Traditional Japanese Architecture

Traditionally, Japanese heritage has been very vast, and the present-day Japanese Experience can be easily related to the Japanese history of the sixth century. Since the previous eras, a dominant position on the map of the globe has been received by Japan, and the sea has always contributed a lot to its borders. Very early traces of immigration have been observed in this country, and since the tenth century, utilization of a common language has been done by the Japanese populace. The abovementioned statements seem to convey the message that Japan is maybe a traditional country. However, some of the major innovations in terms of the development of art, literature, technology, etc. have been observed for several decades. One of the major attributes of Japan is that it has learned a lot from other parts of the world, as well as, implemented them within its boundaries. In this paper, the culture and innovative society of Japan has been evaluated by one of the leading authorities of Japan, Beasley, with the relation to traditional Japanese history. (Beasley, 1995).

According to Coaldrake, “ancient rulers built their empires by constructing temples and places as well as by building armies and destroying enemies. Modern government is also preoccupied with modern architecture as an expression of civic responsibility as well as a tool for economic stimulus”. (Coaldrake, 1996).

The sixth-century has been considered as a major twist in the religious, political, social, and cultural lives of the Japanese populace. One of the major causes of the abovementioned twists has been the commencement of Buddhism in the country, which was greatly influenced by the socialism from China. “Beasley believes that “by the eleventh century the Chinese element was waning and the country was entering a long and essentially “Japanese” feudal period–with two rulers, an emperor and a Shogun–which was to last until the nineteenth century”. (Beasley, 1995).

In the year 1868, an emerging world power was introduced on the globe, and national wealth, cultural strength, and political potency were some of the major areas that were considered by the Japanese rulers by the arrival of the Meiji Restoration in the country. Subsequently, Japan kept on developing, and Japanese people were blessed with the wealth of westernization, in terms of economy, culture, social lives, etc. In particular, a number of miracles occurred in Japanese history, which can be related to the year 1945, which brought enormous changes in the country. (Beasley, 1995).

It has been considered by most archaeologists that no prehistoric culture can be related to the Japanese world. However, a number of proofs have resulted in a change in their thinking, as Paleolithic tools made of chipped stones have been discovered after the end of World War II. It is believed that a number of land bridges would have been utilized by the people of the abovementioned era during their migration to the Japanese islands from other parts of the Asian continent, and this migration has been related to the prehistoric era of ten thousand years ago. As no human remains have been found during the excavations, the information regarding the inhabitants of that time cannot be collected by the experts. However, several archaeologists have noted that caves were used for the living, and hunting would have been the major necessity of the occupants of that era. In addition, interestingly, the Japanese history can be related to even a pre-pottery culture, as the Japanese sites have not provided any bone or horn tools to the experts. (Churchill n.d.).

“Landes believes, Japan is a wonderful case study of the way a society and its mode of organization and culture can transcend the intentions of the rulers and the institutions that the rulers set in place”. The ruling dynasty dominated the country, which was not in power until the sixteenth century. However, the abovementioned step was taken in response to a number of civil wars that deteriorated the country in the sixteenth century. Until the late nineteenth century, the development and evolution that brought Japan were due to the exemplifying ruling of the abovementioned dynasty, which cannot be put under the category of an imperial dynasty. Thus, this ruling dynasty has been considered as one of the major blessings to Japan, as hundreds of years of contribution have been given by this family to Japan, which resulted in the emergence of Japan as a world power. During their ruling, several new ideas were introduced in the country, such as, samurai that allowed the rivalries to settle under one shade, rather than spreading in the country through civil wars. (Landes, 1998).

As earlier mentioned in the paper, a number of steps were taken by the ruling dynasty for the pacification of the terrible conditions of the country. During this period, different religious concepts were introduced in the country, such as, the utilization of rice for thanking God, which was an act of devotion and peace. However, this rice was used for different trade purposes that contributed significantly to the country’s revenue. By region, labor and specialization were divided based on Adam Smithian theory, and the development of a very active industry was observed due to the different requirements and demands of the people in the country. Thus, the eighteenth century observed an earlier wave of fermentation in the country. (Landes, 1998).

Education and literature were also responded similarly by the Japanese society. The import of books was banned, and foreigners were not allowed to access the traditional Japanese books, which bounded the knowledge in the country. However, despite several efforts for the obstruction of books import, the literature was being imported illegally in the country. During this period, experts have deemed the imported knowledge as Dutch knowledge in Japanese society. It has been observed that western sciences were quite dominating the globe at that time, and the influential intellect of the Japanese educators quite resembled the dominance. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the limitations imposed on the knowledge and literature were taken off, and globalization began in the country, which was responded quite positively by several Japanese elites, such as, Mitsui, who contributed significantly to the Japanese society in a responsible manner. A number of experts and professionals have deemed Japan as a mini Europe during that period due to its internal trade activities and distinct markets. (Landes, 1998).

“Cox in this regard believes, according to Japanese tradition this is how the line of emperors came to be: The sun goddess Amaterasu sent her grandson Ninigi to earth to establish an eternal dynasty”. Subsequently, a young girl was made his wide, and a royal palace was built by him. Jimmu was the blessed son of this royal couple, who conquered the hearts of the Japanese populace by his heroic acts in different wars, and consequently, the responsibility of the first Japanese emperor was taken by him. Nowadays, the ancient state of Yamoto has been related to this myth, and it has been noted that political justification regarding the dominance by this royal family during the early centuries was the result of it. (Cox, n.d).

Thus, it has been noted that the Japanese cultural production can be greatly related to prehistoric culture, and cultural and social innovations after the commencement of the Meiji Era that spread in almost all the parts of the country, and these innovations have existed until today. Some of the major innovations in terms of the development of art, literature, technology, etc. have been observed for several decades in Japan, which has resulted in its emergence as a world power. It is a hope that this paper will help professionals, students, and artists to understand the crucial role that has been played by the western influences in the production of Japanese art and culture in the country.

References

Beasley W.G. (1995). The Japanese Experience. Digital Publishing.

Churchill R. (n.d.). Ancient Japan. 2007. Web.

Cox M. (n.d.). Imperial Japan. 2007. Web.

Coaldrake W. H. (1996). Architecture and Authority. Routledge Publishing.

Landes D.S. (1998) Culture counts: 2007. Web.

Japanese Shrines Architecture Uniqueness

Buddhism entered Japan during the sixth century with more advanced sculptures and architectures that imposed a great effect on the shrine architecture. Buddhists used stylish technologies to produce their texts and architecture, and in return, more supporters were pleased and developed much interest. For instance, the 6th century is the period when Japan experienced religious architecture of high quality. The famous monastery of Horyu came into being during this period (Young & Young, 2007). The layout of this religious building was very long-lasting, as it is the oldest wooden structure globally. Its high-quality structure made it become a world heritage structure. Buddhists came into Japan with many architects from Korea who were equipped with new techniques like that of Chinese styles of architecture.

Most of the architecture that was made during the Nara period was full of Tang style more stable in its structural form, and attractive ornamentation. Most people started showing more interest in china’s Buddhist architecture due to some improvements. For instance, Chinese architecture made people use sits while the architecture of Japan was used to, make them sit on the floor. In terms of lifestyle, Buddhists architecture challenged Japanese architecture during the sixth century.

However, apart from the lifestyle influence climate changes were also factors that Japanese thought of greatly (Hong, 2004). In Japan the common weather is long and hot summers, there was need for a house that would keep the air moving freely. Wood was then the best material to construct the houses as it reacts well to all sorts ‘of weather, as well as during earthquakes. Through the architecture, human beings are able to bring the heavenly themes into physical appearance. From a far distance, one may see the architecture of Japan and that of china being similar, but through a closer look would reveal differences in some unique qualities. On the compound layout and materials of the building mattered a lot to the Buddhists. They also concentrated much on the visual elegance and the actual balance of the building compared to the level of the environment. According to the beliefs of the Buddhists, a temple or any religious building was supposed to be on a complexity ground. Such complex features included, mountain peaks, curving of the hillsides, and near a source of water like a river. Placing a temple on top of a mountain did not only imply the unique physical feature, but also a secure place for worship.

The Buddhists came up with set standards of constructing a temple. There were strict guidelines that acted as the course of actions like symmetry and axis arrangements. Symmetry implied that the worship halls to visually balance with pagodas. The principle of axis implied a north – south axis of the temple entrance, the entering path, and the main hall of worship. Through these Chinese construction standards, the city was in rectangular blocks. The Buddhists architecture mainly preferred the use of both the woods and stones, unlike the Japanese shrine architecture that mostly made use of exclusive woods (Karl, 2004). According to the Japanese, the use of woods in architectural activities was a way of celebrating a new life, as the country was very blessed with forests and wood working experts. The use of stones was time consuming to prepare, and very expensive to transport to where they are needed.

The Japanese shrine architecture preferred constructing on high platforms to control the moisture from interfering with the building. The Japanese proved to be very old-fashioned as far as decorating the constructions was concerned. They practiced their cultural ways of decorating their finished buildings. When the Chinese Buddhists came, Japanese started practicing a more advanced decoration by use of eaves and columns done in dazzling colors. Japanese wanted to show natural simplicity in their constructions, and that is why they finished their work with bare wood. They used woods such as cypress, the wood that does not have negative effects on weather changes, and does not require any paintings. The construction of temple in Japan was influenced by the Buddhists style of architecture like use of sloping roof, use if tile patterns, and other building set ups.

