan” (Nissan no Paresh-san). By extension, the world can get the notion that Japanese people subordinate themselves to their society’s objectives. However, this idea changed in 2008 when a long-serving politician of the Japanese government, Nariaki Nakayama, downed his tools after “declaring Japan an ethnically homogenous nation” (“Inside Japan” par. 4).

He held that the “out-of-fashion idea that Japan believed in “one race, one people had turned politically incorrect. The latest census required the people of Japan to define themselves by their nationality only and not ethnicity. Hence, the actual demographic of Japan remains unclear. According to Varley, studies show that Japan has 750,000 citizens with mixed backgrounds, as well as nearly 1.5 million permanent foreigners (16). In total, the country has a population of about 126 million people who do not have a “pure” Japanese origin. In general, the largest ethnic communities in Japan comprise people of the Philippines, Brazil, China, and Korea origins (Varley 16).

Religion

The religious practices of Japan represent a mishmash of beliefs from both Buddhism and Shintoism. The religion in Japan is different from that of the West. Hence, Japanese uphold neither a doctrine nor practice preaching. The manner of living underlines the ethical rules, which make it difficult to differentiate it from the cultural and societal standards of the Japanese people. Unlike the West, Japanese people make religion a private family practice since it is not a state-driven affair. For example, the ceremonies of school graduations do not involve religious symbols or prayers.

The Japanese citizens do not discuss religion in their day-to-day life. Besides, they do not declare themselves religious or worship on a regular basis. However, most people of Japan practice religious rituals during marriage, birth, and death ceremonies. They also participate in religious festivals (matsuri). Until the Second World War, the religion of Japan made the people believe that the Emperor was the living God. The subjects of the Emperor viewed themselves as members of a huge Japanese family. Currently, religion leans more towards the identity of the Japanese relative to their spirituality. According to Varley, religion plays an integral role in strengthening the community and family links (21).

Social Conventions

Since the Japanese value their customs and mannerism, they master the subtleties of their unique culture as evidenced in their various aspects of life. It is through this approach that the people of Japan learn to respect the various invisible rules of their society. Although outsiders cannot have the perfect mastery and knowledge of all the social aspects of the Japanese culture, they can grasp the visible one. The first one is bowing, which the people of Japan use when they have to say thank you, goodbye, sorry, or hello. They use it for greetings and/or when showing gratitude, remorse, and respect. Taking off footwear is also a significant feature of the Japanese culture. The people are required to take off their shoes when entering an occasional restaurant, traditional guesthouse (ryokan), temple, or home.

Respect is a social tip that the Japanese observe. For example, “San” is suffix used when referring to someone in a respectful manner, in which case Mr. Yotishima would be referred to as “Yotishima-san.” During meals, the Japanese join their hands together and say “Itadakimasu,” which translates into “I humbly receive.” It is also almost mandatory (polite) to appreciate after getting a meal. They do so by saying “Gochiso sama deshita”. Unlike in the West, the culture of Japan prohibits tipping in both restaurants and other eateries (Varley 17).

Sports

Despite participating in the “world-class” sporting events, Japan established several sports that are only synonymous with its culture. An example is the Sumo, which is the de facto national sporting event of Japan. This game, which is about 1,500 years, is deeply rooted in the Japanese culture. Since Sumo existed as a version of Shinto ceremony, historians argue that the continued existence of the Japanese citizens relied on the results of a ‘sumo’ encounter with the primeval gods. Although the modern people have developed it into a professional sport, the aspects of the Shinto rituals are still evident. For example, the match officials ‘purify’ the ring using salt before hanging a shrine-like roof over the ring.

Also referred to as Basho, the Sumo tournaments take place on a bi-monthly basis in Fukuoka, Osaka, Tokyo, and Nagoya. The pre-bout antics are formalized and strict. The battle engages all parts of the body except the soles of the participants’ feet. Sumo is quintessentially Japanese sport. Nevertheless, in the recent times, several foreign wrestlers of non-Japanese origin have excelled in this sport. Other sporting activities of the Japanese culture include kendo (a furious and noisy sport of martial arts that involves skills, bravery, and power), karate, aikido, and judo.

In essence, all cultural sports in Japan involve martial arts. However, they also participate in the less aggressive sports of the modern times. For example, they play yakyu, which loosely translates into “field-ball” (a form of baseball). Besides, although it dipped after 1990s glory days, the Japanese soccer league has regained popularity. Japan has some famous soccer stars. For instance, Honda Keisuke plays for AC Millan, which is one of the world’s historical and successful football teams. Other sporting activities that the Japanese people participate in involve skating, golfing, and gateball among other events that other countries play around the world (Varley 16).

