Category: Islam

Introduction

Islamic women have worn the veil since time immemorial. The debate on whether the use of the veil does any good to the society has always existed since prehistoric times and it exists even today. This paper discusses how the veil became the symbol of Muslim civilization, what the veil meant to Islamic reformists and the clarity of the authors arguments.

The veil and Muslim civilization

It can be argued that the veil was introduced by early Greek priests due to their faulty interpretation of the Islamic law. The earlier perception about women was so negative to the point that some people were quoted claiming that women were without soul. The veil portrayed the Islamic woman as inferior and without much purpose in the society in the old days.

Since the civilization of any society is largely dependent on how all members of the society treat each other, then the cruel treatment of Islamic woman by the society as was usual in Egypt was a good measure of the pace of Muslim civilization. Most of the modernists and reformists that campaigned for fair treatment of the woman in the Islam community based most of their arguments on the use of the veil.

This was due to the fact that the veil was associated with oppression of women. One of the reformists was quoted arguing that the Muslim woman was poorly mistreated in terms of empowerment through education, important roles in the society, her role in the family and most importantly the veil which was seen as a tool of alienation of the woman from the society.

The veil was associated with all the bad things such as dirt, unattractiveness and other negative things. The plight of Islamic women was attributed to Islamic religion which people saw as burying the woman alive behind the veil.

The Islamic woman also looked at the other societies of the world especially Christians who treated their women with respect and dignity. They were the only community in the world that covered their women inside a veil. Since the veil was associated with oppression then with time it became the symbol of Muslim civilization (Ahmed 1).

What the veil meant to colonial reformists

The colonial reformists were looking at liberating the Islamic community from the traditional setting to a more modern society that could fit with the other communities of the world. They saw that the biggest barrier to reforms was the way the Islamic community was treating their women.

The veil was associated with all the degradation to women and as such they saw that the best way to liberate the society was to put pressure on the issue of the veil. The reformists saw the veil as a symbol of oppression. By comparing the veiled Muslim woman with other liberated societies there was clear evidence to support their argument so that they would be successful in their reforms (Ahmed 1).

Clarity of the authors’ arguments

I agree with the way the author argues about the issue of the plight of the Muslim woman in the historic times and how the reformists handled the reform agenda by focusing on the treatment given to the Muslim woman. The author was able to clearly link the origin of the veil, the oppression of the Muslim woman and how the reformists handled the reform of the Muslim society by focusing on the veil.

Conclusion

The veil issue is a very important aspect of the Muslim community for a very long time. The veil was used as a reform tool by early reformists especially in Egypt due to its relationship with oppression of women. The author was able to show clearly the way reformists viewed and argued about the veil and oppression of women and how the Islam community could be reformed by focusing on the issue of the veil.

Work Cited

Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. Yale University, 1992. New Haven: Prentice.

Works Cited

Ford, Lynne E., et al. American Government and Politics Today. 2017-2018 ed., Cengage Learning, 2016.

Hamoudi, Haider Ala, and Mark Cammack. Islamic Law in Modern Courts. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business, 2018.

Rosen, Lawrence. Islam and the Rule of Justice: Image and Reality in Muslim Law and Culture. University of Chicago Press, 2018.

Introduction

Islamophobia is a complicated and multifaceted phenomenon that has appeared in Western culture for a long time. It is a product of many historical, cultural, and psychological forces that all intersect to alienate a group of people based on shared characteristics. Islam is a religion that has spread to many corners of the world and rooted itself in very different nations and communities with a rich history and a fascinating culture. In spite of that, Muslims often get bundled together and seen as an enemy, the other, the invading force.

Racialization

An essential factor of Islamophobia is the process called ‘racialization,’ which is explained in detail by Garner and Selod in their paper “The Racialization of Muslims: Empirical Studies of Islamophobia.” The concept of ‘race’ has always been determined based on phenotypical and cultural similarities. The determination of a person’s race has historically been done at the behest of the dominant Western culture (Garner and Selod 14).

The people that get thus racialized often either have little in common or are not very different from the other, previously established, racial groups, save a few notable aspects. Sometimes, just one characteristic is enough to determine a race, such as religious faith. It is the case with Muslims, as they are an ethnically diverse group that shares much of the phenotype with other established races.

Muslims have become a race in the eye of the Western public, despite not technically being one, and that racialization has led to the emergence of unfair treatment. Similar processes have happened with other groups over the years. Ethnicities that belong to the broad Caucasian race have been singled out and ostracized in the Western nations, such as Eastern Europeans, the Irish, or the Jews.

The process of racialization itself relies on there being a culturally dominant group of observers, which set the status quo. In the case of Islamophobia, Europeans and Americans have historically been that cultural hegemony, which racialized Islam and labeled it “the Other.” The othered group is assumed to be homogenous, and all individuals in it are discriminated against based on one characteristic.

The exact mechanisms of discrimination are sometimes grounded in politics. The state can often create a discourse that denies Muslims their ability to integrate and simply be normal citizens. The most common racial stereotype tied to Muslims in the West is terrorism, but there are also others. They all add up to the perception that being a Muslim and being a Westerner are somehow irreconcilable. Due to being ‘anti-Western,’ the Muslims are often treated dismissively or abused by the authorities. They are discouraged from participating in society and can face outright physical harm for speaking up.

The article provides a theoretical framework that creates parallels between Muslims and other racial minorities that have historically been oppressed. Somehow, the abuse of a visible racial minority appears more real because the markers of otherness are less elusive and more ingrained in the public consciousness. The entire American history is riddled with the racial dichotomy that is impossible to miss. Through the concept of racialization and the tying of double consciousness theory to Muslims, Islamophobia can be academically explored as what it is: an example of racism. It can help answer the question, “how does Islamophobia work on the social level?”

The Case of Poland

The second article, “Making Anthropology Matter in the Heyday of Islamophobia and the ‘Refugee Crisis’: The Case of Poland,” was written by Buchowski. It describes the situation in Poland, and how Poles treat Muslims both inside and outside the borders. Nationalistic attitudes have been present in the country for centuries, but the ethnically and culturally homogenized Poland only appeared in the second half of the XX century.

The Soviet Union, which conquered Poland, espoused values of total equality, which meant the destruction of any sort of diversity. The Communist government was forcibly equalizing citizens to combat political dissent and unfavorable thoughts. The state-enforced secularism was especially hard for the Muslims as well (Buchowski 53). The ethnic and religious minorities were not present in the public discourse very often during the Soviet reign. Because that artificial homogeneity persisted after the Soviet Union dissolved, the white Christians became the national status quo. Muslims, logically, became the outgroup and were only tolerated if they integrated into the mainstream culture.

The Polish Muslim population is low, relative to other European countries. There exists a historical group of Polish Tatars, which comprises the ‘indigenous’ Muslim population, along with immigrants that moved to Poland several generations ago and have integrated into the society. The newer immigrants, who started coming into the country at the end of the XX century, are mostly comprised of former students, immigrant business owners, and war refugees.

There are also Polish converts to Islam, but they are less visible and less persecuted due to their belonging to the ethnic majority and retaining some of the white privilege (Garner and Selod 17). All of these groups constitute less than a tenth of a percent of the country’s population. The older Muslims are recognized as a valid part of the nation, and they make an effort to integrate into the dominant culture seamlessly.

Historically, Polish people did not exhibit much Islamophobia and were indifferent towards the Muslim population. However, after Islamic terrorism rose to prominence in the media, old grudges were remembered. Some of the famous Polish military triumphs were against Muslim nations, and the Christian religion sees Islam as an enemy to the Western way of life. Islam quickly became associated chiefly with terrorism and fundamentalist zealots. Because of that historical heritage, when the Muslims and Muslim sympathizers wanted to build religious structures in Poland, it was met with outrage.