Japanese architecture adopted much of the civilization of construction from the Buddhists like inclusion of base columns to make the building strong and stable. These support columns attached along the rectangular perimeter divided the main worship hall of the temple. Another feature tat was adopted is the use of sloping roof that maintained the arithmetical balance with the natural environment (Young & Young, 2007). The eaves were designed in a modern style displaying g the harmonious feeling of the temple. The rafters of the temple were interlacing to support the wide round roofs of the building. During the low-density earthquakes, the interlacing rafters would assist in neutralizing the strength of the ground trembles, and help in transforming the kinetic energy into heat energy. This conversion of energy became possible through the presence of friction between the wooden components.

The roofing tiles of the temples acted as a form of decoration but also helped to tap rainwater to prevent soil erosion. Temples that were built by use of smaller roofing coverage, overlapping tiles arranged in a wave- like design was the best. The constructions with larger roofing space made use of contoured wooden boards that showed overall smooth curved features. This wave like design showed a Chinese way of doing the architecture. To some extent, the Japanese treasured much their cultural way of doing their architectural activities, for instance they did not prefer much roof ornaments for instance they did not paint the roofs with brilliant colors like the Chinese used to. For a long period, the Japanese architecture borrowed many designs from the Buddhists and integrated them. Through these civilized ways of doing the architecture from the Buddhists, the Japanese architecture managed to construct rich temples of high quality between eighth and 16th century (Berleant & Carlson, 2007). Throughout the 8th century, the Japanese architecture used many designs of Buddhists that consisted Chinese buildings styles.

During the Nara period, the Japanese fully accepted the Buddhism religion and their cultural practices including their architectural practices. Through this acceptance, the Japanese made some efforts to import new art materials to make their constructions look as good as those of the Buddhists, there was also need for a change in bureaucratic architecture as well as adopting a new language. Great temples started appearing using Chinese models.

For example, through he use of new Buddhist architectural designs a big temple known as kondo of Toshodaiji was built in Japan. This was one of the largest wooden constructions as it consumed a big space of about two miles. Inside this building, several statues were under this one roof building. Among the statues housed in this building was the recognized largest bronze statue globally of a Buddha sitting with 53 feet in height. Several statues made of profound styles with features such as short necks, big curved faces, and heavy bodies were inside this construction. This temple was a good indication of Chinese fashionable designs in Japan.

Much of the influence that came with Buddhists was from both the Korea and Chinese architectural designs (Karl, 2004). The people, who were willing to praise and worship Buddha, were doing it in the temple, which was next to the houses for monks and nuns. Towards the end of the 8th century, the holy grounds of worship had different types of buildings such as the pagoda, the major hall, and dining big room among others. It was also mandatory to build a wall around the holy worshipping ground including the gates for entrance. According to the Buddhists culture and beliefs, the lecture hall was the largest as most of the activities were taking place there especially the holy teachings.

The Buddhists architecture styles preferred two different tower styles in which one was used to store the canonical scriptures, and the other one to act as the place where the religious observance would be announced. Buddhists preferred pagodas to be somewhere at the center of the holy compound where sacred remainders were held as they were the main items of devotion (Young & Young, 2007). This was an improvement of the Japanese shrine architecture, which did not have a specific way of construction. The construction of the Japanese shrines depended on the environment of the area. They used to arrange some stones in a line from the gate to guide the worshipper to the shrine. In addition, they had main halls that housed their statues made of iron and a figure of a lion. The main hall was in two styles, a temporary hall for holding special occasions like the Sumiyoshi Shrine in Osaka, and another hall with very simple shape for instance the Ise shrine. The Japanese architectural style did not prefer construction of a permanent shrine due to the reconstruction that was necessary.

Traditionally, the Japanese were supposed to rebuild shrines regularly as a sign of doing purification and renovating the old materials in that building. This was also a way of eradicating other natural calamities. Through the influence of Buddhism, the Japanese was able to interact freely with the china and Korea and adopt their ways of architecture. There was some important culture in both Korea and china, which was of help to the way Japanese used to construct their buildings. During the seventh and the eighth century, the interaction of architectural activities of Japan and the Asian continent was because of Buddhism plans.

Most of the early Buddhists sculptures in Japan were from Korea. From the learnt designs from the Buddhism architecture, the Japanese architects decided to choose modern styles of constructions to solve various problems associated with their past architecture. Starting with the roofs, the Japanese architects improved their way of using ceramic tiles to using cypress- bark roofing (Berleant & Carlson, 2007). On finishing the floor, the architects of Japan thought of adopting wooden timbers instead of finishing it with earthen floors. In front of the main worship hall, the architects decided to build an additional worship area for the high priests.

Originally, the Buddhists were from India, when they came in Japan they transformed many of the Japan ways of life. Within one century they had transformed almost every region of Japan starting with the government whereby a strong government than before came into power. Buddhist in Japan introduced a new system of writing, new and improved methods of constructions, and molding of bronze, as well as better ways and materials for painting. Until the 9th century, the Japanese architecture was solely on the religious constructions such as temples, Buddhists carvings, and painting of Buddhists deities. The use of modern and indigenous methods of architecture became of importance in Japan when it broke with china in the 9th century. Both the religious and the secular architecture improved day by day until the 16th century.

The modern ways became the most popular in constructing the religious buildings such as the shrines and temples. Japan learnt cultural practices from the Buddhists, as well as economical and political aspects because many artisans and scholars came into the country with the Buddhism (Young & Young, 2007). During the 8th century and the 16th century, Japanese shrines adopted a completely new and different style, with additional vertical features meant to show the authority of God and man over the nature, unlike in the past when they used to build their shrines with horizontal features inside other natural objects.

The shrines that existed between the eighth and the 16th century in Japan were more attractive than in the past. The shrines were finished with more decorations of bright colors, the roofing arranged in piles of different heights, and now partitioned in various rooms depending on their uses. The shrines after the influence of the Buddhists, were more attractive to look at and much interesting. Although it is hard to trace traditional Japanese shrine of stones currently, they were there after the influence of the Buddhists, stone shrines and tomb were constructed through some complicated methods.

The early Japanese architects were not using the crosscut saws or planes when finishing the woodwork, but after the influence, the cypress tree that the Japanese architects preferred using when finishing their work was from smooth through the planes making the final work look more attractive. Towards the end of 16th century, the Japanese shrines were made by use of post and beam construction to make them more stable. The woodwork in their constructions consisted of elaborate joinery that increased the strength of the shrine (Hong, 2004). Before the introduction of the Buddhists in Japan, their shrines were marked with a line of stones starting from the gate to the holy place of prayers. The traditional artisans used to shape these stones, but after the influence of the Buddhists, some machines provided to the Japanese architects to help in shaping those stones, making them look attractive and the place more holy. These stones are arranged technically such that even incase of an earthquake, there is a high probability of them remaining intact. The traditional artisans used hammers and chisels in the past, but Buddhism came up with more advanced tools to be used in construction.

The structure of Shinto shrine has great influence of Buddhists for instance the presence of verandas, complex gate construction, and the presence of stone lanterns from the gate to the shrine. Japanese architects applied some unique styles in their constructions as they learnt from the Buddhism architecture. For instance, it was possible to see some improvement from the primitive shrines that were present without the major center part.

Reference List

Berleant, A., & Carlson, A. 2007. The aesthetics of human environment. Tokyo: Broadview press.

Hong, Y. 2004. Introduction to Japanese architecture. London: Tuttle Publishing.

Karl, A. 2004. Studies in Japanese Buddhism. Kyoto: Kessinger Publishing.

Young, D., & Young, M. 2007. The art Japanese architecture. London: Tuttle publishing.

V. Horta’s Tassel Hotel and the Pavilion for Japanese Art by B. Goff

The term “Art Nouveau” is translated as “new art” into English and is used when speaking about the international art style of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Art Nouveau works of art are characterized by the use of the new materials and technologies from one side and the motives of the ancient myths and spiritual world on the other. Sinuous and non-geometric lines, often depicting leaves and flowers, were widely used in order to make nature the most important decoration. Nature, works of art, and all the ordinary objects were intended to form a harmonic unity.

Victor Horta’s Tassel Hotel is considered to be one of the brightest examples of the Art Nouveau style, some scholars name it the first Art Nouveau building in Brussels and the first example of a building designed in this style in general. Built for Edmond Tassel, a Belgian scientist and professor, this building motivated lots of architects for further work. Being inspired after the exhibition of 1892, Horta decided to put the theory he had learned into practice. The curvilinear botanical forms used were only one and not the brightest peculiarity of the new style he was going to work in. The building consists of three separate parts – made of brick and natural stone are not very interesting for analysis and are rather conventional as a matter of fact. A steel structure covered with glass connected these walls, containing staircases and landings.

The natural light came into the building through the glass roof, and it was a very interesting design decision, further widely used in other projects. It was Horta’s invention to use modern materials in domestic architecture. For example, the classical columns and moldings of the building are made not of traditional stone but iron and it was Horta’s contribution. In general, the building was planned in accordance with the traditions of those times. Horta was working on the interior design carefully, he paid attention to every single detail. Unfortunately, at the moment a private firm occupies the building and its interior is not accessible to the public. Ideas implemented by Horta in the Hotel building became characteristic of all his domestic architecture. It was the first but not the last time that he used the open floor plan, natural light and united architecture with the interior. These techniques became characteristic of Victor Horta’s works.

