Category: Jacques Cartier

When comparing relations between the native populations of the “New World “ and the French Explorers as well as Spanish Conquistadors , one needs to look no further than historical accounts dating back to the time period. In short, the relationship between the “native populations” in the New World” and the arriving Spanish Conquistadors was brutal, inhumane and genocidal to say the least. Some instances of these sheer cruelties were highlighted in the “Letter from Hernando Pizarro to the Royal Audience of Santo Domingo” where Pizarro’s letter reveals that, his men opened fire on unsuspecting and unarmed Incan Natives. As highlighted in the letter, “the captain of the artillery that when a sign was given, he should discharge the pieces and all troops come forth at once……Once this was done all were defeated without the danger to any Christian” (action was nothing short of a public execution/Genocide of the Incan Empire). (Pizarro, H. (1533). Letter from Hernando Pizarro to the Royal Audience of Santo Domingo, [Letter to Royal Audience of Santo Domingo]. Cuzco. Furthermore, Historical records tell us that, the Spanish murdered Atahualpa paving the way for Spanish Colonization in South America.

The French explorers on the other hand were not Conquistadors like the Spanish but were instead a highly peaceful people only seeking to “learn” and “explore” the rich culture as well as vast lands the interior of North America had to offer. Due to their peacefulness they were welcomed in by the natives as highlighted in a letter from Jacques Cartier to the French King, Cartier reveal that upon arrival, “A great numbers of villages gave us a hearty welcome and that the women/girls of the villages were rather intrigued by their presences touching their faces & upper bodies and gave then permission to touch/hold their babies ” (Cartier, J. (n.d.). Jacques Cartier to the French King, on his second voyage to the St. Lawrence River & Interior of Canada [Letter to French King].

The key difference between both the Spanish Conquers & French Explorers was sheer intention. The Spanish came with the intent to search and plunder the New World of Precious Metals (Gold & Silver). However, when the Spanish did not find a significant supply of either metal, they began to turn their attention towards converting the natives to Christianity (religious crusade). The French Explorers however, had no agenda with regards to the hoarding of Gold& Silver but were just interested in exploring, learning about the cultures, people terrain. French Explorers were interested in the Fur trade with Native Indians and exported many goods from North America. However, French exploration fell upon the shoulder of a much smaller group of men, explorers because there was far less involvement from the French Government then there was with regards to the Spanish government (which often funded any/all expeditions to the “New World”

In the early 16th century, the European super powers, England, France and Spain decided to “broaden” their horizons. All three set sail in an attempt to further their power. But when they reached the shores of what is now known as Canada and Mexico what would they find? Would they find a land already occupied by a new and distinctly fascinating society? No, they found a land for the taking. These European “settlers” gave no regard to the native populations whom already occupied this vast land. Explorers such as Hernan Cortes and Jacques Cartier carried out this travesty by such factors as political and psychological warfare, economic competition between native cultures, and through the importation of disease.

The Spanish, led by the Hernan Cortes, were responsible for the near annihilation of the native populations of Mexico. The main objective of the mission was to accumulate wealth so that Cortes could get rid of the large debt he and his men had incurred for this expensive expedition, as they had not been very successful on previous missions (Meyer 93). When the expedition arrived in Tabasco, the local natives resisted Cortes and the bloodshed began. The Spanish fought and killed two hundred natives while suffering only two deaths. Because of this battle the natives believed that the Spanish were invincible. Cortes used this to his advantage. He used horses, greyhounds and firearms to scare and intimidate the natives. He even went so far as to stage mock battles (Meyer 98). Cortes also used the native rivalries to his advantage. He would use all the natives that were against the Aztecs, the only known threat to the Spanish, as slaves and warriors to help him fight. In 1519, Cortes and his new men found their way into a town called Cholula that was allied with the Aztecs. The Spanish attacked and burned the town killing six thousand Cholulan warriors (Meyer104). Cortes used this massacre to send a powerful message to Aztecs. On August 13th, 1521, Cortes, with the help of almost 200,000 native allies achieved victory and captured Tenochtitlan (Meyer 122). Though both political and psychological warfare, Spain conquered and destroyed this once proud society.