The minarets and mosques were seen as encroachment, terrorist dens, and harbingers of the ‘Arabization’ of Europe. In the mid-2010s, the European refugee crisis erupted, which radicalized Poles against even the Tatars that have lived in the country for generations. They called for more caution and oversight and produced offensive campaigns and slogans that violently denigrated all Muslims and refugees. The state’s restrictive policy on Islamic immigration only served to bolster the dehumanization of the refugees.

The author of the study claims that the Polish culture is so homogenous that the citizens took pride in it. They began fiercely guarding their culture against even imaginary enemies. The article uses Polish cases as examples of how Islamophobic views propagate and how it can harm innocent people. It is a valuable source because it also describes the historical and political context that has led to the spread of Islamophobia.

A Season in Mecca

To properly understand Muslims and the roots of Islamophobia, one must have some knowledge of the Islamic ways, which many people do not. That does not only include the religious rituals or systems of belief. While Islam is a religion, it has an impact on the sociopolitical aspects of life in Muslim nations. An excellent book that sheds light on the Muslim faith, the Muslim society, and the Muslim individuals is Hammoudi’s A Season in Mecca.

The author has a dual identity: he was born in a Muslim society, but he received a Western education. His determination to perform hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, was driven both by intellectual curiosity as an anthropologist, and spiritual doubts. His reflections on his religion and the world permeate the narrative, in which he describes the rituals in great detail. The dissonance between him and everyone else grounds the narrative in the sense of alienation that only stokes the need for understanding.

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the book is the author’s descriptions of everything adjacent to the pilgrimage. It is both morbidly fascinating and deeply tragic that the Moroccan government’s authoritarianism creates loopholes for petty officials to abuse their power and profit from a mandatory religious ritual. The author describes the state’s systems for keeping pilgrims under control as a “gold mine” (Hammoudi 27).

The entire institution seemed morally bankrupt, and Hammoudi himself is reminded of colonial nations that made Morocco what it was. Even the gender inequality that is hard-wired into the Islamic faith seems to surprise the author after his arrival in Medina. The Saudi Muslims seemed more zealous and judgmental to him than his native Moroccan ones, and the gender separation was like nothing he had ever seen before.

The book is something that every anthropologist or anyone interested in Islam should read. The multifaceted and in-depth exploration of religion and society is very informative and somewhat surprising. The sheer amount of effort it takes to embark on this spiritual journey sheds light on the Islamic ethic. The author’s contemplative and reflective approach to the pilgrimage will inspire readers to contemplate and reflect as well.

Works Cited

Buchowski, Michał. “Making Anthropology Matter in the Heyday of Islamophobia and the ‘Refugee Crisis’: The Case of Poland.” Český lid, vol. 103, 2016, pp. 51-67.

Garner, Steve, and Saher Selod. “The Racialization of Muslims: Empirical Studies of Islamophobia.” Critical Sociology, vol. 41, no.1, 2014, pp. 9–19.

Hammoudi, Abdellah. A Season in Mecca: Narrative of a Pilgrimage. Polity, 2006.

Introduction

Professor Akbar S. Ahmed in his book “Journey into America: The Challenge of Islam” critically looks at the wide-ranging experiences that Muslim have undergone in the U.S, and American individuality influenced by its origins and history.

Additionally he looks into the experiences that various religious assemblies have gone through and the effects they have had on these groupings, and how these aspects have had effects on each other. People always turn defensive whenever they feel others are judging them resulting in conflicts which are a mechanism to try and counter the growing conflict.

Culture is commonly used as a lens by which the characters and practices of people are judged thereby coming up with assumptions and groupings of people as victims, heroes or villains one has to ask themselves where or how prejudice originates from. Grouping and classification of people into an assortment of clusters with particular distinctiveness is a necessity for living in a multifaceted world such as this.

However one has to ask themselves psychologists’ perceptions, of this phenomenon on prejudice beyond the above statement that is so obviously true and often repeated to an extent people find it trite or meaningless. Theories on the foundation of prejudice, its psychological purpose, and why some persons feel prejudiced and discriminated on more than others, can and are still being formulated.

Culture Conflict: Stereotyping, Bias and Discrimination

Stereotyping is a generalization of thoughts and notions held by the public on particular groups or individuals that do not fit into the universal picture. Stereotyping comes about when one is not able or unwilling to obtain a complete picture to enable them to make fair conclusions about other people thus getting a situation where one has to make up things to try and fill in the vacant spaces devoid of any concrete information.

This is a phenomenon created and propagated by the society that people live in although it may seem that it does this innocently it often results to biasness and discrimination and at times persecution. Walter Lippman a journalist came up with the term stereotype in 1929 to describe the generalization interpersonal perceptions and behavior.

Stereotypes emerge due to an apprehension of persons found in minority groups. For example, people suffering from mental disabilities are viewed as more prone to violence but in real sense this thinking contradicts with researched data that gives evidence that people suffering from mental disabilities’ level of proneness to violence is at par with a normal person.

This thinking is brought about by much publicity being heaped on the few isolated cases of mentally disabled people going running amok thus turning into a myth about mentally disabled people through this stereotypes are born and perpetuated leading to discrimination. A group may be unfairly generally characterized due to some isolated characteristics of one or two members of their group. Prejudice is an omnipresent experience due to the act that human beings are social animals.

People are usually born into a communal entity referred to as a family most commonly nucleus in nature, but their upbringing is undertaken by other entities such as learning institutions, friends, extended families, and professional and business set ups which take up most of their lives. These groups that people belong to impact very much on the self esteem and how they perceive themselves with their different and individualistic identities being made up of these cluster associations.

People often characterize themselves by the groups and clusters they associate themselves with. Actually, asking an individual to describe themselves one is bound to receive several answers, indicating that the groups he or she is associated to have an effect on the individual. As a result, one’s own sense of self is not a cut off state from others but is linked with others in assorted ways (Keene, Nagy and Szende, 102).

Professor Ahmed (45) tries to find out and at the same time give insight to what Muslims in America go through in their quest for acknowledgment in a different world that does not recognize them. Immigration of Muslims to America has continued to rise considerably in the last half-century.

The numbers have also continued to increase as a result of procreation, and conversion. Close to two-thirds of the Muslim population in America are immigrants and are descendants, mostly from the Middle East, while American converts make up an immense bulk of the remainder. Going with the current statistics and rate of growth of the Muslim community in America, Islam is bound to be the second biggest religion in America by 2015.

Scholars of Islam, religious students, experts on Middle East issues, and analysts have a tendency of overlooking the existence of Islam and Muslims in the U.S and in the process dismissing it as an issue of insignificant importance. An explanation to this may be the media commonly creating unfavorable, undesirable, and harmful attention to Islam in the perspective of terrorism in the Middle East, and the desire of American Muslims to keep a low-profile.

Multiculturalism/Pluralism

Multiculturalism can be seen as an acceptance of the numerous diverse ethnic cultures that surrounds people consistent to the demographic composition of a particular region, usually at a managerial level, for example learning institutions, businesses, cities and states.

The multiculturalism guiding principle is habitually compared to assimilation and integration notions. It is in this framework that believers of multiculturalism extend unbiased status to diverse ethnic and religious groups while not elevating any particular ethnic, religious, or cultural community values over another as the fundamental one (Keene, Nagy and Szende 68).

Proponents of multiculturalism see it as a fair system which gives room to people for expression of who and what they beyond doubt are within a liberal society that acclimatizes well to social issues affecting them. The argument is that culture cannot be defined basing it on one race or religion, rather it is a product of a mix of several aspects that keep on transforming as the world evolves.

The majority of western countries have adopted this as official policy since the 1970s, and in so doing offering various views and reasons to justify their measures which vary from one country to another. Some of the grand capitals found in the Western world are more and more being composed of montage of cultures.