The fact is that the buildings that Horta designed were accessible for the rich people mostly and their extraordinary tastes and needs dictated the choice of the materials and the architectural decisions consequently. That is why the innovations were not so widely used as they could be. By the way, it made merging of the new building into the surrounding not so fashionable houses, more difficult. But the architect managed to do it without taking great pains as the talented and hard-working people do as a rule. And the Hotel building did not contradict the whole landscape of nineteenth-century Brussels, as well as it does not contradict it nowadays. The inhabitants of the city are proud of this historical and architectural monument and though the building is used for commercial purposes at the moment, it is preserved and taken care of.

The Pavilion for Japanese Art is a part of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. It was designed by Bruce Goff, and is considered to be a bright example of the expressionistic architecture in Los Angeles, but has a lot of Art Nouveau style peculiarities. The form of this building is meant to reflect its content, its lines resembling mysterious Japanese sculptures and paintings. Looking at the pavilion the observer is prepared to be introduced into the charming world of Japanese culture, folk wisdom collected within centuries and represented inside of this building. The author managed to share his emotions with the visitors: the intricate lines and exaggerated forms give the feeling of entering a middle-aged Japanese palace. The translucent panels made of fiber-glass are not only an interesting decision of the architect but serve to the implementation of the main idea of the building as well – the works of art are naturally lit by the sun and it produces the impression of the open-air exhibition. Bruce Goff as well as Victor Horta managed to combine the newest materials with the idea of myth and legend in their buildings. The conditions created for saving the exhibits in the Pavilion are considered to be ideal. This building though meant to protect the works of art may be regarded as a masterpiece itself and was highly appreciated by the contemporaries.

On the north side of LACMA, adjacent to the tar pits, is the Pavilion for Japanese Art, easily the most effective building in the museum complex with its striking design – a traditional-modern hybrid by maverick architect Bruce Goff, modeled after traditional shoji screens to filter varying levels and qualities of light through to the interior (Dickey, 82).

Bruce Goff only designed the building but he had not enough time to finish it, Bart Prince, who had been cooperating with Goff since 1970 was to finish the building after Goff’s death. Bart managed not only to finish successfully what was already started but, been impressed and involved in work, he adds some specific details and implemented some new ideas. He admitted that “the art is the client” (Storrie, 24) and this statement explains all the main architect’s decisions and his general attitude to the work. The motives of ancient times are assimilated with modern features in this building and look naturally giving additional coloring to the work. Curving walkways and circular towers are so close to the elevators but it does not destroy the entity of the building. The pavilion is the furthest point from the entrance of the museum and it is one more factor for its subtlety. All the exhibits are displayed in the small alcoves. The top-level has got a high ceiling and its center lets the natural light in, resembling the Tassel Hotel roof at this point and creating special visual effects and favorable conditions as well. Shoji screens are placed on the perimeter and produce soft diffused light.

The analysis of these two outstanding buildings demonstrates the connection of different styles and the historical evolution of characteristic features of one style into another. Victor Horta’s Tassel Hotel, as well as the Pavilion for Japanese Art by Bruce Goff, are masterpieces of the world’s architecture, each of them unique and interesting in its own way. The use of natural light, translucent ceilings and new materials are the most important common features of these two architectural projects.

Horta’s Tassel Hotel. Street facade, present condition.
Horta’s Tassel Hotel. Bottom of staircase.
The Pavilion for Japanese Art by Bruce Goff.
The Pavilion for Japanese Art.
The Pavilion fo Japanese Art.

Bibliography

Acton, Mary. Learning to Look at Modern Art. Routledge Publish. 2004: 328.

Dickey, Jeff. Rough Guide to Los Angeles. Rough Guides Press. 2003: 409.

Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. Thames and Hudson Press. 2007:424.

Storrie, Calum. The Delirious Museum: A Journey from the Louvre to Las Vegas. Tauris and Co Ltd. 2007: 241.

“Bruce Goff Archive”. The Art Institute of Chicago. n.d. Web.

Kimono Art in Traditional Japanese Clothing

Kimono is traditional Japanese clothing worn by men, women, and children. Generally, the Kimonos are straight-lined, T-shaped robes worn in such a way that the turn-up falls to the ankle (Dalby 93). It has attachments of long, wide sleeves and a collar.

The Kimonos are put on by wrapping them around the body. The left is placed over the right part. During ceremonies like burial, the Kimonos are put on in reversed order. There is traditional footwear that completes the Kimono attire. This footwear is called Zori accompanied with special socks called the Tabi.

The Kimonos were introduced in the Japanese culture during the Heian period (794-1192). Before this period, the Japanese people wore different attires like the ensembles, which had separate lower and upper garments. The lower garments consisted of skirts and trousers (Fujisawa, Sano, Woodson, and Kawakami 199-216).

The Japanese also wore full garments. The Kimono technique was developed and advanced during the Heian period. These types of clothing’s became famous amongst the Japanese people because the design was very flexible. These cloths ended up becoming their identity. The Kimono was designed to fit on any body shape. This clothing was easy to put on and could be used for any weather conditions.

As time went by the Japanese people accepted and embraced the Kimonos as part of their cultural attire (Fujisawa et al. 169). The Kimonos designs were advanced with inputting different colours. The Japanese people developed colour sensitivity especially colour combination. During these times is when the colour combination developed as a Japanese tradition (Gluckman and Takeda 199).

The Kamakure and the Muromachi period (1192- 1573) were the times where both genders started putting on Kimonos that were brightly colored (Fujisawa et al. 320). The traditional warriors at these times wore Kimonos with colours identical to their leaders. During war, the battlefield appeared like Kimonos fashion show.

At the times when the Tokugawa clan ruled over Japan, the Edo period (1603-1868), the country had domain divisions headed by the lords. The Samurais from different domains were identified using different colours of their uniforms (Fujisawa et al. 143). The Kimono makers improved in their designs due to increased usage of the Kimonos, and increased varieties demands. Eventually, the Kimono making advanced and became an art. These made the Kimonos to be very valuable and were handed down the family lane.

Western influence became significant in Japan after the year 1868, commonly known as the Meiji period. The government of the time agitated for westernization, where the Japanese people were to adopt western culture including the western attire. Government officials including the military were to put on special western attire. This was a requirement by the law, which is no longer in effect today (Fujisawa et al. 218).

There are four major seasons in Japan, which have specific clothing’s. The Japanese people also put on different cloths during different stages of development, from childhood to adulthood. Therefore, the Kimonos are normally chosen to suit both the occasion and the season (Dalby 189).

It was a Japanese ritual for a child’s birth to be reported in the shrine a hundred days from when the child was born. This required specific Kimono attire. During this time, the child was dressed in white colored Kimono as the inner clothing. On top of the Kimono, a black-colored Kimono incorporated with the family’s crest was added for a boy child. For a girl child, they used a brightly colored Kimono that was Yuzen- dyed. The children also put on a special Kimono at the age of 7 years during a special event known as the Shichi-Go-San. This occasion was to thank the gods for keeping the children healthy up to then (Yamanaka 78).

The Japanese celebrated transition from childhood to adulthood at the age of 20 years. During this occasion, the girls wore long Kimonos, the Furisode. These Kimonos are only worn by girls that are not yet married (Liddell 332). During weddings, the bride is normally dressed in a white Kimono, the Shiromuku, signifying the start of a journey. Married women put on Kimonos with short sleeved flays, the Tomesode. The Tomesode came with a variety of colours excluding white. During formal occasions, the black Tomesode was used.

The Kimono designs are diverse ranging from simple single colored to complex multicolored designs. These designs are mostly imaginative accorded, based on the Japanese cultural beliefs (Yamanaka 67). The artists employed needlework in creating several opulent effects. This was common on the wedding Kimono.

Several motifs are currently present including the three dimensions. Some special Kimonos are woven with silver and gold threads. These metallic threads are attached to the fabric in a special traditional way. A technique where metallic threads are included on the garment is called Shusu amongst the Japanese people. This can well be illustrated by the figure below.

Figure 1: Gold metallic threads.

The garments ere dyed in a special way known as the Yuzen Resist dying. This technique was invented in the 17th century (Yamanaka 192). This resist dying was made from a mixture of soybeans and rice paste. This paste was used to paint special features on the clothing by protecting the areas from being infiltrated with the dye. Such motifs are made using hand painting.

The other most common design is the Katazome fabrics. Stencils are included during their production. The special rice paste or wax is also used in designing of these garments. The Surihaku is another special design among the Kimono (Yamanaka 49). It contains special features such as colored dyes, metallic foil, and the use of the rice paste in designing of special features. The figure below can be used as an illustration of this design (Liddell 101).

Figure 2: the Surihaku.

Other designed have been incorporated into the Kimono art. Some of them include the Shibori, Kasuri, Sumi, and figured weaves.

The Japanese culture is one of the Asian cultures that survived into the modern world. The Kimono is one of the important traditional Japanese cloths that are endowed with rich cultural heritage (Dalby 455). It is religious attire as well as being used during special national events in Japan. Currently although there is reduced usage of this attire due to modernization, a good number of Japanese people still use these designs.

Modern designers in Japan have included the knowledge of these designs in production of their cloth lines. Modernization of this art has taken place allowing the inclusion of inner trousers for women in the Kimono. In the modern world, the Kimono designs are used for making wedding dresses and the Yukuta, which is a special cotton Kimono designed clothing (Liddell 223). It is an important Japanese national attire.

Most people in Japan consider the Kimono as historical attire. This has made its use to diminish significantly in the modern Japan society. Western influence has also helped in diminishing the strong influence the Kimono art had to the Japanese people.