Cuisine

The Japanese are among the world’s cultures that have passionate and enthusiastic cooks. The people of Japan value their dishes. They can travel out of their hometowns in search of other delicacies. Although the world knows it for sushi, the Japanese have a collection of several dishes. Many towns and cities in Japan prepare a range of delicacies such as noodles, fish, tofu, and seaweed among others. In fact, the culture of Japan has so much passion towards food to the extent that one is likely to catch a show about food anytime he or she turns on the TV.

Once used as the country’s currency, rice is the staple food for the people of Japan. It has remained so for more than 2,000 years (“Japan Fact Sheet” 1). It either forms the basis of almost all the meals or accompanies them. Since the Japanese are proud of the four seasons of the year, they welcome each of them with delicious offerings. The inns, supermarkets, restaurants, and hotels change their menus to reflect what the season has. Just like rice, fish is a must-have food in the Japanese diet. Whether they eat fish almost live (when they refer to it as odorigui), raw (sashimi or nama), deep-fried (tempura), or grilled (yaki), it is evident that the Japanese value this food. They try almost every method of preparing it.

Japan boasts of a wide array of vegetables and fruits, noodle dishes, and some high-class patisseries. The country also makes Kobe beef, a meal prepared from cows raised in line with the strict traditional provisions. However, Japan is not a place for those who love red and white meat. Vegetarians have a place in this country too. The Japanese prepare several meals that the vegetarians find delicious. For example, the zaru soba (noodles made from buckwheat and served with a dipping sauce), udon (thick noodles) in a soup of mountain vegetable, and okonomiyaki or tofu steak are some of the meals the vegetarians can use.

Drinking

Just as they are passionate about their dishes, the Japanese love their drinks too. They have to conduct a few rituals before taking alcohol. For example, nobody should pour a drink for himself or herself because this role is a preserve of a friend or host. The visitor’s duty is to ensure that his or her champion’s glass stays full to the brim. Kansai (cheers) is a must-say before the drinking starts. Despite their evident love of drinks, the Japanese do not just go out to have drinks as witnessed in the Westerners. Drinking involves a light snack (otsumami) or a meal.

Other Cultural Features

One of the unique factors of the Japanese culture is geisha. The distinctive red lips, white face, and extensively decorated hairstyle (geisha) is an outstanding view portrayed in almost every part of the universe. Although it has its origins from the Japanese culture, the modern-day concept of geisha is a practice that remains a mystery to even the Japanese and most foreigners. The Japanese gardens are also different from those of other countries. They demonstrate the influences of the Buddhist practices that emerged in Japan in 612. A Japanese emissary, Ono-no-Imoko, went to China and adopted several Buddhist ways of life that he decided to recreate when he returned home. During this time, the Japanese created their gardens in line with their religious beliefs, which seemed to share several values with the Buddhists of China. Cartoonists and lovers of animated films recognize the influence of the Japanese cultural ‘manga and anime’ in this field. Although it only belonged to Japan, anime (Japanese Animation) and Manga (comics of the Japanese) has transformed into a global powerhouse. The Japanese culture is also distinguishable from those of other nations around the globe from its theater, cherry blossom, and Samurai.

Why the Japanese Culture Interests Me

The Japanese culture interests me for several reasons. For starters, I like it because it has many things that do not exist in my culture, as well as those that the people of Japan do differently from the way Americans handle them. In other words, my interest in the culture of Japan underlies the glaring differences that exist between it and that of the United States. Some of the factors that make me develop interest towards the Japanese culture are the social conventions. The Japanese are customary and respectful, with the latter aspect being the quality I value (Foster 237). In fact, the Japanese administration engaged in a plan to “brand the nation as culturally exciting” (Foster 237). Although the Americans are not outright disrespectful, they do not boast the same customary obedience that the Japanese have. My belief is that such a gesture of peaceful interaction can help our country in more than one level. Not only can they assist the United States to improve mutual coexistence of the people but also fight some social vices such as segregation and racism.

