Category: Islam

The Islam religion is primarily known for their belief in the Quran as their primary material of reference as it guides them in their daily conduct. The religion further believes in their first prophet Muhammad who creates an understandable link between God and His people. The Quran, the Islamic holiest book, presents a wide range of theological topics. This topic is tied to Muhammads biography, which created a great debate between the believers, leading to the division of the believers and intense rivalry. However, other scholars have established some theological teaching linked to Muhammads life experience in the Islamic era. These thoughts, such as fatalism, fire up the debate regarding Gods preexistence, plans, and human free will. With the differences in the theological teachings, the earlier Islam divided into Kharijites Sunnis and Shias.

The central division of these groups was based on the political and religious succession on how the Muslim community could be guided after the death of the chief prophet Muhammad. Kharijites, also known as al-Shurat, separated themselves from the Sunnis and Shias based on their solid political position, where they adopted a radical approach to communication. They further declared the Sunnis and Shias infidels and false Muslims, which further widened the gap during the first Islamic civil war. The Kharijites expressed their extreme hate and division by expressing that the rival group deserved to die.

The Islamic religion has different approaches and teachings with the division in faith. Among the earliest approaches discovered in early Islam is the Mutazila, the Ashari school, and Maturudi. The Mutazila were the first division that appeared in the early Muslim civil war after the death of the third caliph Uthman (Huda, 2001). This was the era when other Muslims were opposing Alis leadership, but the Matazila did not seem to condemn or sanction his leadership or his opponent; they took a neutral stand. The Mutazilas believed that reason and rational thought even to the use and existence of the Quran. They believed in Gods creation of the Quran, which raised a heated debate in Islamic theology, especially in the belief in Gods Omnipresence.

The Ashari school was later developed in the 10th century to counter the Mutazilas teachings. Their orthodox dogmatic approach agreed with the Mutazilas on reasoning to understand and interpret the Quran. However, they differed on reasoning in discovering the moral truth but revelation. Their stand was refuted by the third school of Maturidi, who believed that moral truth could be found through reasoning and not necessarily by revelation.

Ash¿arism as the most important and Influential tradition of systematic theology in Sunni Islam

Comparing the three schools, the Ashari school tends to have a firm reliance on God thus was adopted by most Sunnis. The Sunnis are the largest Islamic denomination, commonly known as Ahl as-Sunnah wal-Jam
h or Ahl as-Sunnah (Frank, 1991). By adopting the Ashari school by the Sunnis, Ash¿arism became the central systematic theology by Muslims as its consideration followed the solid tie for God as an Omnipresent.

Comparatively, throughout history, human beings have had a strong belief in a Supreme being hence bestowing their faith in that Supreme being. Its central ideology has been based on the divine revelation from the unquestionable Supreme creator. However, faced with daily life experiences, humans have had questions about undertaking their activities. Some based their reason as the best approach, and others opted for revelation from the divine powers. Their claims contradict each other, prompting a disagreement in ideology and even physical fights. With people stuck in between revelation by the divine power and societal morals, it escalated a colossal debate which those firm believers of religion consider reason in some areas, but a strong belief in the revelation.

Most debaters agree that the main difference between the early Islamic theological schools has been ideological differences. Sunni Islam has been the leading adopter of the Kalam, a systematic theology considered to be the true tradition of Islam (Frank, 1992). However, they are faced with opposition from the Athari, who considered themselves the Islamic remnants. This raises more intuition to affirm if Ash¿arism still is the essential systematic theology in Sunni Islam.

With the sudden death of the prophet Muhammad, it can be depicted that the Muslims were not prepared to live without Him. The Muslims had a strong dependence on him for the prophetic translations, teaching, revelation, and Hadith in which the Islam based their faith in (Frank and Gutas, 2005). Prophet Muhammad is regarded as the writer of the Quran under Gods guidance; some hadith and teaching were not readily interpreted before His death. As such, his death left the Muslim in darkness, unable to translate all his teaching. To try to understand the Quran and apply it in daily life as a believer and good Muslim, the Kalam was introduced, which was based on speech.

The Kalam was often based on rational argument and debated the make conclusions. The Kalam followers and scholars falsified the Falsafa on their emphasis on the Greek text. They preferred using the Quran and Hadith only to fill any gaps that might have been realized in the Quran regarding daily life and decision-making. Frank explains that the gaps realized in the Quran are the attributes of God, the differences like the Quran. The revelation, the human free will of living and determination, and the nature of sin and faith.

The difference was on how to address the gap left by the created differences, which others regarded as orthodox. However, this cannot be true because the remaining Muslims were not anticipating the change or reverse of Prophet Muhammads teachings. Instead, an explosion of ideas created a misunderstanding between the religion. The first Misunderstanding was the idea of free will, where many Muslims had a deterministic belief that humans did not have the free will of living. They believed that God was in control of all human activities and had control of how men should think, believe and act. This belief upholds Gods power expressed in the Quran by Prophet Muhammad that God was in control of everything happening in the world.

However, the same freewill teaching is contradicted in the same Quran teachings that humans had a sure way to act so as not to suffer any consequences of their disbelief. Among those who considered this approach are the Qataris, who argued that if humans had no control over free will, then the Quran should not be dictating people to do specific actions to justify their beliefs. Their stand was also supported by the Kharijites and Ibadis, who linked free will to sin and belief (Namazi, 2017). In that man had free will in making their decisions. If these decisions were terrible, he could have sinned and was subjected to the consequences of sin. Consequently, sin and belief gave man freedom to choose whether to follow the Quran teachings or he is a Khaffir.

The Kharijites believed in the intimate connection between man, faith, and sin, where a man was responsible for his actions determining his faith and sin if he fell for any. This made the Kharijites believe that they were justified to kill Ali and those that supported or took no stand on this subject. Among those who took that stand were the Sunnis who had adopted Ash¿arism. The Asharis belief that it could have been wrong for the followers to prosecute their leader and sentence him to death because he disobeyed the sacred religious laws. As they were the true believers of revelation, they were to let Gods will be done as he could judge that leader and punish him accordingly.

The free will stand off the Asharis is further withheld by Ahmad ibn Hanbal who considered the orthodox approach as the best approach to Islam teaching. Ahmad argues that if people had the free will and autonomy to interpret the Quran texts based on their intellect was unjustified. He championed the traditional understanding of the scriptures in the Quran and Hadith. He believed in the traditional prophetic interpretation, unlike the Kalam, who followed other logical evaluations of the text and interpretation (Walzer et al., 1972). However, due to daily life experiences where one was required to make decisions, some of the Quran interpretations by Asharis and scholars like Ahmad failed to stand as it was not easily related in all events. Thus, it necessitated logic and evaluation to make some of the daily decisions.

The Asharism adopted by the Sunnis seemed not to address human curiosity in free will in decision making and other teachings even from the Christianity that upheld the Trinity. In an attempt to explain curiosity, they adopted a more approach meant to improve the human intellect (Griffel, 2018). In the third century, more scholars attempted the adoption of dialectic theology, although not directly in an attempt to lower and cure human curiosity. However, this approach seems to contradict the traditional Sunnis teaching, which purely believed in the literal translation of the Quran in daily lives. In defense of their ideas, these Scholars explained that they attempted to close the gap increasing between free will. They acknowledge both the supremacy of revelation and the rational approach where one can use their intellectuality to address their challenges and experiences.

Further, the idea of revelation in Ash¿ar+ by some Muslims was ignited when Ashari sided with Ahmad. Ashari was born and raised by a staunch Mutazilite stepfather. It was expected that he would continue defending the Mutazilite ideology as it had attracted many scholars of higher intellect though and gave people free will. Many believe that his sudden change of stand might have been due to the revelation of the idea which he strongly defended. Other scholars consider that through his behavior and actions, the idea of revelation might have been due to vivid dreams where he encountered Prophet Muhammad. With this change, he supported the traditional ideas associated with Ahmad but enforced it with the Kalam doctrines.

The enforcement and adoption of Kalam doctrines made more Sunnis consider his approach as they thought Ash¿ar+, a strong defender of Mutazilite teaching, aimed to address the differences within the believers. Despite Ahmad getting more supports from other Muslims due to his prosecution by the state to accept the Mutazila school of laws, Ash¿ar+ considered the traditional approach too extreme hence taking a neutral ground (Thiele, 2021). The Mutazilite, with the aid of the government, consider the reliance of Hadith to fill the gap in the Quran as an unjustified approach. They saw that Ahmad and his followers could have fabricated some of the tales to suit their interests. This consideration justified Ashari taking the neutral ground. His approach could later be the most accepted teaching in the Sunni world.

In Ashariss teaching, he explains that he has attributes that are neither Himself nor other than Himself. Ashari further explains that one should accept the Quran teaching as they are and realize that there are gaps in the Quran that require more reasoning to understand them. Additionally, he explains that the creation of the Quran might not be justified as, in essence, the Quran is eternal. So far, there was no contradiction between the two rival groups, Mutazila and Hanbals, led by Ahmad on the Quran is the literal translation of Gods direct word. The difference was in the period in which they came into existence.