The English and French colonies were expanding their succession in the Northern regions known as Canada. The explorers saw the natives as a worthless race which can be used for European benefit. One of the first explorers, Jacques Cartier, said “This people will be called savage; for they are the sourest folk there can being the world, and the whole lot of them had not anything above the value of five sous, their canoes and fishing-nets excepted.”(Brown 74) Despite the initial intention for the European expedition, gold, the economic resource that caused warfare throughout this land was fur. The natives were exceptionally skilled in achieving beaver pelts for trade with the Europeans (Brown 76). The natives would receive items in exchange for the fur such as firearms and ammunition (Brown 85). These items of destruction would begin bloody wars between native rivalries. The cause of these wars would be struggle for economic control. “As a result, the powerful Five Nations Iroquois confederacy, sent it’s warriors, now familiar with European weapons, on an astonishing wide ranging military campaign which between 1645 and 1655 destroyed all its Iroquoian rivals.”(Brown 120) Tribes numbering as a total of ten thousand were wiped out, because the Iroquois saw them as an obstacle to their prosperity (Brown 121). This new European greed and corruption was the cause of thousands of native deaths.

Both the Canadian and Mexican settlers were responsible for the spread of new diseases among these lands. New diseases among these places would be catastrophic, as the native would have had no exposure or immunity to any of them. In Mexico disease was a Spanish advantage. “But the Spaniards had a silent, deadly, and totally unexpected ally in the land: one of Narvaez’s men came to Mexico infected with smallpox, which spread quickly with devastating consequences to the Indians. Tens of thousands were carried off by the disease.”(Meyer 119) The same sad sorry was present in Canada. “Smallpox devastated the Chippewyans in the 1780s-an estimated 90% of the population died-measles and whooping cough killed half of the Brandon Assiniboine, and a third of the Western Cree-1838 smallpox carried off two-thirds of the Assiniboine, Blackfoot, and North Saskatchewan Cree.”(Brown 237) Never once regretting the devastation of their presence, European settlers spread disease rampantly throughout Mexico and Canada.

In the early 16th century European explorers packed up their naval vessels and each set sail for their own promise land. The promise land would hopefully contain treasures of economic stimulation beyond their wildest dreams. When the Europeans reached Canada and Mexico they found native peoples, which they saw as something that could be easily used, or removed. Whether it be through such devices as political and psychological warfare, economic competition between native cultures, or the importation of disease, European “conquerors” were responsible for the near annihilation of native societies for their own benefit.

Have you ever wondered how Canada was found, and who found it? The answer is, Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). Jacques Cartier was an explorer that sailed for France. He made three voyages in total, to Newfound land (nowadays Canada), each of them with a different story and a different purpose. His voyages include finding goods, attempts of colonization, making friends with Indians, finding rivers, and mountains that are now very famous. For example, did you know Jacques Cartier found Mont Real (nowadays Montreal) and the St. Lawrence River?

Jacques Cartier was born in St. Malo, just one year before Christopher Columbus’s discovery of America, which had a great impact on the other European countries. More countries were eager to explore the great mass of unknown, undiscovered land. Of course, France was one of the countries that were looking for goods and wealth. Cartier knew a lot about the sea since he grew up in an area where fishing and sailing was common. Not only that, Cartier was a good sailor and leader, so King Francis I gave Cartier permission to make an expedition to the New World. The king also supported Cartier’s expedition by giving money, food, ships, and men for the voyage.

In 1534, King Francis I sent Cartier to the New World to search for gold and precious metals. On April 20, he took two ships and 61 men and set out on his first voyage to Newfoundland. He discovered many islands, which he all named for France, and found a bay, which he named ‘Chaleur Bay’. From there, he met the Micmac Indians, and shot canons over their heads to show their power. Soon, the Indians started giving animals pelts, to show a sign of friendship. Cartier gave the Indians knives and other gifts in return.

His voyage continued, and he met the Iroquoians. Although this tribe did not speak the language like the other natives, Jacques quickly became friends with them by giving them cheap goods like combs and bells. On July 24, Cartier planted a wooden cross with French writing and shouted “long live the King the France!”, and declared the Gaspe Peninsula for King Francis. Instead of fighting and trying to conquer the Indians, Cartier persuaded them, offering them to board his ship, gave them French clothes, made feasts for them, and made them dizzy with wine. He also persuaded Chief Donnacona to let him take his two sons to France, and promised to bring them back after a year. The reason why Cartier wanted to bring the two sons to France was because he wanted to impress the king with the ‘savages’. Also, he wanted the two sons to learn French, which would help him in his explorations of the New World (Newfoundland). The two sons told Jacques that his father’s village of Stadacona was called a ‘kanata’, now known as Canada.

Cartier wanted to return to the New World, if he could have the king’s permission and support. Admiral Philippe de Brion-Chabot, a companion of King Francis I was a big influence for asking the king for the second voyage of Cartier. King Francis I also wanted to carry out the “Great Commission” by spreading Christianity. It was during the rise of the Protestantism in France, and the King could trust on Cartier, who was also a Catholic.