However, a very rich and very complex art that is not fully exploited in the modern Japan (Yamanaka 356). The study of the Kimono reveals a very reach cultural heritage amongst the Japanese people. It is a reflection of artistic observational nature (Liddell 215). Artists used the garment to pass a message about contradictory cultural practices.

Works Cited

Dalby, L. C. Kimono: Fashioning Culture. New Haven, CT: Yale, UP, 1993. Print.

Fujisawa, N., Sano E., Woodson Y., and Kawakami S. Four Centuries of Fashion: Classical Kimono from the Kyoto National Museum. San Francisco, CA: Arcadia, 1997. Print.

Gluckman, D. C., and Takeda S. S. When Art Became Fashion: Kosode in Edo-Period Japan. New York, NY: Weatherhill, 1992. Print.

Liddell, J. The Story of the Kimono. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1989. Print.

Yamanaka, N. The Book of Kimono: The Complete Guide to Style and Wear. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1982. Print.

Women in Art: Yayoi Kusama, Maya Lin, Zaha Hadid

Yayoi Kusama

A Japanese-American artist, Yayoi Kusama, is known for her unique, “obsessive” style in painting. In her autobiography, Kusama says that “deep in the mountains of Nagano,” where she was born in 1929, she had discovered her style of expression: “ink paintings featuring accumulations of tiny dots and pen drawings of endless and unbroken chains of graded cellular forms” (Kusama). She also notes that her “disconsolate childhood” became the main source of inspiration: she had a dysfunctional family and suffered the symptoms of mental illness, including hallucinations and neurosis (Kusama). This mental problem is considered to define her painting style considerably.

Kusama did not succeed as an artist in Japan and moved to New York in the 1950s. However, her success there was not immediate as well. According to Gamble, “Kusama’s career was held back by her gender and ethnicity.” The main reason for that was the patriarchal and hierarchical nature of the US art world in which ethnic minority women were exposed to discrimination most. Still, she began to gain popularity in the 1960s mainly because of her naked art performances which, however, did not bring any profit (Gamble). Those art pieces revealed Kusama as an artist who questioned sexuality and gender concepts and whose work had its roots in social justice.

Maya Lin

An American architect and sculptor, Maya Lin was born in 1959 in Athens, Ohio, in a family of Chinese immigrants. Both of her parents were artistic individuals: her mother was a poet, and her father was a ceramist (Advameg). Thus, it is not surprising that Lin developed a sense of aesthetics and interest in creative and intellectual endeavors early in childhood. After school, Lin studied architecture at Yale University and commenced one of her most famous projects, the Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial design, even before graduating from it (Advameg). This work was meant to depict the tragedy of war by listing the names of all soldiers who died and went missing in Vietnam during the war on two black granite walls.

Regardless of the simplicity and the humanistic message of that architecture piece, it was highly criticized by some members of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund who wanted to make the monument more patriotic and tried to change the design multiple times. As Lin noted, during the negotiation period, the fund kept her uninformed about the planned alterations (Horowitz). She also stated that their approach was primarily due to differences in age, gender, and ethnicity (Horowitz). This situation demonstrates that, as a young woman, she was not accepted seriously and was exposed to tremendous pressure that made Lin compromise her integrity as an artist.

Zaha Hadid

A famous architect, Zaha Hadid, was born in Iraq in 1950. She was brought up in a multicultural context as her father was a leader of a liberal party and, throughout her childhood, she attended schools that favored diversity (Advameg). It is clear that when Hadid’s family moved to England, her ethnic and cultural background became her distinctive feature. Notably, a visit to ancient Sumerian cities located in southern Iraq during childhood became a major source of inspiration for her later on (Advameg). At the same time, her style in architecture was unlike others. Her designs were unique and frequently were called either “as impractical or as too radical” (Advameg). Due to the unconventionality of her projects, Hadid experienced a period of long rejection.

Hadid also noted that she encountered misogynist attitudes in London and was denied participation in big projects because it was believed that a female architect could not handle them (Thorpe). In the times when Hadid just started her career the situation with gender inequality in the architecture, the industry was even more severe than now as the women’s rights movement only began to gather momentum in the 1970s. However, Hadid’s passion, toughness, and determination defined her future success as a world-class architect.

Works Cited

Advameg. “Encyclopedia of World Biography. Web.

Gamble, Ione. “Vice. 2018. Web.

Horowitz, Rick. “The Washington Post. 1982. Web.

Kusama, Yayoi. Infinity Net: The Autobiography of Yayoi Kusama. Tate, 2013. Google Books. Web.

Thorpe, Vanessa. “The Guardian. 2013. Web.

Yayoi Kusama’s Art and Oriental Way of Life

Yayoi Kusama: Japanese Woman behind Dots

Nowadays, it became a commonplace practice among art critics to refer to the art of Yayoi Kusama as such that has a strongly defined ‘psychedelic’ quality to it. Kusama’s art is often regarded as reflective of the artist’s mental inadequacy with the famous ‘polka dot’ motif being considered essentially neurological. Such a point of view is, of course, is fully legitimate – especially given the unconventional aesthetic subtleties of Kusama’s artistic installations, the long history of psychosis, on the author’s part, and the fact that she never hesitated to admit of having been not altogether adequate, in the psychiatric sense of this word. As it appears now, the recurrent strikes of psychosis/depression served Kusama as the sources of artistic inspiration, “I often suffered episodes of severe neurosis. I would cover a canvas with nets, then continue painting them on the table, on the floor and finally on my own body”.1 Nevertheless, the close discursive analysis of most Kusama’s works will reveal that being sublimation of the “oriental” workings of one’s psyche, her art pieces are not quite as eccentric and whacky as many people assume it to be the case. Even the most eccentric-looking of them are best discussed within the cause-effect (or rational) reasoning framework. In my paper, I will explore the validity of this suggestion at length while promoting the idea that Kusama’s art is consistent with the cognitive specifics of the “oriental” way of life, as a whole.2

Yayoi Kusama has always been known as an utterly prolific artist who never experienced any emotional discomfort while experimenting with different artistic styles, as well as the actual mediums for conveying an aesthetic message. In this respect, we can mention that Kusama excelled in the domains of painting, street-performing, writing, etc. She also succeeded in establishing herself as a political activist, committed to the leftist liberal cause. Nevertheless, it was specifically Kusama’s artistic installations that brought her fame (although very late in her life) of the 20th century’s most controversial Japanese female artist.

Probably the most memorable of them was the room-sized installation Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli’s Field exhibited for the first time in New York in 1965. (Exhibit 1). The installation came in the form of “The mirrored room, specially constructed for the show… The four walls were lined with mirrored panels from top to bottom … The room was covered with a carpet of several hundred soft fabric protuberances that Kusama had made by stitching together sections of polka dot-printed cotton fabric”.3 Once inside the room, visitors were exposed to the mirrored images of themselves with the dotted red and white pattern of the featured ‘phallic field’ serving as a background. It is now assumed that there were many feminist overtones to the artistic creation in question. As Muller noted, “Visitors can stand or lie or sit in the installation where the mirrors are set in such a way to endlessly reflect a self-reflected infinitely in the phallic field – a strong visual representation of the self’s deferral to phallocentric”.4 However, there appears to have been many more discursive dimensions to the Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli’s Field than merely the one concerned with sexuality. The main of them are inseparably interconnected with the already mentioned polka dot visual motif, which is now being regarded as Kusama’s artistic “trademark”.

The motif’s origins are usually discussed in conjunction with the fact that the author used to suffer from the neurological impairments (such as seeing “auras”) to her eye vision – something that is meant to justify the idea that Kusama is best referred to in terms of a “mad artist”. As Henderson and Pull argued, “Yayoi Kusama’s polka dot frenzy evokes powerful insight into the world of paranoid schizophrenia”.5 Nevertheless, it will prove rather inappropriate assuming that there is a necessarily pathological quality to Kusama’s art because of what was mentioned earlier. The reason for this is that despite the sheer eccentricity of many of Kusama’s art pieces, concerned with exploring the polka dot motif, the latter correlates well with the distinctively “oriental” characteristic of one’s psycho-cognitive reasoning – the person’s tendency to objectify himself/herself within the surrounding natural environment (as opposed to trying to control it, as it is the case with most Westerners).6 The validity of this suggestion can be illustrated regarding Kusama’s outlook on the significance of the polka-dotted patterns in her art, “Polka dots must always multiply to infinity.

Our earth is only one polka dot among millions of others… with polka dots, you become part of the unity of the universe”.7 The quoted suggestion leaves only a few doubts as to the context-orientedness of the very logic of the artist’s reasoning concerning what kind of message her art conveys. Consequently, this exposes Kusama as someone who never ceased being “ethnically minded” – the idea that stands in contrast to Kusama’s reputation of an intellectually liberated cosmopolitan. After all, one’s tendency to indulge in the contextual type of thinking has always been considered “innately oriental”, “In a variety of reasoning tasks, East Asians take a holistic approach. They make little use of categories and formal logic and instead focus on relations among objects and the context in which they interact”.8 What this means is that having been quintessentially “ethnic”, Kusama’s art cannot be regarded deviant – at least in the sociological sense of this word. In its turn, this partially explains the strongly defined ethnocultural overtones to how the artist used to go about accentuating its “otherness”, “Kusama intentionally emphasized the ‘otherness’ of her identity as a Japanese woman by wearing her quintessential gold kimono… She took advantage of being seen as an outsider to attract attention”.9 There is another notable quality to a person’s predisposition towards the context-oriented (holistic) type of cognitive thinking. Its practitioner is naturally driven to assess the surrounding reality’s emanations in conjunction with what accounts for the varying measure of their utilitarian usefulness – another indication of one’s endowment with the “oriental” mindset.