For someone who likes martial arts, there is no better place to look for inspiration than Japan. The country invented and still practices karate. Hence, developing interest and studying it could help me to improve my skills in this physical activity. A significant percent of Americans and other people from different parts of the world recognize and love Japanese cuisine. I am not any different. Sushi, tofu, and Japanese dinners are my favorites, although I know that the list would increase if I visited the place. Another factor that makes me endeared to the culture of Japan is the way the Japanese handle their drinking habits.

The Nature of the Japanese Culture

Just like the other Asian cultures (China and Korea), the Japanese culture is collectivistic in nature. Such cultures are those that emphasize the goals and needs of a group (community) as a whole, rather than focusing on the wishes and needs of each person. Relationships with other people of the society, including the connections between all members of the group, make a significant contribution to shaping the identity of every individual. Besides the Asian cultures, collectivism is also commonplace in Africa, South America, and Central America.

The American Culture

My culture comprises a set of the American traditions and customs. According to the Census Bureau of America, the United States is the world’s largest nation with a population of over 320 million people. Since it is a populous country, the US is also among the countries with the highest cases of cultural diversification in the world. The United States is the country of immigrants. This situation makes its culture a blend of almost all regions of the world (Barakat, Gopalakrishna, and Lala 405). Notably, the English people colonized it during the early stages of the 1600s. Other cultures that also shape that of the United States are those of the Asians, Africans, Latin-Americans, and Native-Americans (Marsden 24).

Language

According to the Government of the United States, America does not have an official language. Although nearly every language spoken in other parts of the world exists in the US, Chinese, Spanish, German, and French remain the top non-English languages that are frequently spoken in the country (Kaufman 62). Almost everyone in the United States (about 90 percent of the people) understands and speaks English. Most business activities take place in English. The Census Bureau of the United States estimates that the languages spoken in the country are over 300 (Marsden 32).

Religion

Following the adoption of Religious Freedom, the United States features nearly all religions of the world. The ABC Poll of 2012 estimated that about 83 percent of the people of America practiced Christianity and that 13 percent belonged to no religion. Another 2012 Poll reported similar findings. Judaism is the country’s second most practiced religious affiliation, with nearly 1.7 percent of Americans identifying themselves with it (Marsden 31). Only 0.6 percent of those interviewed in the study admitted to practicing Muslim.

The American Style

In the US, people dress in line with their occupation, social status, climate, and region. Americans closely associate with jeans, cowboy hats, baseball caps, boots, and sneakers. Victoria Secret, Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, and Michael Kors are some of the American brands that the world recognizes.

The American Food

The American cuisine is a feature of Native-American and European cuisines, which influenced it in the early history. Currently, some foods that are widely identified as American are meat loaf, macaroni and cheese, potato chips, hot dogs, and hamburgers. “American apple pie” is a term that the US people use to refer to foods that are authentically American.

Other Aspects of the American Culture

In terms of arts, the US is the world’s leading producer of mass media, including movies and television. The America’s Department of Commerce states that the US constitutes one-third of the global entertainment and media industry. America is a sports-minded nation that participates in almost every sports of the world, including baseball, hockey, basketball, and football among other sporting events.

The Nature of the US Culture

Unlike the Japanese, the American culture is individualistic in nature. Such cultures are those that emphasize the individual needs over those of a group (community/society) as a whole. In an individualistic culture, people are autonomous and independent. Their social behaviors underlie the preferences and attitudes of individuals. The Western Europe also practices an individualistic culture.

Comparison

Time Orientation

The perception of time differs from one culture to another in significant ways. America and Japan have the same view of time orientation. For example, taking long to get the business done or reporting late for any appointment may seem accepted in many Arabian and Mediterranean countries, as well as the less-developed parts of Asia. However, such habits would appear as anathema in the punctuality-conscious Japan and the United States.

Communication

America’s style of communication is direct. The US citizens value linear and logic thinking. They expect people to speak in a straightforward and transparent manner, which means that anyone who struggles to tell things “how they are” wastes time. The Japanese communication style is characterized by nuance and subtlety. Here, the appearance of a person, what he or she pronounces in public (tatemae), and/or what he or she has in mind (honne) are not necessarily in one line.

Physical and Mental Health

Almost 90 percent of the Americans value both mental and physical health. About one-third of the country’s population finds it difficult to access mental health care. Approximately 4 out of 10 people view cost as a barrier to seeking treatment. These estimations are the findings of the country’s largest health institutions such as the US Foundation for Suicide Prevention, the National Action Alliance for Suicide Prevention, and the American Anxiety and Depression Association. On the contrary, the Japanese are at a higher risk of contracting mental health issues, which also affect their physical health. In a study by Yuasa et al., the researchers found that natural disasters such as the Great Earthquake of East Japan play an integral role in causing mental health problems (137).