On the other hand, pluralism can be termed as a situation where minority groups within a larger setting where the majority enjoys all the freedoms and rights, are able to maintain their only one of its kind cultural characteristics, values and practices but are still acknowledged by the majority.

An example of this argument is Lebanon which comprises of 18 different religious communities that co-exist on an area of land measuring approximately 10,452 km². This shows that in pluralist cultures, distinct clusters are not only able to subsist together, but also regard the positive characters of other clusters as valued qualities worthy to embrace into the foremost culture.

At the same time, multiculturalism is a perception that not only puts up with the reality of other social individualities, but also recognizes them and understands how different the identities between them might be. Multicultural concerns have long been a key aspect of history and traditions in India, affecting its constitutional and political arrangements.

Much of Indian history, culture and politics have distinct multicultural connotations with the main question being how it is able to coexist despite its immense multi-ethnic composition, which comprises of religious groups, diverse languages and communities, different social classes divided into castes and tribes.

The fundamental question here is how it has been able to stay alive as a state given its harsh environment characterized by underdevelopment, mass poverty, illiteracy and extreme regional disparities. This can be explained through looking at India’s political record of relative unity and stability compared to other post colonial and socialist states and it comes out more extraordinary.

Scholars have argued that set of multicultural state policies laid down act as checks and balances for resolving any ethnic conflict. These policies are entrenched in the constitution and can be said to be a basic multicultural document, in the good judgment of providing for political and institutional procedures for the appreciation and recognition of the country’s diversity.

Post-independence India’s foremost form of political appreciation of territorially founded ethnic identities of its people has remained a statehood principle within the federation, although other forms, most notably, sub-statehood, in the form of Regional or Tribal District Councils, have often served similar purposes for small ethnic communities.

Assimilation and Integration

Professor Ahmed’s “Journey into America: The Challenge of Islam” explores the day to day lives of people of different races, cultures, colors, backgrounds, religions, tribes and other demographics, live and interact together given that in the present times, communities are more disorderly and continue to focus more and more on comparison of two or more things put together that are different between them, especially in order to suggest a link between them or emphasize the contrast between them.

His concerns in the way societies have assimilated if not integrated into each other are brought out very vividly in his writings, and he suggests that discussing assimilation cannot take place completely without taking a look into pluralism “which is a concept of accepting others not like us”.

Ahmed tries not to retell American history claiming that it has been retold numerous times in the past and done very well however he explores the American identity and how the challenges of assimilating Islam in America have had an effect on it creating distinctive identities and boundaries which the society maintains and defines itself(Bazelon 2008).

Jean Piaget a psychologist known for his studies on the nature of knowledge, in particular its foundations, scope, and validity particularly relating to children expressed assimilation as a balancing progression of adaptation, by which the consciousness of the outer world is internalized.

Assimilation and adaptation are indivisible and both survive in a ‘dialectical relationship’ even though one may seem to prevail upon the other at any given time. The perceptions of events in the outer world are integrated into the inner world devoid of any alteration to the composition of the inner world but at a cost of constricting the outer world perceptions to be able to fit in.

Integration can be defined as the way in which somebody or something for example ethnic minorities in a society, shift from their low status into a much higher status of the society that contains the majority. Therefore, are able to enjoy fully the advantages and rights accorded to that majority elite group.

In today’s modern world characterized by social networking applications done via the World Wide Web, integration is an expression that is explained as a state where people carry out their activities, personal faiths and religions, jobs and social interaction in a more transparent manner than before. Assimilation and integration are common features found in urban developed environments and go hand in hand with cultural, ethical and social exchanges and attitudes.

Ahmed (45) in trying to explain assimilation and integration, gives an example of Muhammad Ali, the famous boxer who on initially embracing the Islamic religion, at the outset was against pluralism terming ‘integration as wrong’ and further went on to say that they (the Blacks and Muslims) did not wish to be associated and subsist with the white man. Nevertheless he realized that ‘there comes a time in every man’s life when he has no choice but to forgive or he will be consumed by his own bitterness’.

Race and Ethnicity

A shared or participated in notion by many universally that the human species can be classified into clusters based on physical and genetic makeup. In spite of overwhelming logical proof, there are still those who maintain their own race as advanced over all. People like this are generally branded as “racists”. In the 19^th century Hitler classified and branded Jews as an “inferior race with specific physical and personality characteristics”.

A number of scholars alleged these characters would go away if assimilation of the Jews and political and social liberation was done whereby they were integrated into the ‘upper-class societies’. On the other hand some thought that these characters were hereditarily passed down therefore could not be altered. These having existed or been going on for a long period of time presented a base for the Nazi beliefs and genocidal rampages.

Africans have borne the brunt of racism as a result of being traded as slaves in America having to put up with centuries of cruelty and discrimination. The American civil war came as a rescue to the slaves who were liberated and approved for U.S citizenship however it did not bring discrimination to an end.

Discrimination and biasness comes about when one judges people based on the stereotypes they have created and the little information they have as regarding the said person, which leads them to treat them differently from others basing ions actions on their narrow-mindedness. Discrimination and biasness may cause people in the minority feel discouraged from living in certain places or doing certain things due to the pressure they get from the majority class.

Cases where biasness and discrimination are rampant are the workplace (women and minorities such as Latinos and African Americans), learning institutions, provision of social amenities and services and much more. Racism against minorities in America is still widespread despite laws and other protections against bigotry. Minorities still face biasness in housing; employment, and learning institutions, persecution by white supremacies is still rife insurance providers’ biasness and discrimination.

Darwin’s narrative the invisible hand focuses on a fundamental argument that tries to explain the reasons that drive people to be racist and look at themselves as more superior than others. The narrative argues that rivalry is preferential in treatment to characters and manners depending on the effect it has on human beings’ accomplishment.

According to Smith’s version of Darwin’s narrative on the invisible hand, characters that improve or add to the strength, worth, beauty, or other desirable quality of an individual sometimes promote group feelings of curiosity or concern about something that makes the attention turn toward it.

An example given by Smith where; a random change in a gene or chromosome structure resulting in a new trait or characteristic that can be inherited for example a hawk’s vision is not only beneficial to it, but also to the whole genus as a whole. On the other hand, characters that are helpful to certain persons are detrimental to bigger clusters.

Case in point, a change in a gene formation for comparatively big in size antlers in male elk provided an upper hand to the procreation needs of the individual, as it assisted him triumph in battle over other elk. However as this chromosome structure change widened, an ‘arms race’ that made it potentially very dangerous to the male elk.

Civil rights laws are constantly being put forward to fight this vice of to fight racism, persecution and biasness towards minorities in any given setting. While the First Amendment to the Constitution looks after the human and civil rights of all and sundry to come together peacefully and address each other freely, bigoted and hate speeches usually have a reaction of reprimand from members in charge of the society or setting the racists direct their comments to.

The worldwide community has express disapproval of the apartheid principles of the South African government which has generated much debate on this issue.

Conclusion

People with strong views on complex social issues are prone to examine relevant practical data in a prejudiced approach. They are apt to believe evidence at face value while putting factual evidence to serious assessment, and as a result draw support for preliminary positions from unsystematic findings.

Stereotyping as a suitable process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception evolves into a “social problem” as soon as it beomes prejudicial. Thus, if a stereotype is a picture based on insufficient information, narrow mindedness is a negative picture whose basis is insufficient information. Prejudice is indeed a social disease and refers to circumstances whereby, conclusions are drawn on the behavioral characteristics of people thus does not allow them to bond with groups or gatherings to which they fit in.

This gives insight on how being prejudicial and its consequences are associated to intentional differences over resources that are in short supply. Stressed out competition results to a thriving in conflict and prejudice, however, healthy cooperation and fewer clashes over resources, result in a disappearance in prejudice and conflict.

Professor Ahmed looks into the lives of Muslims in America and how they have impacted the American identity and also the effect the American identify has had on them. America’s Muslims are more and more aware of their own identity now more than ever before; and wait for the day their existence will be acknowledged.