Since Ahmad considered the Quran eternal as God was everlasting too who had no begging or end life, the Quran was everlasting and was his idea. On the other hand, Mutazila viewed the Quran as created as it was revealed to humans by Muhammads writings under Gods guidance. Finally, Ash¿ar+ closed the gap by stating that the Quran was uncreated, insisting that it existed as Gods knowledge to uphold Gods attributes, but through the words and sounds, the Quran becomes created.

Concerning the free will division, Ashari argues that humans had control through his neutral stand approach, but it was limited. The autonomy showed that God entrusted humans to make their decisions but gave them options from which they could choose. The theory favors Mutazila, who insisted that humans had the power to make their own choices, but it is also limited by Ahmads belief that God is in control of all options in human life. Thus, humans had the freedom to live, but their choices were limited to options controlled by God, and each choice had its counter actions.

Although not directly, the Asharims is supported by the later school of theology known as Maturidi. The Maturidi took influence from Murijia, although they are closer to Mutazila than the Asharis are. They insist that the human faith and action were not unconnected and only God knew one true belief of a person. Therefore, one should not judge the other based on their actions as only God knew his people spiritually since the faith does not increase or decrease based on action. The Maturidi explain that humans had a free will to decide what was good or bad without the aid of revelation or strict considerations of the Quran teachings and Hadiths, which Hanbalis widely accepted. The Maturidi approach can be equated to other philosophers like Frank argued that Ash¿ar+ did not denounce his early teaching of Mutazila. Ash¿ar+ was adopting the Alhaddith idea a general allegiance to traditional position cut not an affirmation that he adopted the Hanbalite traditionalism.

Initially, Asharism was considered less influential as it lacked enough scholars and followers to further champion Ash¿ar+s idea after his death. However, more scholars and followers from vastly different regions later emerged, showing that his teaching had spread widely. These scholars were discovered to have been disciples of one of Ashari followers, Abu l-Hasan al-Bahil+. These students are credited for laying the foundation for future Asharism. Although not directly, they are also credited for creating foundations that saw the eradication of Kalam in Andalusia, which served as a facilitator of the spread of the Asharism in that region. By eliminating another primary competitor, Kalam, it created more room and more influence on how Asharism could have been the best approach than other teachings, hence attracting more followers.

The Asharism were later faced with controversies and prosecution from some rulers; however, it was eased by the rise of Nizam al-Mulk rose into the leadership of Nishapur. Just like the early prosecution of Ahmad by Mutazila affiliated leaders, Asharis followers received massive political support for standing by their faith. Nizam, one of the followers of Asharis teachings, advocated the building of the first establishment of Islamic (Makdisi, 1981). Being an Ashirite, Nizam appointed more scholars in the highest school leadership positions, ensuring that students received the Asharism teaching, thus spreading this religion and gaining influence.

Makdsi could further discuss the approach as a strategy to infiltrate the traditional school of law established by Ahmad. Under the conditions in which the Asharis had been placed previously and even facing persecution but stood by their faith, by approaching the traditionalist, they received legitimacy hence highly welcomed and their ideas further overshadowing those of the Ahmad traditionalists. The dominance led to the opening of more Islamic institutions led by Ghazali, who moved beyond the bounds of traditional Asharism (Makdisi, 1990). Ghazali contributed mainly to the rise of neoAsharism, which withheld the traditional Ashari mode of Kalam adopted by most of his disciples. Since his teachings did not fully reflect Asharism doctrines, Ghazali doctrines did not represent Asharism in its typical approach.

Despite Makdisi attempting to prove that Ghazali approved the traditional theology of traditional Hanbalites, Ghazalis actions were opposing. However, as per the teaching of Ashari where he insists that the public should not judge the leader on his action; only God knows his faith. Considering this thought, Ghazali was still regarded as supporting Asharism by faith (Ghazali.org, 2021). Moreover, with his more affiliates in his neoAsharism teachings and more students, his teaching was further accepted by those Muslims who supported Murjid as it was closer to their teachings.

With the growth of the Madrassa system, which has been in place up to this era, the Ashirsm gained popularity and other faith beliefs that believers must endure. The Asharis believers mostly depict the endurance they faced through many prosecutions and persecutions. Furthermore, the teaching on choosing the neutral ground to unite believers, unlike the extremist, further attracted the followers. As for today, Islam is asked to choose peace which is the teaching resulting from Asharism.

The Ashari theology is among the early primary theologies establishing itself as the most important, dominant, and influential tradition of systematic theology in the Sunni Muslim. The Sunnis being the majority in the Islamic religion shows that the Asharis was the dominant teaching in the central Islamic teachings (Paret and Carthy, 1954). As the theology influenced the extinction of other teachings like Murjid, Asharism established itself as the dominant religion. It was considered that it accurately translated Prophet Muhammads teaching and guided the Muslims on better living methods without being extremists or compromising others free will of life. The dominance was further increased by establishing better schools and Islamic institutions with mandatory Madrassa classes.

The main principle held by the Asharis is that God had attributes that were neither Himself nor other than Himself. This theory was set to solve the dispute between the Traditionalists, Kharijites, and Mutazila. They had a division whether God was like a human because the scriptures kept stating body parts like the hand of God. Ideologically they differed where traditionalists insisted on revelation and literal understanding while Mutazila and Kharijites instead that humans needed intellect evaluations to interpret the Quran teaching.

Further, the Asharis considered both antagonizing group ideas and insisted that the Quran was eternally depicting that it preexisted and not created. However, through words and sounds and its time, it was written by Prophet Muhammad was thus becoming created. Lastly, the Asharis supported free will but under restriction from God. They believe God has given people free will, but he has limited them on the options, and each has its consequences. The free will teaching has attracted more followers, with each Muslim allowed to pursue their intuition and strive to satisfy their curiosity but under restrictions of free will. Thus Asharism is considered by many Muslims as the best theology.

Reference List

Frank R., 1991. Elements in the Development of the Teaching of Al-Ashari. Le Muséon, 104(1), pp.141-190.

Frank, R. and Gutas, D., 2005. Philosophy, theology and mysticism in medieval Islam. Aldershot, Great Britain: Ashgate Variorum.

Frank, R., 1992. The Science of Kal
m. Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, 2(1), pp.7-37.

Ghazali.org, 2021. Al-Ghaz
l+  ghazali.org. [online] ghazali.org.

Griffel, F., 2018. Ibn Taymiyya and His Ash¿arite Opponents on Reason and Revelation: Similarities, Differences, and a Vicious Circle. The Muslim World, 108(1), pp.11-39.

Huda, Q., 2001. The History of Islamic Theology: From Muhammad to the Present, by Tilman Nagel. Translated by Thomas Thornton. 329 pages, index. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2000. $28.95 (Paper) ISBN 1-55876-203-5. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 35(1), pp.67-68.

Makdisi, G., 1981. The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Columbia University Press.

Makdisi, G., 1990. Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 109(2), p.175.

Namazi, R., 2017. 403The Quran, Reason, and Revelation© 2017 Interpretation, Inc. The Quran, Reason, and Revelation: Islamic Revelation and Its Relationship with Reason and Philosophy. University of Chicago, 43(3).

Paret, R. and Carthy, R., 1954. The Theology of al-Ash ari. The Arabic texts of al-Ash aris Kitab al-Luma and Risalat Istihsan al-Khawd fi Ilm al-Kalam, with briefly annotated translations, and Appendices containing material pertinent to the study of al-Ashari. Die Welt des Islams, 3(3/4), pp.304.

Thiele, J., 2021. Preprint of: Jan Thiele. Ash¿arism in the $afcid Era. InPhilosophical Theology inIslam: Later Ash¿arism East and West. Leiden: Brill, pp.298336.

Walzer, R., Stern, S., Hourani, A. and Brown, V., 1972. Islamic philosophy and the classical tradition. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

Islam is the youngest of the world religions, and the modern popularity of the doctrine speaks of its rapid spread. In 2015, there were over 1.8 million Muslims in the world, which is about 24% of the global population (Lipka, 2017). However, coercion or forced imposition is often cited as the main reason for the rise of Islam. In this paper, I am going to talk about trade as the main way of spreading Islam in the world.

The history of Islam is often associated with military campaigns and violence as the main vehicle for the dissemination of the teaching. Azad and Zafar (2017) underline that some orientalists argue that Prophet Muhammad& and his followers responsible for propagating their faith by the force of compulsion (p. 34). However, this assumption is based on bias and misconception, due to which researchers confuse the expansion of the borders of the Islamic State with the spread of Islam as religion. (Azad & Zafar, 2017). Thus, in Western and Eastern history, a rather incorrect view of the rise of the teaching in the world was fixed.

The spread of Islam is associated with the rapid growth of civilizations, as well as the beginning of active trade between different parts of the world. Michalopoulos et al. (2018) note that the Islamic world came to dominate the network of the most lucrative international trade routes that connected Asia to Europe (p. 3214). The main aspect in this regard is that Muslims, unlike representatives of other religions, were engaged in direct exchange. This means that instead of hiring agents and intermediaries to transport goods, Islamic merchants traveled all the way in person. This factor has greatly contributed to interpersonal social contact and the spread of the message.

Thus, the spread of the opinion about the violent military spread of Islam is erroneous. The rise of the teaching is associated with the explosive growth of trade, which is in line with the patterns of the appearance of Muslim countries along ancient trade routes (Michalopoulos et al., 2018). This perspective on the spread of Islam as a world religion makes it possible to exclude the probable bias that characterizes earlier historical theories.