Group Relationships

Also referred to as group marriage or polygamy, this practice has not been a legally recognized in America. Besides, it has never been a culturally normative institution in the United States since the Europeans colonized the North America. Currently, the Japanese adopt an approach that is similar to that of the Americans. Initially, Japan allowed men to marry many as five wives. However, it abolished this system in 1889 when it established the Japanese Imperial Constitution. Since then, the Japanese abolished polygamy to give room for equal union between women and men.

Perceptions and Measures of Intelligence

The overall image of America around the globe is positive. A survey by the Pew Research Center reveals that 69 percent of the participant nations have a favorable opinion of the United States while 24 percent of them have a different perception (par. 2). In the United States, the ultimate measure of intelligence is the Standardized Intelligence Testing. In Japan, cultural factors such as the Taoist tradition act as the measures of intelligence since the Japanese view an intelligent person as one who knows Tao or the ultimate greatness. The Japanese people have used the same traditional beliefs to steer themselves to incorporate the modern concepts of intelligence in which education proves vital. In a study to determine why the Japanese perform best in school, the Japanese have strived to boost their IQ scores by practicing to take tests in school and Juku (Service 19).

Analyzing the Two Cultures Using the Cultural Theory

The analysis of these cultures uses the theory of viewing a culture as an adaptive system. The analysis of the cultural theory underlies the concept of dealing with it from an evolutionary perspective in which culture features a set of three ideas. The first one is the fact that culture is a system of socially transmissible behavioral patterns that strive to link human communities to ecological setups. Some of the ways of life for a community include the mode of economic structure and technologies, patterns of settlement, mode of political organization and social grouping, and religious practices and beliefs among other factors. When people view the cultural features as the conduct systems of populations, it becomes evident that cultures can act as behavior patterns. The second concept of this theory is that cultural changes mark the processes of the things that amount to natural selection and adaptation.

When viewed as adaptive systems, cultures change in line with the direction of the ecosystem’s equilibrium. However, when demographic, technological, environmental, or other systemic shifts upset the balances, further transformations occur in the cultural systems. The third concept of this theory is that the most adaptively integral realms of cultures are subsistence economy, technology, and aspects of social organizations.

Application of the Theory

According to the provisions of this theory, one would argue that the Japanese live in the way they do because their lifestyle is a system that they adapt. In this case, the young ones are taught to adapt to the way the older members of the society do things. Particularly, the Japanese culture is a system that promotes collectivism. Besides the Japanese believing in traditions, they use rice as the staple food and Tao as a measure of intelligence while at the same time practicing both Buddhism and Shintoism among other factors that distinguish the country from other cultures of the world. The people of Japan develop in line with the cultural aspects that make them “Japanese”. For example, they focus on the benefit of the society, rather than personal gains. They also avoid preaching and going out to drink in bars. Besides, they do other things as stipulated by their culture (system). Through this process, they adopt identities and personalities that depict these cultural practices and beliefs.

On the other hand, the cultural theory applies to the American Culture in the same way as that of the Japanese. The Americans operate on a system that distinguishes them from the other cultures of the world. For example, they believe in individualism where everyone is a representative of himself or herself in the society. The people of the United States develop in ways that depict their identities and personalities as Americans. For example, they use a direct communication style, widely use English, dress in line with the fashion trends, practice the religion of their choice, participate in various sports, and/or use Native-American and European cuisines among other practices.

The Influence of Each Culture in Line with the Cultural Theory

From a general perspective, Japanese are emotional people who believe in collectivism in which everyone tends to focus on the needs of the society, rather than personal interests. The Japanese culture’s reliance on traditions and respect makes the people morally advanced. This claim is evidenced by their promotion of gender equality and equity following Japan’s adoption of the Japanese Imperial Constitution in 1889, which accompanied the abolition of polygamy. The Japanese are less aggressive people since their cultural system promotes respect for one another. However, some aspects of the Japanese culture, especially their traditional sports that focus on martial arts promote aggression. Examples include sumo, judo, and karate among others.