Until now, Muslims have not had an effectual role as a community in the America’s political and social process. Nonetheless, they have started to appreciate the system that undergirds the American democratic system and assuming they will finally realize the appreciation and involvement they have for so long fought for is quite sensible.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Akbar. Journey into America: The Challenge of Islam. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2010. Print.

Keene, Derek, Nagy, Balázs and Szende, Katalin. Segregation, integration, assimilation: religious and ethnic groups in the medieval towns of Central and Eastern Europe. Washington: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009. Print.

Bazelon, Emily. “The Next Kind of Integration.” NY Times 20 July 2008: Print.

Summary

The article I used was written by Danny Wood for BBC News entitled “Islam feminists urge gender jihad”. The article discussed the focus of the International Congress on Islamic Feminism, on the gender equality struggle in Islamic countries. This struggle involves contesting the chauvinist interpretations of Muslim teachings. The unequal or lesser regard and treatment for women as opposed to the conditions of men do not originate from the exact teachings of the Koran, but these actions are results of interpretations of the laws of Islam. Islam in no way promotes the oppression of women. There are several causes for this disregard for the rights of women and there are likewise several solutions or remedies. The article, through comments from different people discusses these causes and solutions.

Response

Muslim women are advocating Islam feminism or a gender jihad as a step towards uplifting the human rights of Muslim women and to lessen, if not totally eradicate injustices and exploitation directed at them. Jihad means to struggle in the way of God or to struggle for the improvement of one’s self or society. This is precisely what the Islam feminists want to do. They are struggling for gender equality in Muslim communities and they are fighting to counter the distorted interpretations of the teachings of Islam regarding the treatment and status of women in Muslim society.

The predominant notion in determining the root cause of gender inequality in Muslim communities is that the practice was basically derived from the doctrines of Koran. This is greatly refuted by those who are really educated in the Koran and the Islam feminists who have carefully reviewed the doctrines to stay true to their cause. The misinterpretation that Islam is a chauvinist religion is doing a great disservice not only to the religion itself, but to the women of Islam. People who have long been exposed and who were born with this misconception will most likely assimilate it into their system, thereby passing it on to other family members and those outside the household. People will not only believe it, but they will practice it if they observe that it is the way of life in their community. This chauvinistic notion of Islam will be embedded into the culture of the society and thus will continue to thrive unless it is broken severely.

The main cause of the unjust treatment of women under the Islam religion is the distortion of the doctrines of women in the Koran which was upheld and practiced by the older people and passed on to the next generations. It is not a matter of the young being educated in such a manner but it is the influence of the family that molds their minds and dictates their responses. If a boy sees that his father mistreats his mother and that his mother does not do anything about it but allows the exploitation, the boy will grow up thinking that there is nothing wrong with what the father did or continuously does. The boy did not see resistance from the mother, nor did he see any negative reaction from the mother after the mistreatments. This will form a mindset in the boy that there is no problem and it is accepted when men hurt women. The same is true for a young girl. A young girl who experienced the same thing and does not see any resistance from the mother will grow up thinking that like her mother, she will experience the same when she grows up and there is nothing wrong with it. This kind of exposure to the unjust treatment of women at home breeds a continuous culture of gender inequality and a very poor perception of women’s rights and their role in society.

Men who wish to continue their harsh treatment of women will always hide behind the Koran and will use it as their defense. This is a privilege that they have enjoyed and that they cannot just let go that easily. As long as Islam men and women remain less knowledgeable about the real contents and doctrines of the Koran and what Islam really represents, these men or certain groups will prosper. To stop this, it entails initiatives to learn more about the true teachings of Islam and avoid second hand interpretations.

The primary solution to ending gender inequality problems in Muslim communities lies in the empowerment of Muslim women. Empowerment through education is the strongest force to battle exploitation of women. Women who are educated possess more knowledge, awareness of their rights, confidence and power to uphold their dignity. They are more adept in identifying problems and addressing issues. They value self-worth more than those who have not experienced any form of education. Education likewise places women in better positions in the household. Educated women most of the time hold good jobs that provide for financial needs of the family. This financial capability adds to the rights of the women in decision-making at home. Education gives women independence from men because they can support and provide for themselves and even their children. Financial dependence is at times the main cause of exploitation of women as men get away with doing things due to the fact that the women cannot financially survive without them. Proper education eradicates this.

At the grassroots level, women should be made aware of their rights. The advocacy should start in families where the true teachings of Koran and how Islam regards women should be learned and taken by heart. If women continue to believe that they deserve the ill treatment that they are getting from men, then men and children will likewise believe so. Men who have been used to mistreating women will not take the initiative to stop these actions because they get satisfaction out of it which may be through principle or emotion. It is the women who should learn to value their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual self. They should fight for their human rights and they should struggle against oppression. Gender jihad is the way to go.

Work Cited

Wood, Danny. “Islam feminists urge gender jihad.”2005. BBC News. Web.

In the post 9/11 scenario, the developed world has come to have a closer look at Islam. The curiosity has been, in media and the general public, more than ever before. But it certainly amazes one that such attention has only been able to “detect” some “flaws” in the societies that have existed for thousands of years. With this have come the continuous efforts to change the social norms and customs and also, to wrongly relate them to the religion. Among many of the sympathies that the West has been trying to bestow upon Muslims, the most vocal is women’s liberation. The male-dominated society in Muslim countries is under strict criticism, some of which relates to such “victims” of “oppression” who do not even welcome such criticism. After Afghan “liberation” from the Taliban regime, for an instance, the majority of women still prefer to clad themselves in Burqa on their free will. The idea of liberation goes back to the movement of feminism in the West that demanded equality of rights, non-dependence on men, legalized abortion, and an end to human sacrifice. What has advanced is that now this “freedom” is being imposed on other societies that are alien to the liberal secular environment. There is no denying the fact that Muslim societies have male dominance and non-equality of rights. But is it something peculiar about these societies or Islam? The answer, after acknowledging the history of these regions and also after observing the state of women in Western secular societies, is certainly not that simple. This is most important to realize that the instinct of men to impose their superiority is natural and does not relate to any particular region, religion, and society. Non-equality of rights exists, but feminism is not the solution, for in its simplest form feminism is even destructive for the status of women and the idea is contrary to the natural human values of sacrifice, love, and family. The roles of man and woman as defined by nature are decisive in the social structure.

The convincing idea is strengthened by Yvonne Ridley. In “How I came to Love veil”, she says: “Violent men don’t come from any particular religious or cultural category; one in three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused in her lifetime, according to the hotline survey. This is a global problem that transcends religion, wealth, class, race, and culture.” The urge to “liberate” the women in the East has come primarily from western feminists, who include males and females alike among the advocates of the idea. What they present as an ideal is a so-called liberal and secular society that the West has been able to develop over the years. But the figures prove the contrary. This is a little task to prove with evidence that men in the so-called developed liberal society are more violent and disrespectful to women than their “third world” counterparts. There have been numerous surveys according to which women in civilized societies experience serious assaults, in form of abuse, rape, and violence. Women are killed by their husbands and partners every day in liberal societies (Ridley). The statistics at the US department of justice give scores of data to confirm these statements. A report of the early nineties showed that 683,000 women were raped in the United States every year. One can only expect this rate to have increased over the years since the West seems to have gone deeper into the idea of radical feminism that has only destroyed its family structure and made sexualized.

One fails to understand what form of liberation has been awarded to western women. In the name of liberation, western feminism has only tended to make females sexual commodities. Women are half-dressed in name of integration and social relations but less paid for equal work. Maryam Jameela also confirms the idea in her article “The feminist movement and the Muslim Woman”. She says, “What is the end result of the radical feminist movement? What kind of society does Women’s Liberation seek to obtain? Thus women for men are alternatively angles and slaves to be worshipped one minute and spurned and exploited the next but seldom treated as equals.” Both Jameela and Ridley agree on the fact that the western male is no better than the eastern counterpart.