References

Azad, M. S., & Zafar, A. R. (2017). Contrast opinions of orientalists on the spread of Islam: A critical analysis. Social and Cultural Studies, 16(2), 21-38.

Lipka, M. (2017). Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world. Pew Research Center.

Michalopoulos. S., Naghavi, A., & Prarolo, G. (2018). Trade and geography in the spread of Islam. The Economic Journal, 128(616), 3210-3241.

Introduction

Islam religion maintains that the great good is peace, which means the total surrender to the will of God and the greatest goal of mans life is the only way to attaining the mission. Muhammadanism was used instead of Islam until recently. According to them, it seemed it seem to bear the meaning of worshipping Muhammad. The term Islam is meant for all creation and not for just a particular individual or state, nor does it imply such a relationship. (Andrew,113-125).

The universalism of Islams Religion is based on the message of the prophet Muhammad

Muhammad founded the Islam religion in Mecca. Mohammed was an entrepreneur and was also managing the business of his wife Khadijah, who was also a rich entrepreneur. Mohammad started visiting caves outside the city to find ample sites for meditation because of his great interest in Religion. Muslims believe That one night as Mohammad was meditating, he heard Angel Gabriels voice, which instructed him that he was the messenger of God. He was convinced that this was the voice of true Allah speaking through Angel Gabriel and therefore began insisting that other gods are evil and spreading Islams Religion. (Writing the Life of Muhammad)

Muhammads message was based majorly on five pillars of faith and duties which represented submission to Gods will by Muslims. These include Faith, the Declaration of faith that there is no God but Allah must be recited by a new believer converting to Islam. Muslims must pray five times a day while facing the city of Mecca. This takes place mostly in mosques or anywhere. They also give a special religious tax termed Alms by giving the poor money. They also fast from sunup to sundown in the month of Ramadan, eating basic meals at the end of the day. This implies that food and water are not more important than faith. Finally, they are expected at least once in a lifetime to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. This is referred to as Hajj, which takes place annually.

Quran is the most vital source of religious authority and is believed to be a holy book with actual words of Allah. According to Muslims, the will of Allah was expressed through Angel Gabriel, which was revealed to Muhammad. After the prophet died, the revelations were summed up in a book, the Quran. Ten years after the Hijrah, the prophet died in 632 CE, and Religion had spread over a huge part of the Arabian Peninsula. His life implied that what followed had to be a different formation because he was the last prophesying. A formation of government set up called caliphate was formed, which ruled of the middle of the caliph. By the 8th century, the land of the Atlantic Ocean had been conquered by Muslim armies to the Indus river, and the caliphate stretched 6000 miles west and east. An important role was certainly played by the Religions zeal. (Resilient Prophet)

Conclusion

In conclusion, based on the massage of Prophet Muhammad which is believed to have been conveyed to him from Allah through Angel Gabriel while he was meditating in the caves. The only God was Allah, and all the other gods were evil. The Muslims believe and respected this massage which led to Universalizing of the Religion of Islam originating from the Arabian Peninsula spreading rapidly across Afro-Eurasia. This was the reason why Islam continued spreading after the prophet Muhammad died.

References

The Resilient Prophet. The Prophet Muhammad, 2020.

Writing the Life of Muhammad. The Prophet Muhammad, 2020.

Andrew, Youpa. Summum Mentis Bonum. The Ethics of Joy, 2019, pp. 113-125.

Introduction

According to the United Nations, womens rights are fundamental human rights that require all women to be treated equally and fairly in society. Yet most women are still denied equal opportunities as men due to their femininity. For decades, rights groups have made significant efforts in the fight against inequality to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women. These include rights to education, equal opportunity in the workplace, political participation, and the freedom to make independent personal choices in their lives. Despite the enormous progress made concerning gender equality, women still experience harmful, discriminatory practices and other institutional barriers to equal participation in society. These inequalities underpin various problems that disproportionately affect women, such as lower pay, inadequate healthcare, and sexual and domestic exploitation. These challenges have also contributed to the growth of new campaigns, such as the #MeToo movement that aims to address the prevalence of sexual abuse and other issues that women face. The Islamic and Judaism perspective on womens rights is often used as a tool to deny women equal rights and perpetuate gender discrimination.

The View of Islam on Womens Rights

Some predominantly Muslim nations (in Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East) are still opposed to the idea of granting equal opportunities for both women and men. This is despite Prophet Muhammeds teachings which state that there is no difference between males and females regarding their rights, virtues, duties, merits, or as far as their relationship to Allah is concerned (Quran 2: 228). In addition, all people are promised the same penalty for evil conduct and the same reward for good behavior (Izadi, 2020). This explains why at the onset of Islam, Muhammed granted women property, inheritance, and other social rights, particularly the freedom to accept or reject the terms of marriage (Legacy of a Prophet, n.d). This was seen as progress to grant women equal opportunities, especially when they had few rights. Therefore, this shows that women in the East could own, manage, and dispose of property centuries before their West counterparts had the same rights (Bishin & Cherif, 2017). In this context, Islam abolished discrimination towards women and issued a complete code of conduct for all individuals.

In the countries that practice Islam, legal and social reforms aimed at improving womens status tend to fail due to influential and powerful opponents who perceive them as undermining the religion. Scholars have adopted divergent views regarding Muhammeds teachings and the Quran throughout the centuries. The strictest of these religious outfits is the Hanbali jurisprudence that forms the basis of hard-line modern Islamic perspectives, including the Salafist movement and ultra-conservative Wahhabism. Some of their stern beliefs are derived from the Quran (4:34), which states that men are womens protectors since Allah has created them with one more (strength) than their counterparts; therefore, men should support women by all means. The verse has made some scholars argue that it has been misinterpreted by religious establishments and believe that males should act as female guardians. Some of these beliefs have continued to isolate women in the eyes of the legal system in countries where Islamic law is practiced. Regulations underpinned by religious convictions contribute to the deterioration of womens rights.

The Islamic teachings that follow the Hanbali and Shafi schools of thought dictate womens education, dress, and social life, as well as restrict the times they interact with men outside their family as much as possible. This is why many parks, means of transportation, and public buildings are segregated by sex. Failure to observe some of these prescribed guidelines is often met with rejection, including lashing, amputation, and stoning (Samadi, 2021). Girls and women are usually confined in their homes unless a male family member accompanies them.

The guardianship system imposed on women infringes on their rights and freedoms. This is because they cannot freely make significant decisions regarding their own lives since they need to get permission from their male companions (Patoari, 2019). For instance, in Iran, Afghanistan, and Saudi Arabia, females are required to have the consent of their male guardians, such as brothers, uncles, fathers, and husbands. They have to get their guardians approval before they get married, travel, divorce or seek medical assistance. Religious practice usually denies them access to employment opportunities or even the ability to engage in different hobbies. The practice does not change even if the womens guardians are abusive. As a result, this contributes to gender violence because it is difficult for the victims to file complaints on their own without the consent of the guardians, who may be the perpetrators. This has also contributed to forced and child marriages because such decisions are made by the family, rarely involving the individuals in question (Anishchenkova, 2020). Thus, in most Islamic nations, the decision of the father or guardian is final, even when the women do not support it.

The View of Judaism on Womens Rights

Since its inception, Judaism has had a patriarchal religious tradition where women had a lower status compared to men. The traditional Jewish law limited a womans role to that of a wife and mother. Women were expected to raise and care for their families and were scarcely involved in prayer life or education (Cohn-Sherbok, 2021). In addition, the male rabbis were responsible for making all laws that directed all spheres of Jewish life, while women were never consulted. For example, although it was the womans duty to prepare food, the male rabbis regulated the dietary laws (Kashrut). Nevertheless, the Jewish teachings emphasize equality for both men and women. The Talmud also highlights the significance of social equality among all Jewish people (Cohn-Sherbok, 2021). Despite the patriarchal system in Judaism, the womens movements in the mid-20th century influenced some Jewish denominations to achieve greater equality for women. Different Judaism sects have diverse perspectives on womens rights.

In Reformed Judaism, women have almost equal rights to men in worship and other spheres of life. This denomination allows women to be ordained as rabbis, form minyan, and sit together with men in the synagogues. Reform Judaism also permits women to pursue higher education and careers while raising a family (Youssef, 2019). However, despite the Reformed Jewish teachings about the equality of women and men, women continue facing challenges in exercising their rights. Jewish women have almost no opinion over their reproductive choices. Judaism views all life as sacred but women are expected to adequately care for their well-being. Even though unborn children are considered valuable, Reformed Judaism perceives a mothers health as paramount. For example, Mishnah Ohaloth 7:6 prohibits a woman from sacrificing herself to save a fetus, and if the mothers life is threatened, abortion is allowed (Jewish Views on Womens Rights, n.d). Due to the Jewish value of the sanctity of life, Judaism condones and mandates abortions. Therefore, although Reformed Judaism has allowed women to exercise some freedoms, these rights are limited in some circumstances.