Unlike the Japanese, the Americans are less emotional people since their culture promotes individualism. Showing much sympathy to others may not be common in the US. Although most people in America are morally advanced, the US culture comprises several factors that depict immorality. Drug and substance abuse, sexual orientation and sex trades, as well as criminal activities, are some of the examples of immoral engagements. Although Americans do not support polygamy, they do not pay much attention to gender as evidenced by sex disparities in the labor force, politics, and sectors of the society. The people of the United States are aggressive. They tend to believe in “the survival for the fittest,” which means that one’s success may depend on his or her aggressiveness.

Conclusion: Biasness

Conclusively, any analysis involving comparing two things may feature biasness. Hence, my review of the American and Japanese cultures may be biased. It is possible to favor one of them by either depicting my culture as superior or praising the one that interests me. My limited knowledge of the Japanese Culture could have contributed to showing bias towards it. The information presented in this paper is my research about it. Hence, it is possible to select some aspects of the Japanese while leaving other crucial elements. However, my analysis is authentic in its comparison of the two cultures.

Works Cited

Barakat, Areeg, Pradeep Gopalakrishna, and Vishal Lala. “The Impact of Arab American Ethnic Identity on the Consumption of Culture-Specific Products.” Journal of International Consumer Marketing 26.5 (2014): 405-425. Print.

Foster, Michael. Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin, The Political Economy of Japanese Popular Culture in Asia.” Asian Ethnology 74.1 (2015): 237-240. Print.

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Age in the American and the Japanese Cultures

Introduction

Elderly people are often taken for granted in modern society. With the focus on younger people and the provision of opportunities for the new generation, senior citizens are often left in the shadow in the U.S. social environment. However, the identified phenomenon is not ubiquitous; the Japanese culture, on the contrary, provides an entirely different perspective of age and elderly people. By considering some of the concepts that the Japanese culture comprises, the U.S. society may create a more appropriate environment for its senior citizens.

Analysis

Before considering the attitude towards the elderly members of the population in Japan, one must address the way in which Japanese people interpret age and aging as a concept. A closer look at the lifestyle of the elderly members of the citizens in Japan will reveal that most of the seniors are just as vivacious as young people (Nguyen, Mujtaba, Kass, & Tran, 2015). The identified observation can be supported by the fact that the local healthcare system allows maintaining comparatively high rates of life expectancy.

The effects of the identified phenomenon are rather predictable. The senior members of Japanese society are never viewed as inactive or unable to participate in social activities. Quite on the contrary, the Japanese elderly people engage in the activities about which they are enthusiastic. The devotion to a hobby can be considered the essential character trait of a senior member of the Japanese society (Nguyen et al., 2015).

Unfortunately, the current attitudes toward senior citizens in the United States leave much to be desired. Although there is no evident disrespect in the relationships between the representatives of different generations, and the essential principles of decency are upheld as crucial principles of the communication between the elderly and the American youth, there is an elusive sense of lack of appreciation among the latter.

For instance, the modern American culture has the propensity to stereotype senior citizens as chronically ill and old-fashioned people that are completely out of touch with the progressive reality (Azulai, 2014). As a result, the attitude that younger representatives of the American population have toward the identified members of the society can be described as condescending, at best, and downright neglectful, at worst (Svenningsen, Manoharan, Foss, Lauritsen, & Bay-Nielsen, 2014).

Furthermore, even if leaving the negative attitude toward the target members of the population out of the picture and focusing solely on the way in which old people are typically portrayed in the media, one must admit that the image of a senior citizen is surprisingly biased in the U.S. culture. The tendency to attribute characteristics such as senility, lack of initiative, etc., is admittedly disturbing. Therefore, the current portrayal of senior citizens in the American culture could borrow certain elements from the Japanese one so that the identified members of the U.S. population could not feel abandoned and shunned from being socially active.

It would be wrong to state that the phenomenon observed in the Japanese society is entirely alien to the American society and the elderly members of its communities. For instance, similarly to the traditions of the Japanese culture, the American one also tends to celebrate what makes senior citizens different from the rest of the American population instead of limiting the opportunities for the target population (Nguyen et al., 2015).

The idea of the elderly being generally wiser and more experienced than younger citizens is another point of contact between the American and the Japanese vision of the age. Although the tendency to view old people as wise and experienced is much more evident in the Japanese environment, where the wisdom of old people is lauded in folklore, the notion that an old person has a significant amount of wisdom and experience is also perpetuated in the American cultural environment (Svenningsen et al., 2015).