Feminism had come as a reaction to all the injustice that women faced prior to development in the West. As late as 1960, women were not to be admitted to Oxford. Females of the society, which already had got rid of religion and natural values from affairs of the state, could only come up with the system that ensured non-dependence on men. Dependence is considered as contrary to the ego of the woman in the idea of feminism. Family and its roles are altogether denied and rejected by feminists. But the western version of women’s liberation is not a solution, as Maryam Jameela says: “Feminism is an unnatural, artificial and abnormal product of contemporary social disintegration, which in turn is an inevitable result of the rejection of all transcendental, absolute moral and spiritual values.” A glimpse of the western take on women’s liberation is also to be found in Ridley’s experience as she started to wear the headscarf. The western idea of equality is limited to the physical appearance, social integration, and free life for women void of any boundaries and values. One who is not an advocate of such feminist traits is immediately an alien who needs liberation in the view of feminists.

Decided that feminism is not the solution, then where is the way? Maryam Jameela takes a strong stance that the role of the family as defined by Shariah is the ultimate solution (Jameela). Although the feminism that has crept into Muslim societies lately advocates for no or least dependence on males and a disregard for family, what the western imposers of feminism (and their eastern representatives)fail to understand is that the very foundation of eastern societies is based on the central role of the family. The male head of the family is responsible for earning and the whole family depends on him, as Ali Gomaa asserts: “Islam made it obligatory for men to support and care for women; this is one of the rights that women can demand of them. While women are permitted to remain at home, men are obliged to seek a means of sustenance for them.” This is important to note the words “permitted” and “obliged”. Women are permitted to remain at home, not obliged. What is the better place for her rests on her decision.

Western societies also had the phenomenon of the family that greatly benefited the individuals in many aspects. As Jameela has noted, medieval European society enjoyed the human values of love and sacrifice when the family was central to the social structure. But the modern western experience and brief experience of liberalism in the east also bear witness to the fact that a strong family structure collapses as soon as the woman rejects the idea of family and dependence on man. The idea is that the roles of man and woman are not competing; rather they are complementary to each other (Jameela 4). A woman has her real place in her family, and without family is like a fish without water. Western feminists, in their quest for equality with men, have strived to do all those things and duties that men can do. The result is a sense of deprivation and assault at the workplace, as well as a broken family structure.

The quest of western feminists for imposing feminist ideas on eastern societies is certainly not as simple as it may seem. There might be some other forces at work that initially brought down the social structure in the West and now are striving hard to do the same with eastern Muslim societies. These forces, rather intentionally, only observe earnestly all miseries inflicted upon women like forced marriages and having to stay at home, but they fail to observe all the repercussions that western youth is facing due to false liberalism. Drug use, rape, depression, and failed marriages are some very common traits still uncommon in the east. There has been considerable success in this respect. More and more Muslim women are accepting this idea of false equality and independence. Hijab and Niqab are being rejected as symbols that do not matter in social relations. The idea that women inside homes are oppressed until they come out to work is taken from the west as it is. What they think is that they are struggling against social norms that are redundant and primitive. But while doing so, what they are actually doing is rejecting the fourteen hundred-year-old definitions of women’s role and sanctity. What has resulted is a confused generation that is neither liberal nor Islamic. They increasingly try to dress, talk and act like western liberal females and while doing so fall on a middle ground that satisfies neither of the ideas of radical feminism and Shariah.

There is no denying the fact that Muslim men must reevaluate the role and honor of women in society and family, but at the same time, women who are victims of discrimination due to social norms intermingled with lack of education should look to find a perfect model of the family in Shariah rather than western feminism.

Bibliography

Ridley, Yvonne. “How I came to Love the Veil.” Washington Post 2006. Web.

Kamrava, Mehran, ed., The New Voices of Islam: Rethinking Politics and Modernity (New Voices) Published by I.B.Tauris, 2006.

Jameela, Maryam. The Feminist movement and the Muslim women. Web.

Gomaa, Ali. “Gender Equality in Islam.” Washington Post. 2007. Web.

Introduction

Islam is a religion that, according to non-Muslims, is guided by very strange principles and associated with acts of violence and disorderliness. Apparently, the word Islam was revealed to Prophet Muhammad and is used to refer to a religion that encourages followers to seek peace by submitting to the will of God. Incidents of Muslims being involved in terrorist activities that leave scores of people devastated make the world wonder whether Muslims are out to do any good.

In many places around the world, the interpretation of Islamic teachings is mainly controlled by politics. The religion is assumed to promote spiritual development, strict morals, and the application of Quran to civic and political decision making (Almoharby & Neal, 2013). While this may be the case, some scholars argue that Islam, unlike other religions, is often at odds with democracy. For some scholars, however, this is only true theoretically (Cook, 2012).

As a result of the varying interpretations of Islam, Muslims are regarded differently by people in different countries. While some consider Islam to be a friendly religion, others see it as a very hostile one. According to Muslims, the Quran is the only reliable source of direction when it comes to dealing with societal issues. One key principle of Islamic leadership is the freedom to let subjects act without any form of coercion.

Although Non-Muslims see Islam as a religion associated with acts of violence and intimidation, Muslims blame the Western media for distorting the truth about what Islam really is. This paper looks at various issues about Islam and Muslims and attempts to explain how Non-Muslims can live in harmony with Muslims.

Misgivings about Islam and Muslims in General

There are several misconceptions about the Islamic religion and Muslims in generally. Some of these are discussed in the following subsections.

Muslims versus Christians

Most non-Muslims argue that Islamic religion teaches its followers to kill Christians. This allegation is most probably linked to the fact that organized Muslim groups have been singled out as perpetrators of hatred in different countries across the world. In Africa, Nigeria seems to have experienced the worst cases of Muslim attacks in the recent past. Many churches have been burned and several Christians assaulted in various incidents.

The East African community has also suffered the wrath of Muslim associated groups such as Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab. Kenya and Uganda are two nations in the East African region that have been victims of such attacks from organized Muslim groups. In pursuit of their selfish agendas, these groups claim that they are doing so in the name of Islam. As such, they have given Islam a very bad reputation. While it is true that most Muslims could be innocent, it is hard for one to believe this given that most terrorists and suicide bombers always claim to be associated with the Islamic religion.

Islam and Violence

For many non-Muslims, Islam is a religion that is associated mostly with violent acts that include the killing of innocent people and suicide bombing attacks that are aimed at disrupting security and causing harm to others. Terrorism is believed to be an important political issue in Britain and apparently, British Muslims are convinced that suicide bombings against civilians is legitimate and a commendable thing to do. Most British Muslims also believe that those who take their lives through suicide bombings are martyrs (Baines et al., 2010).

Muslims are brainwashed by their Leaders

There have been claims that most Muslims act the way they do because they do not think for themselves. Rather, they depend on their spiritual leaders to provide direction on almost everything. This has been necessitated by the fact that Muslims esteem their leaders so high and this prevents them from criticizing what they say or do.

On many occasions, young men and women have been recruited into terror groups organized around Muslim principles and later subjected to teachings and trainings that create both fear and hatred within them. They are made to believe that any person who is not a Muslim is an enemy of the Muslims and must be dealt with ruthlessly. Although it can not be ascertained as true or false, Muslims and converts to the Islamic faith believe that being a jihadist has its benefits. All Muslims are thus convinced that it is important for one to dye while protecting his or her people. Due to such a mentality, most Muslims are often ready to do even the most stupid thing so as to die as heroes or heroines no matter the cost involved.

However, arguments by some Muslim scholars indicate that Muslims, just as Christians, are no longer following what their leaders teach or say blindly. Ostensibly, many Muslims are beginning to stand up against retrogressive actions of those among them who come out to act selfish while taking cover under the Islamic faith.