On the second voyage, Cartier sailed on three boats, the ‘L’Emerillon’, ‘La Grande Hermine’, and ‘La Petite Hermine’. He sailed with more than 100 men. However, the voyage which took them about 3 to 4 weeks the last time took nearly 2 months this time due to the horrible weather and the storms. Cartier, who was on his way searching for the village of Stadacona, found the St. Lawrence River, his most significant discovery. Cartier went on to search for the village of Hochelaga after hearing the chief’s two sons’ description of the village, but Chief Donnacona tried to discourage Cartier and his two sons from going westwards unless Cartier left hostages. The natives told scary stories, about the dangers and the ‘devils’.

Jacques Cartier and his men went on, without the native guides. In 1535, they found the Iroquoian village of Hochelaga. The natives were happy to meet Cartier and had feasts arranged. They introduced him to tobacco, and he introduced them to Christianity, which the natives easily accepted. Before he left, he climbed Mont Real (Mount Royal/Montreal) and thought the view and the defensibility would make an ideal spot for settlement. However, he could also see the impassable rapids at Lachine and was disappointed.

Jacques Cartier wanted to go back to the New World for the third time, however it was difficult. France was soon going to have a war with Spain, which would leave the king with no money, men or ships for Cartier’s third voyage for a long time. Unfortunately, Admiral Brion-Chabot had lost favor in the king’s court, so it was more difficult for Jacques to convince the king. Thinking that he will not be making a third trip to the New World, Cartier took a ship to the Atlantic Ocean and became a privateer. For four years he captured enemy ships and continued fishing.

In October 1540, the king gave Cartier permission to make his third voyage to Newfoundland. However, this time, instead of being the leader of the expedition, Cartier was named captain-general under Jean-Francois de la Rocque (Sieur de Roberval). In May 23, 1541 Cartier took off with 5 boats, two years supply of food, livestock, and priests for converting the Native Americans to Christianity. Roberval sailed one year later after Cartier, because he was not ready to sail. Cartier settled down at a place called Cap Rouge, and built two forts instead of settling down with the Iroquoians. He called this settlement the ‘Charlesbourg Royal’. Cartier decided it was not a good idea to stay with the Iroquoians, because they were still mad at Cartier for kidnapping ten natives and Chief Donnacona during the second voyage. Cartier started hearing rumors that some of the native groups gathered together and were planning to attack Cartier. In the end, the natives did not make a big attack, but they did have small raids almost every day. More than 30 of Cartier’s men died during the raids.

On 1541, a deadly disease roamed around the forts, and the weather became horribly cold. Cartier felt like he had had enough, and he left with his men in June 1542. Then, as they were sailing to get back, they met Roberval’s ships. Roberval ordered Cartier to return, despite Cartier’s protests. In the end, Cartier disobeyed Roberval’s order and sailed away with his ships at night.

Jacques Cartier’s discovery helped France’s vision of North America, and his expedition helped other explorers that came after him. France thought that the value of North America was only fisheries. But Jacques reported that North America’s grassland was good for the cattle, fertile lands, excellent fishing, hunting, and thick forests with good wood. Jacques also brought home a supply of maize (corn) on his return voyage. This was probably the first of that crop to reach Europe. Although Jacques Cartier did not find gold (but found iron pyrite, fool’s gold) or other precious stones, he did find natural resources, which was also a great, valuable discovery. For example, animal skins were traded even after Cartier’s discovery in Newfoundland, which was very valuable in Europe.

After King Francis I, French leaders did not want to send sailors on costly expeditions to the New World. However, the sailors and fishermen developed one of the real sources of wealth in the New World by catching schools of cod, and trading animal fur in the Grand Banks. Later on after Jacques Cartier’s discovery, the French government decided to send expeditions to colonize eastern Canada. Canada was colonized, and became known as ‘New France.’

Jacques Cartier’s discovery is very important to our current world because he founded Canada itself. Canada takes a very important role in our world in many ways. It is important geographically because Canada has a large territory, economically, because Canada sells its natural resources and other goods throughout the world. Especially for the Canadians it was a very important discovery. It is because of Jacques Cartier that there is a city named ‘Montreal’ or a river named St. Lawrence, and the country named ‘Canada’. His discoveries are very important for the history of the Canadians.

Jacques Cartier’s discovery led to many other expeditions which also affect our world today. For example, another famous French explorer called Samuel Champlain set out after Jacques Cartier’s expedition to colonize Canada . In the end, New France was born, which had a big impact on Canada with history, language, and culture.