In Orthodox Judaism, the womens role is perceived as separate but of equal value to men. Nevertheless, this denomination follows the patriarchal religious system where women are still restricted to the role of being wives and mothers. As a result, they are discouraged from pursuing higher education or religious leadership. The Jewish law (Halakha) emphasizes that women should not be permitted to occupy leadership roles (Cohn-Sherbok, 2021). This is because of the belief that pursuing higher education or leadership roles will make women neglect their primary responsibilities of being wives and mothers (Kook & Harel-Shalev, 2020). In this case, in 2016, the ultra-orthodox Jewish rabbis from the Satmar sect issued a decree that banned women from going to universities. The rabbis argued that pursuing higher education was against the Torah (Fenton & Rickman, 2016). Also, some other ultra-Orthodox Jews have prohibited women from driving because the practice is considered immodest. Not to mention, in Orthodox Judaism, women pray separately from men. Thus, women can only enjoy the freedoms that are in line with Jewish teachings.

In Orthodox Judaism, only men have the right to initiate a divorce. As a result, some women may be trapped in marriages against their will (agunah) if their husbands refuse to provide the divorce document (a get). In such a case, the women cannot remarry as they are still tied to their previous marriage (Garfinkel, 2021). Therefore, it is evident that womens rights are greatly constrained in Orthodox Judaism because they have no choice in pursuing education, leadership responsibilities, or divorce.

Solutions to the Problem as Presented from the Perspective of these Religions

Different religious viewpoints towards women have not prevented civil rights organizations and governments from trying to uplift the legal status of women in regard to Islamic and Judaism jurisprudence. To improve the perspectives of Islam and Judaism toward womens rights, several actions should be implemented. In this case, the Islamic and Judaism religions should reaffirm that their religious practices are not used to justify the infringement of human rights. For example, domestic tranquility (Shalom bayit) is a central principle in Judaism. However, the rabbis should clarify that women should not endure domestic violence so as to maintain happy families. Muslims should also introduce legislation that criminalizes all forms of violence against women and protect them from abusive situations. In addition, there is a need for the Islamic and Judaism religions to analyze and amend their practices and laws to ensure they respect and uphold the right to equality and non-discrimination (New UN Report, 2020). For instance, Jewish law should also allow women to initiate divorce. The law should also implement strategies to ensure that the men provide divorce documents to avoid trapping women in unwanted marriages.

Conclusion

Some Islamic and Judaism teachings are often used as a tool to deny women equal opportunities under civil law, perpetuating violations of their rights. This contemporary issue is propelled by divergent views expressed by Hanbali, Shaffii, ultra-orthodox Judaism, and other religious sects against women. For instance, the imposition of male guardianship and divorce laws against women violates womens rights. Therefore, to curb some of these problems, Muslims and Jews need to reaffirm that their interpretation of the scriptures is not used to justify the infringement of human rights. Giving every woman the right to choose and determine their future may ensure underlying conflicts are addressed, leading to peaceful coexistence and a more prosperous world.

References

Anishchenkova, V. (2020). Modern Saudi Arabia (understanding modern nations). ABC-CLIO.

Bishin, B. G., & Cherif, F. M. (2017). Women, property rights, and Islam. Comparative Politics, 49(4), 501519. Web.

Cohn-Sherbok, D. (2017). Judaism: History, belief, and practice. Routledge.

Fenton, S., & Rickman, D. (2016). Ultra-orthodox Jewish sect bans women from going to university. The Independent. Web.

Garfinkel, E. L. (2021). The JPS Jewish heritage Torah commentary. The Jewish Publication Society.

Izadi, J. (2020). Womens nature in the Quran: Hermeneutical considerations on traditional and modern exegeses. Open Theology, 6(1), 342-359. Web.

Jewish views on womens rights & reproductive choice. (n.d). Reform Judaism. Web.

Kook, B.R., & Harel-Shalev, A. (2021) Patriarchal norms, practices and changing gendered power relations  Narratives of Ultra-Orthodox women in Israel. Gender, Place & Culture, 28 (7), 975-998. Web.

Muhammad: Legacy of a prophet. Muhammad and women. (n.d). Public Broadcasting Service. Web.

New UN report on religious belief & the rights of women and the LGBTQ+ community. (2020). Equality Now. Web.

Patoari, M. (2019). The rights of women in Islam and some misconceptions: An analysis from Bangladesh perspective. Beijing Law Review, 10(05), 1211-1224. Web.

Samadi, M. (2021). Advancing the legal status of women in Islamic law. Brill.

The Quran. (2005). Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, Oxford UP.

Youssef, M. (2019). Gendered paradigms in theologies of survival: Silenced to survive. Lexington Books.

Background

Humans are considered the most important beings among all the animals created as they can distinguish between right and wrong. Muslims believe humans are born in a state of purity, and as they grow, they make decisions that are by and against Islam teachings. The creator sent his prophets to humanity to perfect good conduct among humans and bring to fruition the seeds of virtue in human nature. The Quran condemns those who sin and praises those who follow the teachings. Worldly realities make it hard for humans to choose between right and wrong despite possessing the instinct of morality, which is inborn. The Holy Quran contains all teachings related to humanity that all humans need to follow. It offers guidance to all men, emphasizing the adoption of high moral standards. The concept of humanity in Islam is built upon the pillars of peace, tolerance, obligations, good governance, endurance, and tranquillity, which guide how human beings relate with others per the Quran.

The Concept of Humanity and Islam

Human beings are conjoined together due to the state of them being human, thus the concept of humanity. Humanity is a term that refers to all humans, the feeling people have toward each other, and the qualities that make them humans (Nasution, 2021). Naturally, humans interact with others; they are known for their unique differences from other beings and are created by a supernatural being that Christians call God and Muslims Allah (Nasution, 2021). Islam is a religion that is followed and practised by Muslims. It has significantly impacted humanitys evolution through its contributions to philosophy, education, art, medicine, and statecraft. Islam promotes humanity through its teachings in the Holy Quran (Khalid, 2020). In the book, Allah addresses all Muslim Ummah and directs them to enjoy what is right and avoid what is wrong, as they are the best of people grown for humankind. The Islamic culture is based on high moral foundations (Khalid, 2020). The Holy Quran spearheads the Islamic teachings on humanity, directing how people should relate to each other.

Islamic Teachings on Humanity

Islamic teachings on humanity are codified in the Quran, a holy book for Muslims. The instructions have been communicated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). Islam is identified as the teachings instructed in the Quran (Muzykina and Rysbekova, 2017). It also dictates how they have been put into practice by Muhammad (S.A.W). In the Quran, emphasis is placed on the oneness of human beings as they have a common ancestry. Humankind was one nation, and Allah sent messengers with His Holy book of truth to judge a man from his deeds (Khalid, 2020). Unity is highly advocated for as the teachings direct that differences between people be resolved through mutual understanding. Although humans have differences in fingerprints and D.N.A.s, all have a common ancestry, thus the need to accept each other as part of the extended family (Khalid, 2020). All these teachings are found in the Holy Quran, which advocates for peace and love among humanity. With an emphasis on love, the dignity of human beings is attained.

The dignity of Human Beings

The right of every human being to be loved, treated ethically, and respected is highly emphasized by the teachings from the Quran. The Quran places great emphasis on the dignity of men despite their being differences in race, gender, or even status (Khalid, 2020). It results from all humankind being regarded as equal despite some visible differences, such as earthly possessions. Allah created all human beings equally, and no one else is superior to the other. Allah is the only one with the right to judge, not any other person (Khalid, 2020). According to Islamic teachings, everyone has the right to enjoy freedoms and should not be denied because of gender or colour (Khalid, 2020). The Quran does not advocate for only Muslims to enjoy the rights and freedom brought about by dignity. It educates broadly, stating that no man has the power to deny others their liberty or rights.

The Rights of Every Human Being

The Islamic religion teaches that humans are unique beings created by Allah, with particular possessions that are not found in other animals. The unique gifts include knowledge, free will, a soul, and a conscience. Allah created Adam and Hawwa (Eve) first, and the generations of the world have evolved from them. Humans are considered unique creations and have been put on earth by Allah. They act as His Vicegerents and have been honoured by him (Khalid, 2020). They are entitled to equal treatment and have the liberty o enjoy fundamental Islamic rights like the right to life, justice, security, and freedom. In Islam, human rights emerge from two basic principles: equality and dignity (Ahsan Nyazee, 2022). Through the Quran, Allah communicates His final word to humankind through the prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). Allah commands generosity, doing good and justice towards man, and forbids any deeds that are oppressive and shameful (Khalid 2020). The Quran was meant to address all humanity at all times.

Every man or woman, Muslim or non-Muslim, is entitled to some rights. Islam lays down the rights directed by Allah and must be observed by all humanity. The rights include the right to life, which is considered the most important. The Quran refers that no man should murder as it is the greatest sin; only Allah has the right to take life as He is the one who gives (Ahsan Nyazee, 2022). Other rights man is entitled to include the right to safety of life due to justice, equity, security, ownership of freedom, freedom of expression, and protection against dictatorship (Ahsan Nyazee, 2022). Human life is considered sacred and should be respected at all costs. Allah grants the rights, and no individual or institution has the power to alter them in any form. In the contemporary world, the Sharia laws guide how offenders of these rights are punished according to Islamic law and teachings.