The above-stated provides us with the important clue, as to what should be deemed the discursive implications of yet another “trademark” feature of Kusama’s art – the fact that it used to violate the provisions of socially constructed morality in the West, which resulted in Kusama having been arrested on several different occasions through the sixties and seventies. In this regard, we can mention Kusama’s famous “happenings” (now referred to as performance art), which were, in fact, the exhibitions of male and female nudity in public – deliberately designed to result in triggering as much public outcry, as possible. For example, as a part of Kusama’s 1968 Naked Protest at Wall Street “happening” (held in New York), “Four naked participants danced to the sound of bongo drums while Kusama sprayed them with polka dots (the police quickly closed the event down)”.10 Kusama’s Homosexual Happening, held in the same year, proved even more shocking (Exhibit 2). The artist’s formal stance on the semiotic meaning of phallic/nudity motifs in her performance art was concerned with Kusama continuing to stress out the importance of “sexual liberation”, “Kusama was especially keen on projecting an image of herself as a sexual liberator.

At the time of Homosexual Wedding in November 1968, Kusama served as ‘The High Priestess of the Polka Dots’”.11 Therefore, it does make a certain sense for art critics to be trying to recognize the presence of some hidden feminist themes in just about every of Kusama’s artistic works, such as her 1964 sculpture Travelling Life (Exhibit 3). While interpreting the semiotics of this particular artistic exhibit, Yoshimoto stated, “Women are represented by high-heeled shoes, attempting to climb up the ladder, whose steps are filled with white phallic forms of different sizes… this work symbolizes ‘womanhood menaced by men’”.12 Nevertheless, unlike what it used to be the case with Kusama’s elaborations on the significance of the polka dot motif, the artist’s explanations of the essence of her obsession with “phallocentrism” never sounded convincingly enough – at least when assessed from the psychological perspective. As Kusama once pointed out, “I make a pile of soft sculpture penises and lie down among them. That turns the frightening thing into something funny, something amusing”.13 And yet, as psychiatrists are well aware of, those psychotic patients who experience the unconscious fear of phallic shapes could not care less about the actual material out of which these ‘freighting shapes’ are made. Therefore, Kusama’s statement appears misleading. The artist’s mental fixation on penises had very little to do with her presumed commitment to the cause of liberating women from patriarchal oppression.

Rather, this fixation was reflective of the sheer strength of the dominance-seeking instinct in Kusama. After all, there are plenty of indirect indications that while striving to position herself as the ardent critic of Western consumerism and benevolent prophet of “sexual liberation”, Kusama never ceased trying to gain the reputation of a famous artist while expecting that this would enable her to become rich – pure and simple. Having been a holistically-minded person, Kusama proceeded taking care of such her existential agenda in the most energetically efficient manner – by making her artistic escapades as scandalous, as possible. This is the actual reason why most of Kusama’s artistic statements balanced on the edge of ethical appropriateness. What this means is that, contrary to the opinion of many “progressive” critics, there are no hidden messages to be found in Kusama’s performance art. By exposing audiences to her phallocentric installations, Kusama was trying to provoke the former to react emotionally to what they saw while anticipating that this would attract the media’s attention. Then, it would be only a matter of time before she could turn her “artistic wackiness” into a money-generating asset. Kusama, however, did not take into consideration the fact that at the time there were thousands of other mentally deranged and fame-seeking artists (affiliated with the Fluxus movement) in New York, who directly competed with her for the place under the Sun while relying on the “cost-effective” (scandalous) strategies of winning people’s attention. This explains the comparative recentness of Kusama’s popularity as an artist – despite the person’s advanced age.

I believe that the deployed line of argumentation, in defense of the idea that Kusama’s art is not quite as phenomenological as many contemporary art critics tend to think of it, is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis. To be able to grasp the actual significance of this person’s art, one merely needs to possess a basic understanding of what the notion of “oriental” mentality stands for, as well as to be aware of the essentially animalistic (concerned with dominance-seeking) nature of a person’s commitment towards achieving self-actualization through art – especially if the affiliated individual does not appear to have much artistic talent. Thus, it will only be logical to conclude this paper by suggesting that there is indeed much rationale to the practice of subjecting art to the reductionist analytical inquiry – even though most artists would find this practice utterly inappropriate and even offensive.

Bibliography

Applin, Jo.Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli’s Field. Springfield: MIT Press, 2012.

Bower, Bruce. “Cultures of Reason.” Science News 157, no. 4 (September 2007): 56-60.

Henderson, Daniel and Emily Pull. “Exhibition: Walking in My Mind.” Student BMJ 17, no. 5 (June 2009): 1-6.

Kusama, Yayoi. Infinity Net: The Autobiography of Yayoi Kusama. London: Tate Publishing, 2011.

Muller, Vivienne. “The Dystopian Mirror and the Female Body.” Social Alternatives 28, no. 3 (November 2009): 29-34.

Reisel, Mary. “PostGender: Gender, Sexuality and Performativity in Japanese Culture.” Asian Studies Review 36, no. 2 (April 2012): 284-286.

Sliwinska, Basia. “Yayoi Kasuma: Social Transformation through Infinite Multiplication.” Sculpture 31, no. 7 (July 2012): 36-41.

Yoshimoto, Midori. Into Performance: Japanese Women Artists in New York. New York: Rutgers University Press, 2005.

Exhibits

Infinity Mirror Room - Phalli’s Field:
Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli’s Field:
Homosexual Happening
Homosexual Happening
Travelling Life
Travelling Life

Footnotes

1. Jo Applin, Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli’s Field (Springfield: MIT Press, 2012), 4.

2. Mary Reisel, “PostGender: Gender, Sexuality, and Performativity in Japanese Culture,” Asian Studies Review 36, no. 2 (April 2012): 285.

3. Applin, Yayoi Kusama, 1.

4. Vivienne Muller, “The Dystopian Mirror and the Female Body,” Social Alternatives 28, no. 3 (2009): 33.

5. Daniel Henderson and Emily Pull, “Exhibition: Walking in My Mind,” Student BMJ 17, no. 5 (2009): 3.

6. Basia Sliwinska, “Yayoi Kasuma: Social Transformation through Infinite Multiplication,” Sculpture 31, no. 7 (2012): 39.

7. Yayoi Kusama, Infinity Net: The Autobiography of Yayoi Kusama (London: Tate Publishing, 2011), 42.

8. Bruce Bower, “Cultures of Reason,” Science News 157, no. 4 (2007): 57.

9. Midori Yoshimoto, Into Performance: Japanese Women Artists in New York (New York: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 69.

10. Applin, Yayoi Kusama, 44.

11. Yoshimoto, Into Performance, 75.

12. Ibid., 58.

13. Kusama, Infinity Net, 43.

Japanese Painters: Asai Chu and Hashimoto

Abstract

Japanese painting is comprised of exciting Asian fascination when an individual view them from a point of decoration perspective. However, when an individual view them with a different perspective for instance trying to understand the hidden meaning it becomes a bit confusing. Japanese paintings have their origin from three major movements, Chinese, western and Japanese. Most old form of Japanese painting was developed under the influence of Japanese culture and with time new Japanese styles emerged. However, Chinese culture continued to be influence art work in Japan until the start of Edo period (1603- 1867). Asai Chu was a renowned Japanese artist who established western way of art design in 19th and early 20th century. He trained in art work at Technical Fine Arts School under Antonio Fontanesi an employee of Meiji government. Antonio had been appointed to bring western oil painting to Japan. Hashimoto Sadhide a renowned Japanese painter born in 1807 and he died in 1878; the painter lived in the city of Yokohama which was known to be a western settlement. Most of her painting were based on western culture as opposed to those of Asai Chu who mostly dwelt encouraged on painting of related to Japanese culture. The objective of this essay is to compare how Asai Chu and Hashimoto treated peasant class and servant of lower blacks through paintings. The records of Japanese art are an extensive history of synthesis and contest among local Japanese. Their aim is to adapt imported ideas in order to improve on their local forms painting; combination of local ideas with imported ones makes their paintings outstanding when compared with others.

Japanese Painters

Introduction

Painting involves the application of paint or pigment on a surface; it is an art that explains the act and the outcome. The act and the outcome is what we often refer to as painting in this discipline. Japanese painting is comprised of exciting Asian fascination when an individual view them from a point of decoration perspective. However, when an individual view them with a different perspective for instance trying to understand the hidden meaning it becomes a bit confusing. Japanese paintings have their origin from three major movements, Chinese, western and Japanese. Most old form of Japanese painting was developed under the influence of Japanese culture and with time new Japanese styles emerged (Weisenfeld 81). However, Chinese culture continued to be influence art work in Japan until the start of Edo period (1603- 1867). Japanese painting is among the oldest and most renowned form of Japanese arts and it includes several forms of genre and techniques. The records of Japanese art are an extensive history of synthesis and contest among local Japanese. Their aim is to adapt imported ideas in order to improve on their local forms of painting; combination of local ideas with imported ones makes their paintings outstanding when compared with others. During the 19th century, Japanese paintings greatly impacted on various types of paintings from the western countries, notably France. Asai Chu paintings are considered to be some of the most powerful forms of paintings; he discouraged western culture and wanted Japanese to stick on their indigenous culture (Weisenfeld 110).Nonetheless, there have been very hot debates about them, why he had so much hatred on the western culture. Hashimoto Sadhide a renowned Japanese painter born in 1807 and he died in 1878; the painter lived in the city of Yokohama which was known to be a western settlement. Hashimoto produced paintings based on the western culture; they portrayed present issues affecting westerners in Japan. Both Sadahide and Asai Chu paintings had political and social influence, on few occasions peasants were compelled to demand for their rights. Their painting portrayed the difficulties experienced by the peasants and lower blacks; they both campaigned for elevation of this class of people. They expressed the importance of regulating way of governance, a political system that treated peasants similar with other affluent classes of people. Some people disagreed with messages depicted by the paintings and claimed that it was just a mere discrimination. The essay seeks to compare how Asai Chu and Hashimoto treated peasant class and servant of lower blacks through paintings.