As the comparison provided above shows, the image of an elderly person that is represented in the Japanese culture is much more positive than the one promoted in the contemporary American culture. The effects of the identified differences in the portrayal of senior citizens are quite drastic. In the Japanese environment, elderly people are respected and appreciated, whereas in the environment of American society, old people are viewed as dead weight.

Conclusion

Therefore, there is an apparent need for change in modern U.S. society. The elderly members of the American population must be respected as an equally important part of society and offered an opportunity to become socially active. As a result, an improvement in the perspective of age can be expected. Furthermore, the healthcare system needs to be reconsidered to provide senior citizens with more options for increasing their life expectancy rates and enjoying good health.

As soon as the elderly are viewed as not a burden but valued members of the society in the U.S., a more appropriate environment can be created for the target population. With the focus on creating decent living standards for the identified citizens of the United States, more opportunities for an increase in average life expectancy rates will be created.

References

Azulai, A. (2014). Ageism and future cohorts of elderly: Implications for social work. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 11(2), 2-13.

Nguyen, L. D., Mujtaba, B. J., Kass, G., & Tran, Q. H. M. (2015). Cross culture management-an examination on task, relationship and work overload stress orientations of German and Japanese working adults. American International Journal of Social Science, 4(1), 51-63.

Svenningsen, P., Manoharan, T., Foss, N. B., Lauritsen, M. L., & Bay-Nielsen, L. (2014). Danish Medical Journal, 61(7), 1-4.

Japanese and Southeast Asia Cultures

Discuss the influence of the Samurai warrior culture in the development of Japanese culture

The establishment of Taika reforms in Japan during 646 A.D. led to the development of a highly-skilled class of warriors called samurai. Included in the reforms were land redistribution laws and heavy taxation meant to support the Chinese empire. As a result, small-scale farmers were forced to sell their land and seek employment as tenant farmers. Landowners amassed a lot of wealth and power, which in turn led to feudalism.

The rich exploited the poor as far as wages are concerned, in addition to overworking them. Because of this, the rich wanted warriors to protect their wealth. This was the origin of the samurai warrior. The sword was the main warrior’s symbol and weapon. Other weapons included spears, guns, bows, and arrows (Sosnoski, 56).

The activities of the warrior were based on the principle of bushido. These were the laws and the regulations, which were supposed to guide them. The principle required them to be courageous, be loyal, and honor their masters. In case a warrior felt that he was about or had lost his honor, they got back their stand by committing a painful act like committing suicide. The group was not afraid of death. They had better fight for their masters until death rather than surrendering in a battle. According to their tradition, the warriors committed suicide after the defeat (Sosnoski 66).

Even though samurai was abolished, one of the main tourist attractions is the activities of the samurai. These are found in museums, parks, dress up tours, castles, and historic residences. The spirit of samurai is still common among the Japanese because it encourages them to fight for their country. Japanese citizens are encouraged to be loyal and obedient to the law and leaders as well (Sosnoski 115).

Discuss the influence of geography in the development of Southeast Asian cultures

Human civilization is the main characteristic of the culture in the continent of Asia. The continent has as many different cultures as the number of societies found there. The continent is geographically divided into different parts, with each part having its own cultural practices. These parts include central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, West Asia, South Asia, and South East Asia. For over a long period, Asia has experienced many problems in uniting its citizens because of the cultural differences that exist between various societies. The main components of the Asian culture include music, art, literature, and as well as their dietary requirements (Esterik 39).

The countries making up South East Asia are Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, among others. The culture in South East Asia is influenced by religion and cultural practices from India and China. Christianity and Islamic faiths have also been spread to the religion from the Southwest part of the continent. Some aspects of the western culture borrowed during the colonial period. For instance also characterizes South East Asia, Philippines has been under the colony of America and Spain for almost four centuries (Esterik 53).

The culture of South East Asia is therefore a combination of many cultures. Different societies found in this geographical environment carryout their cultural practices in their own ways. However, erosion of culture has taken place in almost all the societies because of interaction with people from other areas. One of the factors contributing to this is intermarriage, migration, and religious practices. Societies have borrowed cultural practices from other societies as well as losing their original practices to other communities. Originality of culture has been lost in many societies a disadvantage to the society’s continuity. Socialization is an advantage to them because it fosters a sense of unity among them (Esterik 95).

Work Cited

Esterik, Penny. Food culture in Southeast Asia. New York: ABC-CLIO, 2008. Print.

Sosnoski, Daniel. Introduction to Japanese culture. London: Tuttle Publishing, 1996. Print.