Different Views on Human Nature

The true identity of human beings on earth has been a mystery that many scholars from various fields have tried to solve. Identifying humans true identity, existence, and presence on earth has been challenging. Many individuals with varying religious beliefs accept that humans are the best from art created by supernatural beings, are unique, and possess skills special to them. In the different holy scriptures, the concept of humankind gives a diverse understanding of mans true nature. Humankind is considered one of the most exciting topics of discussion in sociology, philosophy, and anthropology (Muzykina and Rysbekova, 2017). Man dominates life on earth due to his ability to communicate and the intellectual capacity they hold. From all the beings created by Allah, man is the only one gifted with the ability to name and look after the other creations. Religious individuals have engaged in modern approaches aimed at fully understanding the nature of man through areas of biology, psychology, religion, anthropology, humanities, sociology, and history.

The Human Nature in the Quran

Man has been gifted with distinctive and unique qualities among all Allahs creations. The Quran mentions that man is created excellently and beautifully; this indicates superiority to all other innovations like the moon, stars, and sun. Due to this occurrence, man is placed at the top of Allahs creation hierarchy. The Quran indicates that man is created in the best form and provided with creative intelligence and the power to speak and make choices freely (Abdul Razak, 2018). Due to this revelation and the fact that man is given these qualities for only reasons the creator knows, man is chosen as Allahs vicegerent (Khal+fah) on earth (Abdul Razak, 2018). Man is considered unique as he was created on the last day by Allah after all the other creations. The fall of man from the privileged position is guaranteed if they fail to follow the teachings of Allah. The choice is left to man to decide whether to follow or go against the teachings of the Quran.

Aspects of Humanity in Islam

Man is considered the deputy to Allah on earth as he foresees all the other creations. God gave authority to man to fulfil a crucial role on earth, but not to be a rival of God. As Allahs Khal+fah, man is given authority and power to manage, preserve and rule the world on His behalf (Abdul Razak, 2018). It should be noted that this does not signify that Allah makes man the master but only his deputy, who has the privilege to act on His behalf on some issues. From the Quran, Muslims learn that from the office of vicegerency, man can use it in two forms, either for good deeds or to misuse it, impose injustices, and spread evil across humanity. Muslims believe that man has a dual nature, the body and the spirit (rk%) (Abdul Razak, 2018). The body is made of clay and is mortal, while the soul is immortal and leaves the body upon mans death. Human beings need to be valued and respected as they are a unique creation of Allah.

According to Islam, man is brought to earth originally with no single stain of sin. He is pure in his soul and has not committed any deeds against the teachings of Allah. Man is also entrusted with Allahs trust (Am
nah) to oversee His creation on earth (Abdul Razak, 2018). He is also tasked with the covenant (m+th
q), which signifies that the whole of humanity has accepted to be under Allah as their sole creator and Lord (Abdul Razak, 2018). Through this covenant, Allah has imbedded the knowledge in all humanity that He is the one and only Lord that needs to be worshipped. In the Quran, the man was taught the names of all things. Allahs attributes (al-asm
) were introduced by Him, again elevating mans position on earth (Abdul Razak, 2018). Unlike the angels, man has the freedom to choose and make decisions based on their liking, whether bad or good. Man is also forgetful; this is seen from the beginning when Adam eats the forbidden fruit despite being cautioned. The nature of being forgetful is inherited and adopted by all humanity.

Islamic Cultural Tradition on Humanity

In the Islamic tradition, love is considered the most vital factor and plays a huge role in understanding humanity. The moral laws established by the Quran educate against terror or violence and advocate for love, mercy, and peace (Jlsb Journal Library and Imcra Journals Library Imcra 2020). Muslims view Islam as a religion of compassion and love and the Quran as the sole source of messages from Allah, which portrays Him as merciful. The Quran states that Allah loves those who do good and respect His teachings, and He does not like immoral or aggressive people. Islamic practices such as zakat and sadaqah were adopted to enhance the concept of humanity to help society (Jlsb Journal Library and Imcra Journals Library Imcra 2020). From Islamic teachings, the valid owner of all wealth is not man but Allah. He distributes the wealth how He sees fit; therefore, those that He blesses are required to give back to society and share with those in need. Zakat is considered an order from Allah that must be fulfilled accordingly by all the faithful. It is given to those in need in the Muslim community.

The Ultimate Goal for Humans

Muslims believe in peace and love, which is advocated by the teachings found in the Quran. Based on the instructions, the ultimate goal for all human beings is to secure a peaceful society. The path to peace is believed to be paved by humanitys dignity, justice, and unity (Khalid, 2020). Peace liberates humans from bad decision-making and takes them in a sacred direction. It ensures all human beings reconcile between their need and greed. The Quran dictates that human efforts have a purpose: to provide all humanity dwells in peace (Muzykina and Rysbekova, 2017). The messages in the Quran are there to direct humans towards seeking the path to dignity and unity. The information from the Quran dictates a message of hope, peace, and faith, with the main message being that faith in God is an assurance of finding everlasting peace (Khalid, 2020). The Quran emphasizes justice by directing human beings to stand out firmly for justice. The lack of adherence to justice signifies there is no unity or dignity.

Humanity is an essential aspect of the Islamic religion as it justifies the teachings of Allah. Muslims practice the Islamic faith, which signifies Allah as the supreme being and the Quran as the Holy book. All instructions directing humankind on the things to do and those to avoid are stated in the Quran. Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) came to pass Allahs communication to the whole of humanity with emphasis on the attainment of peace and love. All human beings have the right to love, respect, and equal treatment, as stated in the Quran. Among all creatures created by Allah, humans are superior and possess unique features and skills from the rest. Man is considered Allahs deputy on earth and is tasked with protecting the creation. Human beings can choose between doing wrong or right. Their actions have punishable consequences if they are against the teachings of the Quran. All the wealth that man has belongs to Allah and must be shared accordingly with those who do not. Islam is based on the foundation of love, peace, and unity, which are the core teachings of the Quran.

Reference list

Abdul Razak, MA (2018) Human nature: an Islamic perspective, Journal of Islam in Asia, 8(1), pp. 251274.

Ahsan Nyazee, I (2022) Islamic law and human rights, Islamabad Law Review, 1(1). Web.

Jlsb Journal Library and Imcra Journals Library Imcra (2020) The idea of humanity in Islam, S.E.I. Conference Proceedings, 3(2). Web.

Khalid, S (2020) Humanity in Islam, Law Mantra, 5(9). Web.

Muzykina, Y and Rysbekova, S (2017) Islamic perspective on a human being: reviving old beliefs in the modern context, PONTE International Scientific Research Journal, 73(12), pp. 02-12.

Nasution, HA (2021) Islam and trans-border humanity: humanitarian intervention in the perspective of Islam, Himmah: Jurnal Kajian Islam Kontemporer, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 643655.

Islamic art encompasses many artistic disciplines, including calligraphy, architecture, painting, ceramics, textiles, and glass. The author of the article, Art of Islam, covers aspects of the Islamic art language. They include how Arab art is related to Islamic art, the overall idea of Arabic calligraphy, the Arabesque, sphere and cube, and the Alchemy of light as examples of Islamic art forms. Since figurative representations are generally inadmissible in Islam, the expression takes on religious meaning in art, illustrated in the calligraphic engraving practice. It furthers spiritual and creative significance in calligraphy, a key aspect of Islamic art.

Islamic architectural style, such as mosques and opulent paradise gardens, is also steeped in religious connotations. In Islamic art, recurring aspects such as spatial floral or stylized designs are used in factors that include the Arabesque.

The authors assumptions in presenting the thesis are that Arab art is a vague term. It creates a fabricated homogeneous Arab culture that subverts the reality of a diverse region filled with a plethora of diverse experiences and ways of seeing the universe. Although Arab artists emphases on finding insight from the realities of modern life, it is only through Western awareness that their particular cultural scenario is defined. One of the significant issues of framing and labeling art from the region as Arab art underlines the dominance of only a few narrow interpretations of Arab culture. The question boils down to whether the phrase Arab art corresponds to a distinct reality.

According to the article, Greek, Byzantine, early Christian, and Roman art styles and pre-Islamic Persias Sassanian art inspired Islamic art. Persian styles were introduced with various nomadic infiltrations, and Chinese impacts had a pivotal effect on Islamic pottery, artwork, and textiles. Moreover, the authors valuable concepts are that three key characteristics of Islamic visual art are geometric patterns, floral motifs, and calligraphy. These elements, which frequently overlap throughout art forms and genres, are impacted by Quranic precepts.

The outstanding strength of the reading is that it provides a clear representation of the abstract style, which is a distinguishing feature of Islamic art. Unlike Western art, it is made up of geometric shapes and designs rather than images and figures.

The Arabesque interlinking of geometric, leaf, and floral design features, is one of these art forms. One common myth about Islamic art, as in the previous views, is that it is iconic and contains no characterizations of animals or humans. Consequently, Islamic art produces a void that excludes all of the globes upheaval and ardent ideas, replacing them with a sequence that expresses tranquility, balance, and peace. The Islamic revelation, not chronological precedents or impacts, is the ultimate source of Islamic art. This unique origin explains its remarkable consistency across space and time.