Muslims and Modernization

Research indicates that most Muslims are against any form of modernization. They thus would do all it takes to safeguard their treasured beliefs and teachings. It is, however, thought that their actions and decision to resist modernization has to do with the fact that they hate anything that has to do with the West. They see those from the Western world as being responsible for the evil in the society and thus refuse to be associated with them or their ways of life.

Effect of Negative Accusations on the Lives of Muslims

Muslims in general have been accused of so many negative activities in the society. Top on the list is terrorism. Almost every act of terrorism is linked to activities of a Muslim organized group. Acts of terrorism associated with activities of these groups are witnessed every other time through out the world. Several other Muslims have taken part in suicide bombings and in the process inflicted fear and harm to so many innocent people. As a result, non-Muslims regard Muslims very negatively and subject them to unfair treatment. Some of these are discussed in the following subsections.

Discrimination

As a result of the negative accusations directed at the Muslim community, most Muslims have suffered discrimination in various ways. A Muslim, for example, may be denied an opportunity to a good school all because of the allegations made about Islam and Muslims in general. Muslims have also been refused a chance to live in some neighborhoods all because of the negative impression people have about them.

While it may be true that some Muslims can not be trusted, it is unfair to generalize and treat all Muslims the same way. This has led to Muslims in some countries coming up with their own establishments such as schools, restaurants or other social facilities.

Harassment

Many have been harassed severally because of their affiliations to the Islamic religion. In the event that something bad happens and it is alleged that a Muslim group is involved, investigations mostly target the Muslim community. Usually, all Muslims are viewed as suspects and law enforcers treat them with a lot of suspicion. They are arrested, arraigned in courts, and their lives suddenly change because of fear. There have been instances of innocent Muslims being sexually harassed or beaten without proof of guilty.

Hatred

Because of the many negative activities carried out by rogue groups claiming to be associated with the Islamic faith, many innocent Muslims are hated by many for no good reason. They are looked at as people who lack a sense of humanity and out to cause harm and instill fear in others. Although only a few individuals take part in such activities, many are affected for being staunch followers of the Islamic religion.

Labeling

Generally, Muslims are labeled by many as bad people because of the negative acts associated with them. For most non-Muslims, therefore, it is hard to believe that a Muslim harbors any good intentions for his or her neighbors. Many see Muslims as terrorists and suicide bombers whose agenda is to go about killing innocent people aimlessly.

Living in Harmony with Muslims

Despite all the negative treatment that Muslims receive because of the activities of some groups claiming to be associated with Islam, it is possible to live in harmony with them. As earlier explained, it is wrong for the society to view and treat all Muslims with a lot of suspicion. While it is true that some may be out to cause harm to others, some are determined to do good for their neighbors.

To live in harmony with Muslims, it is imperative for non-Muslims to seek to understand Islam and Muslims in general. Muslims should also not be condemned through any unfair process.

Seeking to Understand Islam and Muslims

The world should try to understand what Islam is and what being a Muslim really entails. Rather than making unfounded conclusions about the Islamic religion because of a few selfish individuals, people should take time to study the religion and look for ways that will ensure that innocent Muslims are not mistreated.

Most Muslims have come out to speak against the injustice often directed to them by non-Muslims and their main concern is that those who subject them to unfair treatment tend to do so because they do not understand what Islam stands for. Forums should thus be created for Muslims to actively discuss with others what they believe in (Reeves, McKinney & Azam, 2013). Doing so will enable non-Muslims to understand and live in harmony with Muslims.

Giving the Benefit of Doubt

We all have a right to receive fair treatment and all Muslims should also be given a benefit of doubt. Before being labeled, every Muslim must be given an opportunity to prove his or her innocence. Often, many people rush to judge Muslims even before they get to interact and know them well. To a large extent, however, this is as a result of the bad publicity that Islam has received over the years.

Conclusion

By and large, Islam is regarded as a violent religion. Most non-Muslims see Muslims as their enemies and would probably go to any extent to avoid association with them. Because of how Muslims are viewed, they are discriminated upon in various ways.

Despite negative accusations that have been made against Muslims, many of them are innocent and deserve a fair treatment. Rather than passing wrong judgments, therefore, Muslims should be given an opportunity to defend their integrity.

References

Almoharby, D. & Neal, M. (2013). Clarifying Islamic Perspectives on Leadership. Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 4(3/4), 148 – 161. Web.

Baines, P., O’Shaughnessy, N., Moloney, K., Richards, B., Butler, S. & Gill, M. (2010). The Dark Side of Political Marketing Islamist: Propaganda, Reversal Theory and British Muslims. European Journal of Marketing, 44(3/4), 478 – 495. Web.

Cook, B. (2012). Democracy and Islam: Promises and Perils for the Arab Spring Protests. Journal of Global Responsibility, 3(2), 175 – 186. Web.

Reeves, T., McKinney, A. & Azam, L. Muslim women’s workplace experiences: implications for strategic diversity initiatives. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32(1), 49 – 67. Web.

Traditionally, women is Islam occupy a secondary role determined by social and cultural traditions in society. Thus, the status of women has been changed towards greater involvement of women in public and political affairs. The current studies of the role of women in Islam have resulted in a unified impression of the power of women leaders. Individually and through their organized activities, the women leaders of Islamic countries have become a dynamic social force, helping to transform the life of their lands. The growing power of women may be considered as representative of the remarkable forward movement of women in the entire East. Essentially the same currents of change – economic and technological, political and cultural–are transforming the life of the entire East. Thesis Women are vitally affected by the rapidly changing environment and are themselves playing a creative part along many lines in Eastern life.

Jameelah underlines that working and talking with many representative women make it clear that in the diversity of their activities there is a remarkable unity of purpose and sense of direction. They are confronted by the common needs and problems of the East and are working toward a common goal. Women are actively participating in many phases of civic welfare and in the varied collective efforts to build national life on a sound basis. They are concerned primarily with the specific needs of women and girls and are contributing their knowledge and special experience in all areas of life–the home and social welfare, business and professions, political life and public office–to the total advancement of women. “The Muslim woman is spared direct military and political responsibility although in rare cases there have been women warriors” (Jameelah n.d.).

Certain major trends of change and advance may be summed up in general terms applicable to all Islamic countries. Of essential interest are the common problems and needs and common lines of progress. It will be noted that some of the general statements may not be applicable to Afghanistan at the present stage of its advance. However, trends of progress in regard to women are unmistakable in all areas. “Centuries of women’s exclusion from knowledge have resulted in femininity being confused with illiteracy until a few decades ago. But things have progressed so rapidly in our Muslim countries that we women today take literacy and access to schools and universities for granted” (Mernissi 209). The governments of these countries have made great progress in the education of girls, the basis for any advance of women, increasing on all levels the facilities for an enrollment of girls and women in primary, secondary, higher education and university education for professional training, on the basis of equality of access with men; and in social education in terms of literacy and home-making for adult women, a necessity in order to achieve the goal of national literacy. Women leaders, women’s organizations, and other voluntary agencies of these countries have worked steadily and effectively to promote this expansion by establishing many primary and secondary schools for girls, colleges and training institutions for women, and a widespread program of social education–a truly impressive total of voluntary education effort (Jameelah n.d.).

The authors admit that the governments in the East, under the pressure to achieve universal literacy as rapidly as possible and provide educational facilities for their people, have given high priority to quantity rather than quality and have concentrated their efforts on the expansion of education as the immediate goal. Leading educators in each country, while recognizing the continuing necessity for the major emphasis on expansion, realize the importance of special development along a number of lines (Mernissi 210). More adequate provision for vocational education of girls and women is generally recognized as a growing need in each country, in view of the increasing social freedom of women and the economic necessity to work. There is marked disparity between the government provision for the technical training of boys and that of girls. Because of technological pressures the governments are steadily increasing the vocational training of boys–in some countries in a great diversity of skills. For girls, only a meager amount of vocational education is available, limited for the most part to domestic arts–sewing, embroidery and dress making-with very small wage-earning possibility, and with practically no provisions for technical training to meet business requirements for earning a livelihood. An increasing number of young women of the middle class with average education, and not a few of the educated upper classes, also need to earn a livelihood and are eager for the necessary technical training (Jameelah n.d.).