Asai Chu was a renowned Japanese artist who established western way of art design in 19th and early 20th century. He trained in art work at Technical Fine Arts School under Antonio Fontanesi an employee of Meiji government. Antonio had been appointed to bring western oil painting to Japan. In 1902 Asai resigned as a professor and travelled to France where he continued to refine his skills in art work at impressionist school. When he returned to Japan his work did not change as continued with training of students who became eminent in Japanese art. However, apart from art work he also started tutoring in poet and western styles of art. Some of his paintings show peasants working in the farm for instance in 1890 he produced an oil painting of peasants while harvesting. This clearly portrays life of peasant in Japan, the farming activities and hardships they went through while in the farm field. Asai Chu developed a great interest in oil painting which he also influenced his students.

During the reign of the Meiji dynasty in Japan, the country went through an incredible political and societal adjustment; this was during the time of westernization and transformation campaign headed by the Meiji government. During the reign of the Meiji government, artwork was divided into two categories; the conventional indigenous styles and the modern style. For instance Asai Chu produced a painting illustrating japans lifestyle of peasant farmers in 1890 the painting was referred to as Harvest (収穫, Shukaku. The attire of the peasant such the caps and the aprons can be clearly seen, the caps are hut like in order to protect them from scorching sun. The Meiji government was very instrumental in the promotion of modern painting styles. In this case, young and upcoming artists obtained government scholarships to study art abroad. In addition, the government also made the effort of hiring professional artists who were charged with the responsibility of ensuring that an art syllabus was developed for Japanese schools.

However, in a short while the modern styles (Nihoga) received a lot of criticism and as a result, indigenous forms of art became more predominant. By 1880 the Western forms of art was banned; these styles were not to be used in official displays. Japanese painters wanted to develop paintings based on their culture as opposed to the use of paintings depicting foreign culture (Keene 90). Okakura, a Japanese scholar, contributed greatly to the development of Japanese art. He criticized the western style of art during the Meiji period. He carried out a thorough study on Japan’s indigenous art and presented the world with a picture of Japan’s opposition to the western culture. He objected to any Japanese who struggled to adopt the western powers; he did this by forfeiting other Asian nations in the Russo-Japanese War. The development of traditional arts helped many artists to gain knowledge on how to create different arts that conveyed particular messages to the public . Some artists were able to elaborate on issues concerning the peasant class and servants/ lower blacks in their paintings. The paintings had both explicit and hidden meanings on how peasant and the lower blacks were being treated.

Styles and colors of the clothing worn by the peasants and low class people depicted their distinct class. The paintings captured the type of clothing and the surrounding environment; the colors had to reflect earthy nature of where the peasants used to work. In some of these paintings, the desperate nature of peasant and lower blacks was portrayed while others emphasized on the cultural importance of farming activities carried out by Japanese peasants. Peasant had no one to listen to their grievances, they a totally difficult life. Working conditions were poor authorities considered them as slaves and this is also portrayed in the paintings of both Hashimoto Sadahide and Asai Chu. For example Yahan-o Haisen –Cho painting by Asai Chu shows a peasant woman lying down in despair and tiredness. This was a representation of what many peasants and other people of low social class were going through in Japan. Asai Chu had a general hatred for foreigners whose reasons are not indicated in the text (Miyoshi 89). This may explain why his life did not change after he went to France; he only developed his painting career to better levels which made him to influence many of his students.

During the mid- 19th century, paintings which showed the peasants’ turmoil because of a food crisis and poverty were predominant. Different artists used different styles of conveying this message through painting, the painting also showed the different levels of peasants. For instance, dragging gown a painting of a medieval dignified female and the peasant female portrays two figures in worlds apart. The medieval dignified lady painting is decent she looks brilliant and happy while the peasant woman painting is dull. In a later painting, the woman looks desperate and humiliated, thereby giving a clear explanation of the roles of women of different ranks. The noble woman played a fundamental role in effectively running of her husband’s estates. She ensured that everything went on well by defending what rightfully belonged to the family and guiding the staff in the running of the daily activities. The peasant woman lacked distinct roles in her family which could be due to the existing negative perception of women in the society.

Hashimoto Sadhide was a renowned Japanese painter, born in 1807 and he died in 1878; the painter lived in the city of Yokohama which was known to be a western settlement region. Most of his paintings were based on western culture as opposed to those of Asai Chu. His paintings were mostly on present ideas of westerners who were living in Japan in earlier times. These painting showed the kind of life that westerners led terrible experiences that they went through while in foreign land. Some foreigners who worked in the farm were denied permission to have their spouses live with them in Japan. Painting which portrayed low social class of peasant characterized his paintings; foreigners were rejected and they were treated with little or no respect. The clothing of the peasant is different from others who are considered better than for other people who held higher ranks. The clothes differed in terms of content, fashion and also color, thereby acting as a point of differentiation between the two groups.

Peasant women used to dye their wool in common dyes which were easily found in the countryside. In his paintings peasant clothes were close to the color of the soil and exceptionally bright colors such as red and yellow were avoided (Penelope 114). The poorest class of peasants also had their own color of painting; the mostly used was grey and buffs colors. Discrimination of the blacks, peasants and people of low class was evident they appeared gloomy, most seemed to be mourning because of their poor state. Peasant clothes were simple, the painting kept off fashion and bright colors black and other dull colors were commonly used. Over interpretation of his work was considered as a form of discrimination for peasant class of people (Van 98). Peasants were mobilized to protest against these paintings by opinion leaders who pretended to help peasant in demanding for their rights. One of the best known paintings of Hashimoto Sadahide is the Yokahama’s landscape which indicated characteristics of daily life and business of Japan in the 19th century (Leed 75). This clearly indicated the kind of life led by the people of different social classes; natives lived a decent life whereby they went for decent jobs. On the other hand foreigners/ blacks life was full of miseries they took jobs mostly in the farms and they were poorly paid.

Comparison

Both Hashimoto and Asai Chu paintings depicts the low social class of blacks and peasants in Japan. Natives were favored at the expense of foreigners, foreigners notably blacks were the ones who worked in the farms as peasant. They used paintings which showed the poor state of the peasants, they had no one to listen to their problems, their working environment is chaotic. Paintings display the major differences that existed among people of various social classes notably the natives/ Japanese and foreigners/ blacks who mostly worked in the farms. A close relation on the message being put across by Sadahide and Asai Chu paintings exist they both explain the desperate life led by the peasants and lower black. In Sadahide paintings the picture of Mevrouw Cock who lived in Japan against the wish of the Japanese authorities, her husband had struggled so that she can be given permission in vain. The presence of a foreign woman in Japan was considered to be scandalous and she went back to Netherlands where she died without having seen her husband. Painting which portrayed low social class of peasant characterized his painting (Harvest (収穫, Shukaku and Yahan-o Haisen –Cho) foreigners were rejected and treated with little or no respect at all. The clothing of the peasant is different from others who are considered better than for other people who held higher ranks. The clothes differed in terms of content, fashion and also color, thereby acting as a point of differentiation between the two groups. Asai Chu produced a painting illustrating japans lifestyle of peasant farmers in 1906. The attire of the peasant such the caps and the aprons can be clearly seen, the caps are hut like in order to protect them from scorching sun.

Conclusion

Current Japanese styles of paintings were developed from three major movements, western, Chinese and Japanese. Painting is an interesting field whereby artists use paintings to convey specific information to the public. Sadahide was passionate with the peasant; he did not like the kind of life they led. This passion compelled him to elevate them from their present form of life to better living conditions through his paintings. Asai Chu upheld Japanese culture; his interest in peasant farmers coerced him to change their class through his paintings. The records of Japanese art are an extensive history of synthesis and contest among local Japanese. Their aim is to adapt imported ideas in order to improve on their local forms of painting; combination of local ideas with imported ones makes their paintings outstanding when compared with others. Japanese painting has had great influence on different forms of western paintings especially in France in the era of 19th century. Sadahide and Asai Chu paintings portrayed the desperate life led by the peasants and lower black. However, the main aim of their paintings was to elevate peasant and lower blacks from their current status to more decent life. They recognized the work role of peasant and lower blacks in Japan, though they experienced difficulties at some point these painters acknowledged them through their painting. Painting of peasant and lower black could probably trigger the wider public to promote peasants and lower blacks in Japan. Most Japanese paintings were based on the traditional arts; western art still existed though there was so much critique of messages put across by different paintings. Both Sadahide and Asai Chu paintings had political and social influence, on few occasions peasants were compelled to demand for their rights. Hence these painting helped to make their lives better since they could demand for their rights to decent life. Other people disagreed with messages depicted by the paintings and claimed that it was just a mere discrimination which elicited debate from different opinion leaders.