Furthermore, the question that comes to mind from the article is that since the signs of creation begin through imagination. It is through imagination that we can trace them back to their emergence and definitions and that we can comprehend them by identifying the aspects of the transcendent that they appear. Islamic arts restore the essential components of our environment to their archetypal and geometric realms, which are more easily integrated into the divine unity, making Islamic culture and its arts so centered on geometry. Therefore, art created by Muslims, and perhaps even art created in Islamic communities, is not always Islamic art. The component of art, as formed by discovery, rather than the artists individuality, differentiates an Islamic work.

Work Cited

Burckhardt, Titus. Art of Islam: Language and meaning. World Wisdom, Inc, (2009).

Introduction

The crusades are known throughout history for shaping the relationship between the Islamic and Christian religions. The target regions for the crusade were mainly the Islamic regions of the Mediterranean Basin, creating civil and religious wars for over two hundred years. Various Muslim scholars have written the crusade accounts from the first crusade to its later years. These accounts, commonly known as memoirs or chronicles, vary according to the period and the writers perceptions regarding the crusaders. Some of the chroniclers include Ibn al-Athir (1146-1193), Ibn al-Qalanisi (1703-1160), Ibn Jubayr (1145-1217), and Usama Ibn Munqidhi (1095-1188). Each chronicler gives an account of the crusades from personal anecdotes and previous records from other eye-witnesses. This paper discusses Ibn Jubayrs chronicles on the crusaders, his perceptions of the events of the crusades, and its significance in understanding some of the Islamic cultures today.

Chronicles of Ibn Jubayr (1145 to 1217)

Ibn Jubayr was a Hispanic chronicler who describes his pilgrimage travels in Egypt, Mecca through Sicily during the third crusade, where he observes the culture of Muslims and Christians living in these regions. As a result of Franks invasion, he follows that the Muslims in these regions live harmoniously with the Christians, which agitates him because he feels the Muslims would adopt the Christian culture in their land. Jubayrs account defends Muslims and the Islamic culture as pure entities that may become corrupt with the invasion of Christian cultures. According to Jubayr, Christians are like pigs and other evil things, and he condemns the Muslims c-habiting with Christians in these regions on why they could agree to live among such filth. He states that there is no excuse before God for a Muslim to remain in a city of unbelief unless he is merely passing through the land&. According to this statement, Jubayr urges his fellow Muslims to avoid settling down among Christians because they are non-believers. Additionally, he warns the Muslims to be wary of the Christian temptation and cleanse themselves appropriately when seeking Gods forgiveness for associating with Christians. Jubayrs hostility against Christians causes him to form anti-Christian rallies to motivate the uninterested Muslims to be hostile to Christians and expel them from their lands.

Significance of the Crusade on the Islamic Culture Today

Generally, the crusade caused the clashing of cultures and religions due to different interactions with different groups of people, especially Muslims and Christians. The conflicts between faiths and cultures enhanced new experiences and shared cultural and religious ideas with people moving from place to place, spreading the new ideas further. Because of the Islamic defeat during the crusade, most Muslims became insecure, defensive, and oversensitive towards other communities worldwide, leading to their exclusivity from the rest of the world. Muslims also feel like the rest of the world disregards their presence as a culture in possessing world power and cultural ranks as it was before the crusades defeat. Most Muslims perceive the crusaders invasion as the cause of their position today in world politics, economies, and cultural values, undermining them as a minority group. To this day, Muslims have built their own cultural and religious barriers which define their values as a religion away from other cultures interference

Conclusion

In conclusion, most of the Muslims perspectives on the crusade regard Christians as barbarians who are cruel and unclean. The Islamic chronological accounts emphasize the negative aspects of the crusade more than the positive side, such as the sharing of ideas and co-habiting in harmony between Christians and Muslims. Historians should consider such biases before recording the accounts and using them to define a given culture since all accounts have two sides of the story. Finally, the crusade has a significant influence on the Muslim culture today, which explains the exclusivity and conservative nature of the Islamic civilization to date.

Introduction

Islamic financial products have become common all over the world. The media has been significantly influential in promoting these Islamic financial products. Some of these products include Musharakah which refers to a joint venture, Mudharabah which is profit sharing, Ijar (leasing), and Hawala, which is an international fund transfer system (El-tahir 2015; Pielichata 2015). This research proposal suggests a study to understand how digital media has promoted Islamic financial products in the Kingdom of Bahrain.

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the suggested study.

1. Is the promotion of Islamic financial products by digital media a negative interpretation of Islamic finance and banking as defined by Islamic teachings and Sharia Law in the Kingdom of Bahrain?
2. Has e-marketing negatively affected the use of Islamic banking and finance in the Kingdom of Bahrain?

Aims and Objectives

The main aim of the study is to determine whether Muslim faithful in the Kingdom of Bahrain believes that the promotion of Islamic products through e-marketing suggests a negative interpretation of the concept of finance according to Islamic teachings and Sharia Law.

The objective of the research proposal is to investigate the opinions of Muslims in the Kingdom of Bahrain whether e-marketing of Islamic financial products and services goes against Islamic teachings, and whether this affects their use of the same products and services.

Significance of the Research

The research study proposed is significant for various reasons. One such reason is the fact that e-marketing has been very influential in the understanding of Islamic finance banking systems. More states that use Sharia Law are opening up to the use of digital media in attracting businesses to their banking system. However, there has been criticism on the impact of digital marketing and its interpretation through both the Islamic teachings and Sharia Law. The arguments are based on whether the religion allows for the marketing of these said products, and how this then translates to the uptake of the services among the Muslims.

Literature Review

The Kingdom of Bahrain is guided by Sharia Law. The majority of the population is Muslim and adheres to Islamic teachings and the said Sharia Law. Indeed, finance is a big part of Islams teachings. In fact, Naim et al. (2016) explain that the concepts found in Islamic finance have allowed it to grow even during world financial crises. There are many critics that believe that the Islamic finance model is actually better than the conventional one (Hasan 2018; Uddin 2018; Lai, Rethel & Steiner 2017; Rudnyckyj 2017). Indeed, there are many differences between Islamic and conventional finance. For example, Islamic banking does not charge interest as compared to conventional banking (Modan & Hassan 2018; Gundogdu 2018; Varol 2018; Shaikh 2017; Ayachi, Saidane & Mansouri 2017; Aidrus 2014). Despite this, it is common to find conventional banks in Islamic states (Bambore & Singla 2017; Bansal, Smith & Vaara 2018). This has mainly been due to the presence of non-Muslims in such areas.

Additionally, in this day and age, it has also become common to find non-Muslims seeking alternatives offered through Islamic banking (Simmonds 2014; Shahzad et al. 2014; Digital Islamic economy 2015). In an attempt to attract as many clients as possible, companies and banks that offer Islamic banking services have taken up digital marketing. Many digital marketing strategies have been employed in the promotion of Islamic finance products in the Kingdom of Bahrain (Holland 2017; StanChart offers Islamic trade finance in Bahrain 2014; Bahrain: CBB outlines Islamic finance strategy 2013; Kotilaine 2016; Bank ABC Islamic performs in tough conditions 2016; Bahrain is back 2013; Bankers congregate in Bahrain 2015). There are some scholars that have argued that direct advertising normally involves over-exaggeration of the benefits of a product (Tahir 2015; SBP to launch media campaign 2013; Yousaf 2016; Parrag 2012). On the same note, like Kumar, Trehan, and Joorel (2018) note, the same advertisements and promotions also downplay the shortcomings of the same products. In Islamic teachings, this can be considered haram.

Methodology

Research Philosophy

The research philosophy revolves around how the researcher gathered and analyzed information. The researcher will adopt the positivism research philosophy. Bambore and Singla (2017) explain that positivism entails the use of existing theories and premises to test the hypotheses and aims of a research study.

Research Design

The researcher will employ a qualitative and exploratory research design. The main reason for this is the fact that the study seeks to determine the beliefs and opinions of the target population on the stated topic. Bansal, Smith, and Vaara (2018) confirm that a qualitative research design is best suited for studies that gather and analyze current opinions and beliefs.

Target Population

The target population is very large as it includes all the people that use Islamic banking services. The target population is assumed to have interacted with advertisements on any digital platform of Islamic financial products.

Sample Design

The researcher will use a stratified random sampling design to identify the right sample. This type of sampling design allows the researcher to divide the target population into several groups that represent the different categories of people in the target population (Kumar, Trehan & Joorel 2018).

Data Collection Techniques

The study will employ the use of both primary and secondary data collection techniques. A questionnaire will be developed to collect the primary data.

Data Analysis Methods

The study will use both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods.

Reference List

Aidrus, IA 2014, Islamic finance development: a role of the Kingdom of Bahrain, Finance & Credit, no. 47, pp. 3947.

Ayachi, RA, Saidane, D & Mansouri, F 2017, Potential of Islamic finance: a survey of Tunisian Northwest companies, Journal of Emerging Economies & Islamic Research, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 2842.

Bahrain: CBB outlines Islamic finance strategy 2013, MiddleEast Insurance Review, p. 23.

Bahrain is back 2013, Islamic Business & Finance, no. 77, pp. 1216.

Bambore, PL & Singla, V 2017, Factors affecting e-banking adoption and its impact on customer satisfaction: a case study of Ethiopian Banks, International Journal of Marketing & Business Communication, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1628.