A marked development in the Muslim world has been the increasing number of women students and leaders who have the opportunity for study and training abroad in preparation for their full leadership in various fields. The increase of foreign fellowships for women is especially urgent in order to develop a more balanced Eastern society and provide more trained professional women needed in all fields (Mernissi 210). Foreign influence has long played an important role throughout the East in the development of education. Today the free interplay of educational influence through technical cooperation is shaping a new pattern in education as in other areas of life. Although there is obviously great diversity in the development of the national programs of health, specifically for women and children, there are, as in the field of education, a number of problems and needs common to all these countries. There are similar indications of progress and primarily the same motivation in all countries–to build their nations on modern foundations, of which national health is an obvious essential (Jameelah n.d.). There is a growing demand in government agencies at all levels and in foreign business firms for trained secretarial and clerical service. Yet the entrance of women into this especially favorable field of work is curtailed by lack of training facilities and by the fact that it is traditionally a male occupation. There are a growing number of commercial courses for typing and stenography on the medium standard, i.e., ninth or tenth grade, in girls’ schools and also courses on a commercial basis in large cities. But in each country there is special need for professional secretarial training on a higher level. Coeducation is a possibility since secretarial service is a field both for men and women (Mernissi, p. 210).

In sum, social and political changes in the Muslim countries gave rise to the feminist movement and a new social role of women in society. Various voluntary organizations are actively supporting and helping to promote citizenship education. Many political leaders introduce new programs for women dealing with the daily situations resulting from conflict, parents and youth most vitally involved in the effects of change, men and women leaders in social welfare, and civic affairs, and volunteer agencies.

Works Cited

1. Jameelah, M. The Feminist Movement and The Muslim Women.
2. Mernissi, F. The New Voices of Islam, pp. 205-211.

Introduction

Debates about the role of Islamic women in the political arena have been a subject of controversy and disagreement. In respect to women in Islamic societies concerning politics, scholars and scientists have provided two approaches that are eminent to the issue. One tends to examine the women’s roles, their activities and areas of policies and laws as dictated by the state.

This approach focuses on women’s rights of citizenship and claims on social goods either from an individual or a family perspective. The other approach focuses on the literature in politics. This entails the participation of women in political processes, formal politics, office-holding and voting rights.

Another point of focus is on the political movements’ engagements and collective actions as feminists as well as other pro-women organizations that delve on gender, equality and women representation in political fields (Hashem, 2006, p. 1).

Formal Politics

In formal politics, as described in the second approach above, cumulative literature on Muslim women has it that most women are greatly unaware of the subject of politics as it pertains to them. A good example is presented in the gulf state of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait where women are not allowed to vote (Zine, 2004, p. 1).

Therefore, this gives a great reflection and debate on the variability across Islam with respect to women participation in government, economic development and politics either as decision makers or as parliamentarians. This variability has led to a number of revolutionaries within the context of political representation of women.

This revolution can be earmarked from the venerable Inter-parliamentary Union which was founded in the late 1880’s and is currently linked to the United Nations System. The organization has a number of records pertaining to documents on conventional political science and office holding by women.

Studies have shown that women are underrepresented politically in the Islamic society. For instance, in 2005, only 15.8% of seats were held by women. Although this percentage reflected an increase in women positions in politics over the years, it is still low compared to other developed economies where women are well represented in politics and are free of discrimination.

Arab countries exhibit the lowest average of female parliamentarians, with only 7.7% representation (Hanieh, 2008, p. 1). Such kind of statistical findings prove that there is an enormous deficit of female parliamentarians and legislators within the Muslim countries.

Though there have been a number of females heading high government posts such as Benazir Bhutto (Prime Minister in Pakistan), Hasina Wazed (Prime Minister in Bangladesh), Madior Boye (Prime Minister in Senegal) among others, there is still room for more representation of women in governments.

Researchers and interest groups who seek or have sought to undertake studies in politics among Muslims have used the few women in high positions and studied their lives and how they acquired such powerful and influential positions within their states. The aim of these studies is to provide a better understanding on the provisions and limitations of women involvement in politics within the Islamic world.

By exploring their circumstances and context through which they acquired such leadership roles, the studies also assist in detailing the real mechanisms under which they acquired and exercise their powers. The studies also seek to understand whether these women in their capacity tend to independently strike the debate on women’s interests in politics as well as their advocacy on the same issue.

Women’s Activities in National Processes, Development and Rights

Due to the relatively low participation of Muslim women in formal politics, women have turned into other forms of political participation which include: social movements, political parties, feminists groups and the like. Three phases define the context of women in politics.

The first phase evolved over two decades ago where women were mobilized and incorporated within their nations’ modern projects of decolonization, nation/state construction and economic development (Offenhauer, 2005, p. 1). According to Zine (2004), women who were organized as groups in localities such as Mena, South Asia and South-East Asia participated in liberalizing their nations as well as in nation building.

They simultaneously engaged on matters regarding gender policies and equality. However, women were seen to be given head lights in matters pertaining to their legal and political rights but this was just but a mere legal justification.

This is precisely because the gap in gender parity continued to widen as national development and progress was at the epicenter of government concern and not women. Therefore, their plight was still minimal within the legislation.

The second phase took place after women realized that their issues and interests were not of priority to the state in the 1980s. Various autonomous groups were formed by women so as to propel their gender issues to the front as well as advance in their participation in politics. They ranged from secular leftists on one end and Islamic movements on the other. Other advocacy groups also came about as a result of the political parity.

Secular leftists coupled with their secular liberals found the actions by states to be limiting to women. This was proven by the fact that the states had interests in mobilizing women but in the family aspects rather than the political view. The major factor was the fact that Islamism and globalization was on the rise and this ditched women’s interests even further.

These detrimental effects saw the formulation of more independent and more vowed feminist agendas (Paidar, 2001, p. 1). These agendas cropped up as a result of the heightened global feminism charter which was a movement coined within the United Nations. The international women’s movement took center stage in world conferences and NGO forums.

The un-raveling of such an agenda was meant to spike women-vested groups to come out strongly in the open and push on the agenda of women interests across the world.

This led to formation of a number of secular feminists-mobilized groups within the Muslim aimed at addressing the advancement of women’s issues within governments. These groups coupled with those of other women within the framework of faith were referred to as feminists.

The third phase came in the 1990s. Since then, the agenda has been the role of women within states and politics which is seen to cut across women activists focusing on rights and religion. Women in the Muslim society have been pressing for their advancement.

This phase is also correlated with a continued increase in the types of groups that are committed and dedicated to propel as well as improve the lives of women in the Muslim dominated states. These groups range from advocacy groups to charitable women’s groups (Elies, 2010, p. 1).

This phase is often seen as the platform where the modernization of reforms within Islamic interpretation of law and Quran is based and it seeks to serve a majority and not biased to the minority.

Feminism and Women Politics agenda

The standing debate among feminists among Muslims, the concepts behind veiling and the identity of Islam regarding orientalism, Universalists and cultural relativism still remain detached among the scholars and activists. The topic of women’s role in politics still remains a contentious debate which calls for balance and clarity on the same.

The agenda of feminism has two extremists; one explores the possibilities within Islam such as the theological part and the other looks at the Islamic framework. The latter group seeks to challenge the secular trends within Islam as well as the social forces behind it. It strongly stands against continued misrepresentation of women in the political and equality concepts as long as Islam is still in place.