Works Cited

The Great Wave: Gilded Age Misfits, Japanese Eccentrics, and the Opening of Old Japan. New York: Random House, 2003. Print.

Keene, Donald. Dawn to the West. Columbia University Press, 1998. Print.

Kleinbaue, Eugene. Modern perspectives in Western art history. 2001. Web.

Leed, Drea. Colors for Lower-Class Elizabethan Clothing. 2005. Web.

Miyoshi, Masao. Postmodernism and Japan. Duke University Press, 1986.print.

Penelope, Mason. History of Japanese Art. New York: Prentice Hall, 2005. Print.

Van Vough Museum. Wheat Field with Crows. 1890. Web.

Wanczura, Dieter. Japanese Painting. 2009.Web.

Weisenfeld, Gennifer. MAVO: Japanese Artists and the Avant-Garde, University of California Press. 1905-1931.print.

Westin, Victoria. Japanese Painting and National Identity: Okakura Tenshin and His Circle. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 2004. Print.

The Influence of Japanese Art Upon Mary Cassatt

Mary Cassatt was one of the most famous American female painters and printmakers. Mary Cassatt was influenced by Japanese motifs and themes which were reflected in her works. Mary Cassatt was on friendly terms with Pissarro and Desboutins, who won by her friendship with Degas the privilege to see his jealously guarded works which only became known to the public after his death. From her very first attempts, before 1880, she showed her virile qualities and the disdain for facile pleasantness which even in her graceful subjects, protect her from that softness which is so frequent a failing with masters of drypoint. Critics admit that Japanese motifs are evident in her works especially in her entire work, devoted to the representation of woman and the child, which is a kind of revenge for repressed maternity: unmarried, she was destined to depict the gestures of love and protection.

Mary Cassatt shed over intimate scenes a uniform light of happiness without being able to enrich them with that personal experience on which Renoir, Suzanne Valadon, and Carrière drew when they depicted their own children. She was guided, however, by a right instinct. Where others often fell into ways of insipidness or foolishness, she maintained her dignity. Even when faced with smiles she never lost her sense of reason, and her care for good design always prevailed. “I cannot admit that a woman can draw so well,” Degas used to say. In all justice to Mary Cassatt, it should be said that even if she succumbed to the fascination of the xylographers of the Far East to the point of transposing their harmonies into her Series of ten coloured engravings published in 1891. One of which is entitled: “Attempted Imitation of a Japanese Print”. Also, Mary Cassatt appreciated Japanese art and “had a modest collection of decorative objects from many periods and styles, including jewellery, furniture, Japanese prints, and Persian miniatures, but had only a few old masters”.

The impact of Japanese style is evident in many of her unique styles. Her pale plates, of which the surface is little covered, without any great contrasts of values and without additions, give the impression of having been done in one sitting. She engraved straight onto the plate, and her execution had to be rapid, owing to the mobility of her models. Her point furrowed the metal lightly but with mastery. All that is merely accessory — the background and even some of the figures — is drawn in a few bold strokes, while familiar attitudes are rendered with great charm (The Maternal Kiss, The Child’s Bedtime, The Breast and The Toilet) as also are big hands holding tiny feet, and knees making a pedestal or a cradle. Equally striking are her studies of little girls and young women — The Box at the Theatre, Tea-time, The Visit and The Banjo Players.

There is a curious mixture of reserved passion and sternness in this Anglo-Saxon artist, which gives a particular elegance and originality to her engravings. The eight small drypoints engraved by Berthe Morisot between 1888 and 1890, by the nature of their subjects (The Drawing Lesson, the Girl with the Cat) and the lightness of their technique are akin to the works of Cassatt. The sentiment is however different. The former pupil of Corot has qualities of spontaneity and tenderness which are lacking in the cruder and more rigid work of her elder colleague; a youthful spirit, animal-like in its directness, smiles through these prints; they have the guileless look of a child. They recall neither Manet nor Renoir; Berthe Morisot is a forerunner of Bonnard. Bathing scenes, children being dressed, servants drying or doing their hair. Cassatt always excelled in describing form, not piecemeal, but in all its unity. What strikes us most about her compositions, of which the austerity differs so much from that of Degas, is the tone; it is an imperative tone, like that of a mother who feigns severity in order to be better obeyed.

“Cassatt was attracted by the Impressionists’ lack of hierarchy and the freedom of their shows; when Degas invited her to participate, she wrote: “I accepted with joy. At last, I could work with complete independence without concerning myself with the eventual judgment of a jury… I hated conventional art. I began to live”.

There is an overwhelming passion under an apparent coldness, a tension which may be compared to a sense of duty; and there is a charm, a charm so different from that pleasantness which is the privilege of the weaker sex, a bitter and sometimes sullen charm which colours everyday life with its angles, its wrinkles, its violence and its monotony. Many of Cassatt’s paintings only drew bodies deformed by age or servitude, children not plump and warm, but overgrown, angular and weedy. She does not try to move us to pity by a facile pathos; she never complains, and it is by the stoicism of her stroke that our emotion is roused. Following Hutton:

“Cassatt sought colours which would recall those of “admirable old tapestries, brilliant yet soft,” to create an effect as “bright, as gay, as amusing as possible.” The critics found the colours (and their application) thoroughly objectionable: for Fuller, they were too brutal, for Willard, too vivid, for a critic in the Chicago Tribune too “dark and heavy,” for Miller too “garish,” for an anonymous writer in the Illustrated American “a ‘greenery-gallery effort that is not impressive”.

Mary Cassatt has achieved undoubted success because of her Japanese images and motifs, it must be admitted that the coloured etching is exposed to dangers unknown in lithography. The process of etching, perilous enough as it is, becomes quite alarming when the preparation of the colouring matter for the different grains diverts the artist’s mind from that which is essential, namely the distribution of bitten lines and the perfect harmony of ink and paper. The printer’s part becomes predominant. Insipid colouring supplants the impressions pulled with the aid of reground copper plates; tone loses its candour, and the white of the sheet is deprived of its legitimate function. The etching is killed in its attempt to rival the picture. Thus it was that in spite of all the enthusiasm of Raffaelli, who founded the Salon in 1904, and in spite of a number of successes, coloured etching soon declined, and degenerated into productions of a cheap quality.

Delightful were a number of coloured lithographs executed in this period — and we shall have occasion to return to them again — true connoisseurs will always show a preference for lithographs in black and white. In many paintings, children are represented, pretty, clean, smiling, and looking as though they do not know the meaning of tears. In the majority of her works, Mary Cassatt began by laying down the main contours of the design with acid or drypoint. Then comes the aquatint of the grain of salt variety which was also practised by Degas. After that, a series of labours: polishing, scraping, correcting, cuts and counter-cuts. Shades and contours are sometimes reinforced — particularly by the peculiar use of glass paper — and sometimes softened. What is really admirable about plates is that the technical skill of the artist is used to produce, not outward effect, but general harmony and emotion. Hutton underlines:

The composition inept and possibly un-American it was not in accord with “the canons of art as accepted in America,” while the mural as a whole was “pronouncedly Japanese” in its flatness. By contrast, a critic in Art Amateur thought Cassatt’s panel failed to harmonize with the gallery’s other paintings because of its bright colours and “the frankly realistic character of the design.

In the course of a long, sheltered life devoted to work, Mary Cassatt delved deeper and deeper into the secrets of that technique of painting. In design, Mary Cassatt was for a long time indebted to the masters. When she underlined the odious aspect of a situation or a type of man, she never had the inclination, like Degas, to contaminate fairyland, or to bring hatred and malice into the marvellous. The design was truly an act of adoration. Everything that concerns the human being filled with joy, and every manifestation of character, however exaggerated, was for Mary Cassatt a source of wonder and excitement. It has never been sufficiently emphasized that it was the inner life that inspired the ecstasies of this fanatic in Mary Cassatt wanderings from street to street, from theatre to theatre, from one house of ill-fame to another.

The majority of her works show a hidden tendency towards portraiture. The image which she builds up is not limited to a few elementary personalities and set situations. Mary Cassatt always makes use of the particular in her description of the general. She observes every individual with infinite respect, or perhaps, if the word respect may sound paradoxical, with infinite curiosity; she wonders at the conditions in which circumstances have placed her, at the state of life which she leads, at the deformities which age and surroundings have inflicted upon him, but she goes beyond these outward appearances. For observing her models she chooses a position from which she may surprise them in the middle of their daily occupations when they are ignorant of the fact that they are being observed and can reveal at the same time all that is most unstable and most lasting in them. To judge the works of Mary Cassatt, solely from the point of view of the picturesque effect of their colouring and their situations would be to falsify their spirit.

Mary Cassatt’s women are characters far more complex than viewers imagine at first sight before they have seen the transfiguration wrought by the hand of the great artist who makes them live again in their eyes, lovable in the sense which that word had of old, and who reveals the stuff from which these smiles, these postures of the head, these inclinations and silences are made, which could easily have been the smiles and postures of goddesses, saints, or empresses. Following Mathews, Japanese motifs are evident in the expression of the seasons, lights or darkness of a sky, arranging according to her whim rain and twilight, and altering the distribution of shadows. As viewers contemplate these successive labours on the same plate they can see it coming to life under our eyes and striving through countless alterations towards unity and perfection. In his first etchings, viewers can clearly detect the influences of Japanese themes. Hundreds of contrasts and alterations are affected by showers of small pricks.