Depictions of the great northern wilderness are often found in Canadian literature. The natural environment and the landscape of Canada have always been a fundamental part of the identity of the country and of the country’s literature. In different works, we find that the natural world is portrayed differently yet similarly, and looking at Charles Mair’s A Ballad for Brave Women and Thomas D’Arcy McGee’s Jacques Cartier, we notice how landscape and the natural environment play a significant role in the stories the poems are communicating. Both poems describe Canada’s untouched natural environment as having somewhat godly and mighty characteristics. In both cases, Mair and McGee portray the natural environment of Canada as one that frightens the main character but also one that provides life and beauty. The treatment of nature in both the poems A Ballad for Brave Women and Jacques Cartier revolves around the theme that suffering makes one appreciate beauty, and on a broader level, that good cannot come without evil.

Forests are often portrayed as deep, shadowy, haunted places where loneliness and vulnerability overcome reason. In A Ballad for Brave Women, the poet uses this dark description of forests to portray Laura Secord’s quest through the woods. Mair uses words to describe the woods that evoke feelings of fear such as “shadowy forms” (60), “limitless shade” (61), and “mystical sounds” (62). Mair describes the forest as having a harmful effect on Secord’s reason because its powerful energy tempts her courage and bravery to the point of physically altering her, “cheeks to grow pale” (69). As Wayne Grady wrote in his exploration of nature in literature, “the call of the wild was a call to battle” (5). This is well illustrated in Mair’s poem because Secord’s battle is found among the wilderness of the forest, and it is her perseverance that pushes her to win this battle. Secord has to be surrounded by darkness and the perceived evil that forests possess because it is her battle against it that allows her to see the good side of nature.

After Laura’s battle for her sanity and for her country, she survives her adventure in the woods. She overcomes the temptation to give up, which is compared to Eve’s temptation to eat the forbidden fruit, “One moment she faltered. Beware! What is this? The coil of the serpent!” (Mair 80-81). Secord does not succumb and is then rewarded by the purity of the natural world, “her eye caught a gleam / From the woods of a meadow through which flowed a stream” (Mair 84-85). The description of the forest shifts from harmful and frightening to resourceful and heavenly. This description is initiated after the demonstration of her temptation and her perseverance. The stream symbolizes life and purity through the rejuvenating quality of water. Mair proceeds by describing the forest with words such as “pure” (86), “sweet” (86), “soft forest shower” (87), and “spring” (88). The forest is portrayed as a source of life and hope and almost as a force working for Secord. Once she experiences and conquers the darkness of the forest, she becomes stronger and closer to the divine, “Laura, who felt she had friends / In heaven as well as on earth, knew to thank / The giver of all things, and gratefully drank” (Mair 97-99). We get a sense that Secord is now an accomplice with not only the natural world but also with God.

In McGee’s poem, we find a similar opposition of pleasure and pain. Once Cartier arrives back to his hometown in France, he describes the Canadian environment as being barren, hostile, and empty and emphasizes the unusual climate, “He told them of a region, hard, iron-bound, and cold . . . He told them of the frozen scene until they thrilled with fear” (McGee 19-23). McGee creates the imagery of a large wasteland that is powerful in its foreign characteristics. This particular description of the natural environment highlights the bravery and strength of Cartier, as he was able to persist and survive through the harsh Canadian winter. The absence of warmth and of life indicates that Cartier had to fight to later be rewarded with hope and beauty.

As Cartier tells the tale of his adventure, he completes his description of the natural world by explaining that the weather changes, and that along with those changes come hope, “How the Winter causeway, broken, is drifter out to sea, / And the rills and rivers sing with pride the anthem of the free” (McGee 27-28). His persistence pays off; Cartier proves that Canada is the land of opportunity and that there is beauty to be found after months of despair. This description of the arrival of spring, the fertility of the land along with all the beauties found in nature seem to acknowledge a truth about the country that may be misconceived by stereotypes that paint a picture of Canada as unusually cold and lifeless. McGee describes the Canadian natural environment as being both unappealing and appealing, and in turn, this contrast emphasizes the reward of holding on to hope.

In Canadian literature, and precisely in Mair and McGee’s previously mentioned poems, there is often a form of “reverence for the natural world dread and (or) pride in expanses of wilderness and hash weather” (Turner and Freedman 2). This is found in the way nature is being described in A Ballad for Brave Women and Jacques Cartier because the characters find themselves challenged by the wilderness or the weather and yet after this challenge has been overcome, they are able to witness the beauty of nature and respect its power. In Mair’s poem, Laura Secord perseveres through the dark, haunted Canadian forest and is rewarded by the stream and the rejuvenation of the water. Similarly, in McGee’s poem, Jacques Cartier pushes through the hardships of the Canadian winter and is also rewarded by the hope of the spring. This theme of having to know pain to know pleasure relates to a larger theme that good and evil cannot exist without one another.