The group is mainly comprised of scholars who are Western-educated and leftists. As outlined earlier on the three phases that led women to politics, studies on women and gender within the Islamic societies were uniformly critical in the 1980s but they hatched into more specific and women oriented interests and agendas such as politics, policy reforms and shifts in the 1990s (Afzal-Khan, ND, p. 1).

Most Muslim women activists were the main drivers. As the debate developed, it completed its final state as Islamic Feminism in February 1994. This was meant to be a reform movement that sought to open up a debate and dialogue between religious feminists and secular feminists.

According to Menisci (2006), for women issues to be resolved, four key main areas need to be addressed. They are; religion, culture, law and education. These stand to be the most compelling domain issues that limit or rather deter women’s development.

The platform for dialogue between feminists of a secular nature and those of religious view seeks to charter a common ground within the two and strike an understanding on the legal standings/status of women as well as their rightful social positions. This dialogue is meant to strike a balance and refrain from the ancient hostile division between secular and religious views and thoughts among Islamic women activists and reformers.

The outcome of the Islamism in the modern world has spiked the gender consciousness among Muslims. Women have become more aware of their rights to representation and discrimination in politics which pass on legislations which they deem as bias.

They are therefore seeking justice and reforms in matters pertaining to their activities in public and private presentation, their human rights and their definite roles within a myriad of circles ranging from policy making, national development and politics.

The contradictions which are eminent within the Islamic discourse and the latent emerging consciousness among women have led to a number of changes in the Islamic laws such as the divorce law in 1992 (Eltantawy, 2007, p. 1).

This law has seen divorce become more costly to men and less accessible. This shows the magnitude at which the feminism spirit is gaining root within the Muslim world. Women no longer keep it to themselves but rather they are more aware of their rights and oppression points by the state.

It is therefore eminent that women are now in a position to renegotiate gender roles and codes through formation of various groups. The aim of these groups is to bring change to Islamic politics in regard to women (Menisci, 2006, p. 206). Strategists upon which Muslim women are using to counter their oppression and misrepresentation within the political context target two key proponents.

One is the internal patriarchal system and the other is the external force that threatens cultural and national boundaries of people. The Islamic feminism agenda seeks to describe a movement that seeks to maintain religious beliefs and at the same time, trying to promote the egalitarian ethics of Islam. Therefore, there is the need for women to distinguish between promotion of women rights and the totalitarian of Islamism.

The reformists who seek to interpret the religious law in tandem with promoting women’s rights are more inclined to the holistic social change. There is need to understand that the gender ideology within the Muslim society is spanning on a capitalistic system that requires sexual disintegrations that will accommodate the women’s demands.

Though this may divert attention to the gains on women’s interests, the main areas of focus should be on societal, economic, cultural and social conditions that seek to strengthen the legitimacy of Islamic system with women at the epicenter of these changes and legislatives.

The most pressing issue among women is the fact that their attention should be merely focused on the political and economic issues which are the main propellers in passage of any legislation.

A kiln ear to issues pertaining to governance, religion, societal, economic and political policies should be well versed, interpreted and understood by women in these activist groups so as to put them in a position to defend and promote their advancements within their rightful spots in governments.

In terms of interpreting the Quran and at the same time complying to the laid down state laws among Muslims, women’s position on political and economic issues remained under-pinned, unclear and under developed (Menisci, 2006, p. 209). Tenets of democracy, civil society, equality among women and religious minorities still remain un-defined within the feminism groups.

For example, when concentrating on the precepts of building civil society, there is need to understand and identify a specific kind of state. This is a society that embarks to enforce legal norms and is dedicated to protecting human rights without regard to gender. It also seeks to promote religion that is common to all as well as promote gender equality and sensible judgments within the confinements of law.

This calls for a legitimate strategy that will not contradict the common laws as well as religious laws while captivating the spirit of women within politics. Thus, a moderate approach upon which the status of women in the society can be changed is needed.

The approach also needs to take into consideration the rising modernized religious thoughts that people tend to interpret words and meanings differently compared to the ancient times. This paradigm shift within the height of globalization, power and politics has seen a lot of revolutionary thought patterns within realms of social, economic and political classes in that people are more subjected to the world conformities.

This is a pressing issue among the Islamists because the minority groups are becoming more aware of oppression and are creating platforms to push on their agendas on their rights’ violation thus seeking their respectable places within their society. This is so eminent among women across the Muslim dominated regions that are in a position to distinguish between the religious doctrines from laws, policies and institutions.

Their inspiration has been from Western feminism. The elite-learned Muslim women are pressing the agenda further and fighting for the rights of their counterparts on basis of education, religion, gender equality and a fair representation in the government. Politics provide a good platform for such deliberations within the Muslim society for it gives women in power more energy and backing as they lobby for such a revolution.

Conclusion

The debate on the role of women in politics serves to prove the increased proliferation of activists and groups spanning on the same agenda. Since there has been a misrepresentation in the political scenes, there have been a number of various regional manifestations which are part of the political philosophy of feminism and social movement among Muslim women (Kandiyoti, ND, p. 1).

This has led to feminism being at the center of scholars who continuously seek to find the gaps and solutions to the pressing issues of women, their representation in the political processes and their engagement in economic development.

The issue of women in politics should be a major agenda among the political elite, social scientists, lawyers, reformists and legislators among the Muslims. This is because pressing issues such as equality in context of Islamism is on the edge and at the same time, modernization and globalization of politics is another contradicting measure.

Thus, the two parting issues which are at the helm of bringing women’s interests to par need to be addressed first. Therefore, as women representation among Muslims continues to gain root, then an increased participation of women and clear definite rules on equality will emerge giving women harmony with the religious and state laws.

This will curb oppression activities and tendencies within states thus eliminating discrimination. Hence, women will see their rightful position within religious, societal, economical and political areas restored.

Reference List

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ISIS, or the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, is a terrorist group that appeared as a branch of Al-Qaeda in 2014 and conquered large parts of Iraq and Syria. For a long time, ISIS waged an open and then guerrilla war with the civilized world and sought to create an invincible total institution with millions of citizens (Engel, 2018). This paper aims to discuss the particular practices of ISIS and its impact on humans.

Socialization is the familiarization of people with social norms, that is, a process that helps people function in society. Significant figures such as family members, religious leaders, or teachers play a large role in this lifelong process. ISIS used such techniques of socialization as school education, religious socialization using symbols, and socialization through traditions. For example, children in ISIS solve math problems where they count flowers and weapons. Physical education lessons take place in clothes with the symbols of the IS. Because socialization occurs with the participation and pressure of teachers, religious and political leaders, and parents, children from any country would behave the same under such influences, although children who already had previous socialization skills would certainly feel and demonstrate stress and rejection.

Resocialization is a process in which a person is taught norms and values when transitioning from one social role to another. Many people who voluntarily left their countries of residence and joined ISIS underwent resocialization and learned new values and ideologies. In Raqqa, young women were forcibly married to new husbands from local combatants, while men were recruited into guerrilla warfare for less responsible positions. The total institution is a closed social system where strict rules govern life. It is separated from society by space, property protection, and laws. Such a system includes prisons, military complexes, private schools, or closed psychiatric institutions. Notably, Hisbah had all the elements characteristic of the total institution.

Thus, the practices of ISIS and its impact on humans were discussed. The articles that I read enriched my understanding of the Islamic State and its practices without changing my view of the group, which was already negative. Highly likely, western people could not change the views of ISIS members on infidels, at least in the short term. It will be difficult because the ISIS members deliberately decided to become a part of their chosen social system. However, if the circumstances force them to make alternative decisions, they could be able to change their perceptions.

Reference

Engel, P. (2018). ‘Sometimes the gun is taller than the kid’: How ISIS uses schools to indoctrinate children.INSIDER.