Bank ABC Islamic performs in tough conditions 2016, Islamic Business & Finance, no. 95, pp. 2426.

Bankers congregate in Bahrain 2015, Islamic Business & Finance, no. 89, p. 19.

Bansal, P (Tima), Smith, WK & Vaara, E 2018, New ways of seeing through qualitative research, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 11891195.

Digital Islamic economy growing significantly: report 2015, CFO Innovation Asia, p. 2.

El-Tahir, H 2015, Bahrain: Leading takaful, MiddleEast Insurance Review, pp. 5659.

Gundogdu, AS 2018, The rise of Islamic finance: 2-step Murabaha, Asia-Pacific Management Accounting Journal, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 120.

Hasan, Z 2018, Academic sociology: the alarming rise in predatory publishing and its consequences for Islamic economics and finance, Journal of Islamic Banking & Finance, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 1125.

Holland, G 2017, Bahrain to host inaugural Islamic Finance Innovation Day next month, Reseller Middle East, p. 1.

Kotilaine, J 2016, Bahrains evolution as a financial centre, Banker Middle East, no. 184, pp. 2832.

Kumar, S, Trehan, M & Joorel, JPS 2018, A simulation study: estimation of population mean using two auxiliary variables in stratified random sampling, Journal of Statistical Computation & Simulation, vol. 88, no. 18, pp. 36943707.

Lai, J, Rethel, L & Steiner, K 2017, Conceptualizing dynamic challenges to global financial diffusion: Islamic finance and the grafting of sukuk, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 958979.

Modan, C & Hassan, R 2018, The possible inclusion of legal provisions in Islamic banking and finance, International Journal of Law & Management, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 662680.

Naim, AM, Bakar, MA, Md. Hussein, MN & Habibi Long, MN 2016, Issues and challenges in offering Mu

rabah and Mush
rakah products in Islamic finance, Jurnal Pengurusan, vol. 46, pp. 117.

Parrag, DAR 2012, The role of Shariah in shaping Egyptian consumers behavior towards sales promotion tools, African Journal of Business & Economic Research, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 6484.

Pielichata, P 2015, Bahrain could provide access to Saudi Arabia, Global Investor, p. 24.

Rudnyckyj, D 2017, Subjects of debt: financial subjectification and collaborative risk in Malaysian Islamic finance, American Anthropologist, vol. 119, no. 2, pp. 269283.

SBP to launch media campaign for promotion of Islamic banking 2013, Journal of Islamic Banking & Finance, vol. 30, no. 2, p. 110.

Shaikh, SA 2017, Analysis of minor proposals outside the mainstream Islamic finance in Pakistan, Journal of Islamic Banking & Finance, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 1121.

Shahzad, F, Zia, A, Ahmed, N, Fareed, Z & Zulfiqar, B 2014, Growth of Islamic banking in Middle East and South Asian countries, International Journal of Management, Accounting & Economics, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 215228.

Simmonds, R 2014, A move towards the digital age for Islamic banking, Islamic Finance News Supplements, pp. 1012.

StanChart offers Islamic trade finance in Bahrain 2014, Trade Finance, vol. 17, no. 1, p. 67.

Tahir, DHE 2015, Fresh evidence of growth and optimistic outlook despite market challenges, Islamic Finance News Supplements, pp. 6768.

Uddin, MA 2018, Can Shariah governance framework be the way forward for Islamic finance?, Journal of Islamic Banking & Finance, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 5563.

Varol, F 2018, From developmentalism to neoliberalism the changing role of the state and the development of Islamic business and finance in Turkey, Turkish Journal of Islamic Economics, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 118.

Yousaf, S 2016, Promotion mix management: a consumer focused Islamic perspective, Journal of Marketing Communications, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 215231.

Introduction

A REIT is a form of security that is traded in the same way as a direct investment and stocks in the stock marketundertaken through properties or mortgages. On the other hand, a trust is an organization that pools together a number of investments relating to REIT. Similar to stocks, REITs trade on grand exchanges.

REITs form part of Investment Trusts in Real Estate. These are trusts that give investors an investment guide in all landed properties. A REIT is the vehicle that mobilizes funds emanating from unit holders consisting of companies as well as individuals and for real estate investment (Khan, 2007).

Islamic REITS

This refers to a collection of schemes of investment in the real estate industry. In this case, tenant(s) are allowed to operate activities that are ethical and permissible in the Syariah.

There comes the question of non-permissible activities which make Islamic REIT so distinct. Some of the prohibited activities highlighted in the schedule include; interest-based financial activities or services (Riba); gambling or gaming that involves manufacture of commodities that are non-halal; Conventional insurance that comprises entertainment activities, which complies with the set rules of Shariah law; manufacture and sale of tobacco-based products; stock broking and share trading involving non-compliant securities of Shariah; and hotels and resorts. Guidelines also provide that compliance assessments must be conducted in circumstances involving mixed activities (El-Gamal, 2006).

Real estate authorities have a way in which to aggregate rentals derived from all the non-permissible activities involving the property in question.Where the non-permissible part of rental is more than 20% aggregate turnover, it is a restriction for the fund manager to invest in the particular real estate. Shariah Advisory Commission has set 20% as the benchmark. The managers, entitled to fund these programs; are advised to observe non-permissible trends, and reject any new tenant where it deems possible. The Guidelines, as well, provides the formula to calculate percentage of rentals from only non-permissible events over total tenant operating rental (Rosly, 2010).

The schemes associated with Takaful requires that the real estate should be insured before any activity is undertaken thereon; a regulation by Islamic REITs. However, there has speculation that Takaful Scheme cannot provide authorized or expected coverage. In the case of such limitation, Islamic REITs can intertwine or waiver conventional insurance schemes (Oliver, 2006).

Principles of Shariah Law

Right to life or Respect for life: This is called haqq al haya and requires both respect to the unborn (right after their spirit ruh is breathed through to the foetus), and social duties like respecting non-belligerents during war as well as using dispute -settling techniques where possible so as to prevent any violence which may risk lives of others or of oneself. Respecting life requires fundamentally understanding the fact that everlasting peace result from only justice; therefore stability must be sought.

Respect for the community: This focuses on the unit of the family, and on a much wider view, looks at the communitys expanding circleshumankind and all the sentient beings of the universe. Haqq al nasl is unique to the Islamic law as it holds that sovereignty, which is found in a countrys or a states power; for instance, Euro-American law of internationalism. Recognition of individual rights to life ensures that the society conforms to the legally stipulated regulations, and enhances sovereignty on various levels; all focusing on Supreme being; God. This contrasts with exclusive sovereignty concept, which is common with nation-state, found in mid-twentieth century.

Respecting free and private enterprise: it implies an individual freedom to own production industries and enterprises, which was felt at the beginning of twentieth century. Denying access to ownership of capital in an economy, which is capital-intensive, could amount to denying life itself.

Political self-determination (haqq al hurriyah): This term, islamically, stresses both the ruled and the rulers responsibility to permanently establish institutions that are designed in a way to enhance broad-based political involvement by each policy member in its governing role (Rosly, 2010).

Dignity (haqq al karama) is the obligation to have respect for human dignity, the helm of Islamic laws. The main aim of Shariah is to enhance relationship that exists between individuals and Allah. It expresses a deep understanding among individuals and Allah.

Knowledge (haqq al ilm): The duty of pursuing knowledge is the principle to success, irrespective of whether the context is public or private life. Islamic system of finance is based on five divine values, also known as the principles of Shariah law. These are prohibition of riba, application of al-bay (trade and commerce); avoidance of gharar (ambiguities) in contractual agreements- Prohibition of maisir (gambling); disengagement from production of impure commodities.

Differences between Islamic REITS and Conventional REITS

First is in terms of objectives where structuring and administering Islamic REIT is almost done in the same way as Conventional REIT. However, the difference comes where the Islamic REIT incomes are arrived at and how management of the fund in question is undertaken.

Secondly, the concern is on the tenant type and percentage of the rental income coming from tenants. In Islamic REIT, the tenants, in any property that has been acquired, have to carry out a business, which is in line with the principles of Shariah. In Conventional REIT, there is no such regulation to be met. Islamic REIT also holds that management of funds must be undertaken in a manner compliant with the Shariah while conventional REIT has no such rules (El-Gamal, 2006).

The main objectives of Islamic REITs include enhancing creation of modern assets and facilities for investors; finances an organizations plan and portfolio; provide adequate information to individuals who want to invest in Malaysias real property. The Islamic REITs will ensure that the corporation or an individual investor will not necessarily have to own such assets

In addition to these, Islamic REITs have the following objectives: Shariah aspects that refer to equity objective, and observing the purpose of Shariah, Maqasid Al-Shariah. Other objectives are the Islamic Contracts application; 20% capital for non-Shariah compliant trades; and Operational or Tabi aspects which refer to the efficiency objective of this reits. These objectives can be broken down into achieving success in management fees, yield tax, business strategies like operating investment, acquisition, as well as strategies of capital management yield improvement (risk and marketing); providing unit holders per unit with stable distributions and the potential to achieve sustainable long-term or lasting growth of these distributions (Khan, 2007, p. 56).