In sum, Cassatt liked Japanese art and was influenced by motifs and themes typical for Japanese culture. she tried to apply a unique vision of the world and people in her works using impressionist techniques and methods. Mary Cassatt took the public into her confidence by revealing her unique motifs and vision, all is well and good, for they have a right to do so. Japanese motifs shaped her style and her choice of colours reflected in unique personal style. Conscientious, anxious to capture the essence of emotion by going beyond the sensation experienced, he often breaks away from reality in order to express it all the better, bringing in a new character in one place and suppressing one in another, reinforcing. the great success of Mary Cassatt can be explained by the uniqueness of her women’s images and new techniques applied into practice.

Works Cited

Barter, J. Mary Cassatt. Harry N. Abrams; 1st edition, 1998.

Hutton, J. Picking Fruit: Mary Cassatt’s Modern Woman and the Woman’s Building of 1893. Feminist Studies, 20 (1994): 318-345.

2008. Web.

Mathews, N.M. Mary Cassatt: A Life. Yale University Press; Trade edition, 1998.

Lancaster, C. The Japanese Influence in America. Walton H. Rawls: New York City. 1963.

Sharp, K., Clarke, J. Mary Cassatt: Modern Artist, Modern Woman. USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), 127 (September 1998): 36.

The Complexity of Traditional Chinese and Japanese Theater Arts

Introduction

Asian theater continues to evolve as a part of a big cultural revolution connected to tangible globalization taking place in the East as well as the West. Theater remains a highly appreciated performing art in Japan and China, but outside influences become more apparent. Drama traditions of Beijing opera, Noh theater, and Kabuki theater are quite similar in their origins and content. Both Noh theater and Chinese opera developed as a form of entertainment for powerful and wealthy social classes. Japanese and Chinese drama originated primarily from religious and historical texts. While certain similarities between the two are apparent, costumes, set design, and acting styles make Chinese opera and Japanese Noh and Kabuki theaters immensely different.

Origins

Traditional Japanese theater includes four performance traditions, including noh, kyogen, kabuki, and bunraku. This essay is going to focus on noh and kabuki. Chinese opera, on the other hand, is full of dozens of different regional theaters with Peking (Beijing) opera being the most popular (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Noh theater and Beijing opera both emerged as entertainment for the court. The samurai class claimed the patronage of Japan’s oldest Noh theater, while Peking opera gained favor in the reign of the Qing dynasty and its followers (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). Chinese opera “as a comprehensive theatrical form consists of more than three hundred national and local genres” (Siu and Lovrick 225). The cultural climate in Asia began to change slowly, and, as a result, commoners started to become patrons of sophisticated drama productions modified and simplified for new audiences.

The opposite process was true for Kabuki theater developed by female entertainers. Comedic plays gained popularity since the start of the theater in 1603, but public outrage over the vulgarity and excess eroticism of kabuki led to the government prohibiting women from acting in the plays (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). Kabuki theater transformed into ‘male’s kabuki’ and began to distance itself from commoners attracting more serious dramatists and performance professionals (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). While Noh and Beijing theater traditions originated from privileged classes, Kabuki drama moved from the bottom towards the Olympus of Japanese social hierarchy.

Acting Techniques

Both Japanese and Chinese theaters required particular acting skills and physical preparation. Kabuki and Chinese opera were full of non-realistic acting and dynamic fighting sequences based mainly on martial arts (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Strength and poeticism characterized the acting in traditional Asian plays. Both Chinese and Japanese actors used dancing to highlight climactic action and dramatic plot twists. Beijing opera and Noh theater, however, encouraged composed facial expressions and movements. Slowness and precision were integral to the performances (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). Noh actors’ dancing was limited to a few circular motions, while Chinese performers practiced expressing a wide range of emotions, including anger, restraint, and hesitation, by minimalistic movements. Kabuki acting, on the other hand, was comprised of expressive facial expressions and dynamic body moves (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theater as Spectacle”). Kabuki theater created excitement and thrill among the audience, but Noh and Beijing performances possessed hypnotic, almost magical qualities.

Costuming

Japanese and Chinese dramas were famous for exquisite, grandiose costuming. Various flowers, patterns, and ornaments had symbolic value being full of meaning and secret messages about the character and their background. Costume changes became a part of Kabuki performances often held in tea houses (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). Kabuki theater and Peking opera used make-up to help actors portray different emotions. While white paint remained a symbol of regality and privilege, red make-up indicated a villain in the story (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Noh actors, on the other hand, used unique masks and sophisticated brocade robes to perform (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). Facial expressions were considered vulgar during the establishment of Japanese theater. As a result, masks were valuable works of art that became a crucial part of early Noh drama productions. While there are numerous nuisances and traditions in clothing, Japanese and Chinese costumes charm audiences with their symbolism and grandiosity.

Content

Themes of Chinese and Japanese plays come from historical texts, anecdotes, and religious scripts. Poetry is often adapted by dramatists adding more symbolism and literary allusions to the stories. Noh theater, however, does not have a sharp distinction between prose and poetry, creating a net of sophisticated aesthetics for the audience to enjoy. The primary ethical dilemmas of Noh plays include ethical conflicts between two different ideologies among the samurai class (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). Kabuki performances are simple in their narrative and include plays about the Japanese feudal period (jidaomono), domestic (sewamono), and acting (shosagoto) plays (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). Chinese opera is categorized based on the themes it explores (civilian and martial) and the skills required from the actors (singing, fighting, recitation, etc.) (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Thus, differences in content between Japanese and Chinese traditional plays are apparent, but their historical and religious origins remain quite similar.

Music

Chinese and Japanese dramatists do not treat music as a background but rather a crucial part of any performance that can enhance the story and appeal directly to the audience’s emotions. Noh and Kabuki theaters have the same musical origins with Kabuki melodies often being derived from earlier Noh plays (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). If the singing is present, it is usually very low and monotonic because of the centuries-old male-only performances. Peking opera is famous for women’s excellent falsetto technique (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Noh performances are quite different from Chinese opera because the music does not accompany the action but rather gives aural addition to the story. Overall, Noh’s musical traditions are minimalistic, with silent moments deliberately emphasized.

The innovative side of Noh theater is demonstrated by using drummers’ shouts and the wooden stage as instruments. Large pots hidden underneath the floor amplify actors’ stamping during particularly dramatic moments (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). Kabuki, on the other hand, uses the ‘shamisen’ and wooden clappers to accompany narration, especially at the beginning of the play and during climaxes (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). It is clear that while Chinese and Japanese theaters use different techniques and instruments, cultural differences influence the part music plays in traditional plays and operettas.

Theatrical Space: Set Design, Lighting, and Props

Theatrical space and set structure remain immensely important in both Chinese and Japanese drama productions. Traditional plays were set on wide wooden stages, with some performances taking place in tea houses where visitors were required to make necessary reservations to attend (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Prop and furniture placement still remains symbolic for the Noh and Beijing theaters. Minimalistic stages of the Noh theater with basic prop frameworks and unpainted wooden roofs are the opposite of the complexity Kabuki set designers have to offer (Miettinen, “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics”). The acoustics of a traditional Kabuki theater characterized “the experience of the audience of a theatrical genre of particular importance for Japanese culture, with its peculiar mixture of spoken theater and music” (Büttner et al. 1112). Revolving stages introduced by Japanese dramatists create optical illusions, and quick set stages integrated into the performances become highlights for the audience (Miettinen, “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle”). The wooden floors of the Chinese opera are often carpeted to make the tricks more comfortable for numerous acrobats involved in the plays.

Theatrical spaces used gas lights, but electric lights were introduced in the twentieth century. Modern lighting, however, as well as different microphones and amplifiers seemed to ruin the authenticity of both Chinese and Japanese performances and restrict the dancers’ movements on stage (Miettinen, “Theatre of the Capital”). Performance became more Europeanized as new inventions started to take hold in the plays because of their practicality.

Conclusion

Japanese and Chinese theaters share their historical and religious origins from numerous texts, scripts, and anecdotes. Acting techniques are precise and particular for both Noh and Peking dramas. Costuming and music remain an important part of any theatrical production, but Asian dramatists pay a lot of attention to the symbolism of the ornaments and patterns on the fabrics as well as musical traditions. Symbolism is also apparent in the set design and prop placement. On the other hand, the Noh, Kabuki, and Beijing dramas manage to remain authentic and distinctive from one another by modifying their historical sources and integrating new exciting technologies to improve the production quality. While sharing certain techniques and core cultural elements, Japanese and Chinese theaters keep their individual characteristics as they continue to evolve and change.

Works Cited

Büttner, Clemens, et al. “The Acoustics of Kabuki theaters.” Acta Acustica United with Acustica, vol. 105, no. 6, 2019, pp. 1105-1113, Web.

Miettinen, Jukka O. “Kabuki, Theatre as Spectacle.” Asian Traditional theater and Dance. theater Academy of the University of the Arts Helsinki, 2018. Web.

—. “Noh, Crystallised Aesthetics.” Asian Traditional theater and Dance. theater Academy of the University of the Arts Helsinki, 2018. Web.

—. “’Theatre of the Capital’ or the Peking Opera.” Asian Traditional theater and Dance. theater Academy of the University of the Arts Helsinki, 2018. Web.

Siu, Wang-Ngai, and Peter Lovrick. “Chinese Opera: The Actor’s Craft.” Asian theater Journal, vol. 33, no. 1, 2016, pp. 225-226. Web.