Islamic REITs have several merits, which is a development of conventional REITs, amongst them being professional management, portfolio diversification, participation in property market and income distribution: Some of the pitfalls of Islamic REITs, most of which are advantages of conventional reits, includes; In some jurisdictions, the taxation and regulatory framework is non-facilitative; they are risky, for example they are viable to property-related risks. In addition, there is lack of effective providers of re-Takaful and Takaful products at the regional level.

References

El-Gamal, M. (2006). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice, London: Routledge.

Khan, N. (2007). Challenges and Opportunities Facing Islamic Capital Markets and the Islamic Banking Industry Today. Islamic Finance News Vol. 4 , p. 21.

Oliver, K. (2006). Islamic Financial Markets Conference and Specialized Works. New York: Wiley & Sons.

Rosly, S. A. (2010). International Center for Education in Islamic Finance (INCEIF) IB 1006 Islamic REITS. London: Cengage.

A Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT) is a security that can be sold like stock. Concurrently, it can be invested (either directly or indirectly) in real estate through properties and mortgages. There are varying types of REITs with the major ones being Equity REITs and Mortgage REITs. There are also Islamic REITs mainly found in countries operating under Islamic Laws. Islamic Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) is similar to conventional REITs in many aspects. However, the difference is that REITs operate under Islamic laws namely Shariah (Zain, Azharuddin, Nadiah, and Abdul, 2007, p. 1). They are investment schemes in the real estate sector in which tenants operate activities that are allowed by Sharia principles (Ibrahim & Ong, 2008, p. 401).

Generally, the structure of conventional and Islamic REITs are similar. The only difference is that REITss seek to ensure that Sharia Laws are observed in all aspects of the investment. The goal of investing in real estate is to generate revenue. In REITs, the source of returns is scrutinized to ensure Sharia compliance. Thus, the operations of REITs in different countries are governed by both the government and Islamic laws. This paper reviews some of the studies done on IREITs with the aim of determining their effectiveness during economic downturns. This is a significant provision when considered critically.

The preference of IREITs as investment options has increased tremendously in many countries. However, the ability of IREITs to perform better than conventional REITs is not known with certainty. In order to know the effectiveness of IREITs when compared to REIT, the similarities and differences of the two have to be known. Conventional REITs attain their shares through investment companies/trusts. This type of investment can either be in the form of purchase, management, sale or lease of real estate property. It can also, be in the form of buying of shares in companies that are publicly traded. They enable inclusion of professional management in real estate and offer diversified venture portfolio for investors. REITs are of three categories namely Equity REITs, Mortgage REITs and Hybrid REITs. Equity REITs hold and manage returns generating assets. They are usually fully functional organizations and engage in the development, administration and acquirement of commercial real estate. Mortgage REITs are majorly involved in credit extension to real estate owners. They can provide both short-term and long-term mortgage financing. It is interest-oriented funding and incorporates risk-taking. This occurs due to the fact that real estate markets are astoundingly responsive to market interest rates.

Majorly, hybrid REITs incorporate mixed features of both equity as well as mortgage REITs. This means that they possess, manage and offer mortgage loans to real estate owners and developers. In all, IREITs apply Sharia laws while conventional REITs do not. These REITs have many benefits hence popular among investors. They investors invertors with a wide range of investment options (Chan 2008, p. 10). Investors can choose from the diversity of the products portfolios offered and can also spread risk. They also provide high liquidity thus shares can be easily converted into cash (Nelling, Mahoney, Hildebrand & Goldstein 1995, p. 1). In addition, there are tax transparencies and profits that investors make are never taxed (Chan 2008, p. 10). Finally, REITs usually earn investors high dividends as the proportion to be distributed to shareholders is usually high.

However, for the IREITs, there are additional advantages. IREITs have low correlation with most common stocks traded and act as a hedge against inflation (Chan 2008, p. 10). For this reason, IREITs can withstand economic downturns when compared to conventional REITs. Additionally, they earn higher dividend incomes, especially when a tenant operates a nonpermissible activity, and there is income certainty. Rental and real estate activities prohibited by Sharia laws that govern REITs include financial services in which interest is charged, gambling and speculation, conventional insurance, and entertainment activities considered unethical under Islamic laws. Others include the manufacture of cigarettes, stockbroking, and management of hostels.

Groups engaged in transactions might be personal investors, tenants, asset managers, as well as venture companies. According to regulation requirements used in Malaysia, companies offering REIT as an investment option must commit at least 50% of their total assets to real estate. This can be either directly or indirectly. The requirements for REIT administration are different in different countries. In the US, corporations are demanded to invest at least 75% of the entire assets in real estate so as to run REIT. Korea and Singapore requires a minimum of 70% of total assets to be in real estate in order for a company to operate REIT (Chan 2008, p. 10). This shows that operating IREIT in Malaysia is affordable compared to operating REIT in other countries such as the United States.

REITs also require trustees who are custodians of investors assets (Chan 2008, p. 10). The trustees also safeguard the interest that investors have and all relationships are governed by a deed signed by all parties involved. Trustee deeds outline the goals of the REIT and the roles of management and the trustee. This ensures effective management of investors assets. In addition, REIT management requires that a property manager has to be contracted. The role of property manager is to control assets, prepare budgets and prepare financial records for all properties (Chan 2008, p. 10). These are uniform requirements across many countries and thus effects economic downturn cannot be analyzed using these aspects only.

There are limited studies on the performance of Islamic REITs. REITs have developed for a long time in western nations like the United States and Britain. They have operated for decades and have offered steady incomes and investment opportunities for individuals. Most investors in REITs have long-term goals and prefer large investment portfolios. However, developing countries, such as Malaysia, have not developed REITs as investment options compared to developed nations. According to Newell, Ting & Acheampong (2002, p. 109), Malaysia was the first country to develop Sharia compliant REITs. The property markets in these countries are not well developed and thus REITs is immensely attractive.

The business environment of developing countries is competitive, and thus REITs are attractive. Malaysia developed guidelines for IREITs and formed property trust funds (PTFs). The guidelines are Sharia compliant, and this attracted a lot of Muslim investors. However, studies have indicated that non-Sharia compliant REITs perform better than Sharia compliant REITs. Most researches have focused on the development of Islamic REITs and workability of Islamic REITs. Some studies have suggested that Islamic REITs provide wider portfolio diversification advantage and lower risks compared to conventional REITs (Chyi & Ting 2009, p. 208). In a study carried out to determine the effect of global financial crisis on REITs in Malaysia and other countries, analysis basis was on risk and return performance on market value. The study found that the global financial crisis negatively affected both property and stock markets in all countries under study (Hamzah, Rozali & Tahir 2010, p. 62).

Almost all REITs and IREITs in Malaysia reported negative results in investments. The average monthly returns that real estate companies in Malaysia posted were low and had a high risk compared to common stocks (Ong, Teh, Soh & Yan, 2012, p. 73). The REITs in Malaysia recovered faster after the global financial crisis. A study by Hamzah, Rozali & Tahir (2010, p. 62), found that during the global financial crisis, most of the REITs in Malaysia performed dismally. This is a critical provision when considered comprehensively with respect to REITs and its applicability in the financial markets.

There are suggestions that poor performance of REITs, both conventional and Islamic, could be due to the short time of development that they have had. Most invertors in developing countries are skeptical and cannot take the risk of increasing investment portfolios. Investors perceive REITs in Malaysia unfavorably, and this could be a reason for poor performance of both Islamic REITs and conventional REITs (Zain AzraI, Azharuddin & Nadiah 2007, p. 1). Many investors in Malaysia do not have adequate knowledge on REITS, and this leads to low demand and low rates of participation. In general, only a few comprehensive studies that seek to ascertain whether Islamic Real Estate Investment Trust performs better than the conventional Real Estate Investment Trust has been done. The topic needs more research to determine the influence of Islamic laws on REITS.

References

Chan, S 2008, Reit basics, Malaysian Business Journal, vol. 1 no 1. pp. 10-17.

Chyi, L & Ting, K 2009, The role of Malaysian securitised real estate in a mixed-asset portfolio, Journal of Financial Management of Property and Construction, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 208-230.

Hamzah, A., Rozali, M & Tahir, I 2010, Empirical Investigation on the Performance of the Malaysian Real Estate Investment Trusts in Pre-Crisis, During Crisis and Post-Crisis Period, International Journal of Economics and Finance, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 62-69.

Ibrahim, M & Ong, S 2008, Shariah Compliance in Real Estate Investment, Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 401-414.

Nelling, E., Mahoney, J., Hildebrand, T & Goldstein, M 1995, Real Estate Investment Trusts, Small Stocks and Bid-ask Spreads, Bloomington Press, Bloomington.

Newell, G., Ting, K & Acheampong, P 2002, Listed property trusts in Malaysia, Journal of Real Estate Literature, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 109-118.

Ong, T., Teh, B., Soh, C & Yan, Y 2012, Malaysian Real Estate Investment Trusts: A Performance and Comparative Analysis, International Journal of Economics and Finance, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 73-84.

Zain AzraI, A., Azharuddin A & Nadiah, A 2007, Islamic REITs in Malaysia: Practical Issues, Asialaw Journals, vol. 1 no 1, pp. 1-10.