Category: Islam

Introduction

Business ethics is a field of study that analyzes all the moral and ethical principles that govern the conduct of all the involved parties in commercial relations. This basically implies that business ethics is normative and it requires the formulation and application of certain standards which establish ways of deciding between right and wrong. This essay seeks to analyze the concept of business ethics in the Islamic religion as an indication of how decency, morality and fairness have been reflected in Islamic commercial transactions. An evaluation of what is allowed and what is disallowed in the religion will be conducted as a way of explaining why business transactions involving Muslims have to be conducted with certain levels of specificity. Most of the research will be guided by studies of different forms of literature. However, most of the consultations will be from the Quran and the Teachings of the Prophets.

Ethics in Islam

Islam is one of the religions that greatly emphasize ethical values in all elements of living. Moral codes and ethical codes are entrenched in all elements of a practitioners life, and these are substantiated by scriptural presence in verses of the Islamic Holy book, the Quran. From Islamic teachings, individuals are encouraged to be conscious of how they carry themselves both in private and public as this will determine the nature of their relationship with fellow human beings. There are rules governing personal life, other social dealings. When it comes to business relations Islam has a categorical value-based system that dictates how individuals on either side of the transaction will behave in order for fairness to be attained as well as for the relation to be genuinely ethical. The tenets of Islam as a religion outline specific principles that have to be maintained in regards to business transactions. These elements have been explained below:

Freedom of Enterprise

Muslims are allowed to choose make their own decisions when it comes to economic enterprise. Every practitioner of the faith is subject to the freedom of earning a livelihood and this, as spelt by the requirements of the religion can be attained through entrepreneurship or employment. However, each and every undertaking that an individual involves him/herself in must reflect a sense of responsibility. Persons are allowed to take up any career or business as long as works in tandem with the code of conduct outlined by the specific profession that the individual chooses. This basically implies that the individual chooses to do things that are allowed by law and stays away from those things that are considered illegal as per provisions of the law. The Quran and the teachings of the Prophet are used to establish the parameters that distinguish what is allowed and what is illegal whenever it comes to distinguish means of earning livelihoods. These stipulations also ban everything that is by average social standards considered illegal or unacceptable.

The religion disapproves everything that harms both traders and consumers in a market. This makes the element of a free market prevalent such that individuals are able to earn decent livelihoods without the governments involvement. The tenets of the religion also set the boundaries needed to ensure that incidents of injustice and malpractice are well punished. To a great extent, Islam tries to avoid any ties with states and regulations established by politically/religiously established governments. Individuals are left to take guidance from the Quran in matters related to business and it is only when they fail to abide by its teachings that Islamic states take measures to structure the market transactions based on Islamic principles. In this regard, freedom of enterprise in Islamic markets is modulated by teachings found in the Holy Quran as well as by the precincts of the temporal authority. In the early days of the Islamic religion, the aspect of market control was fundamentally carried out by the institution of the Muhasbah (Ayub 2009). The setup of the Muhasbah bore various functions with the topmost role being maintaining an eye on negative deeds that prevailed the market and society, as well as assessing the incidence of unfairness and other malpractices in the market.

Tenets relating to commercial transactions

Islam as a religion has established a framework that modulates the conduct of both producers and consumers of economic products. A typical Islamic market has rules and regulations that address the securities of both the purchaser and the seller. In addition, there are various norms of ethical discipline in commercial transactions involving practitioners of Islam, without which any business undertakings will be viewed as imperfect in the light of ethical excellence. The section below describes some of these tenets:

Earning Legitimately

Islam emphasizes the code of legal and illegal in business relationships. Some of the verses in the Quran that indicate the religions rejection of the unlawful acquisition of property include:

Do not devour one anothers property wrongfully, nor throw it before the judges in order to devour a portion of others property sinfully and knowingly, (Quran 2:188). Another verse that supports the same is, Do not devour anothers property wrongfully  unless it be by trade based on mutual consent, (Quran 4:29). The two verses above indicate Islams ban against the illegal acquisition of property. This code was emphasized by Prophet Mohamed who when queried about the best way to attain prosperity answered, a mans work with his hands, and every legitimate sale (Ahmad No: 1576). The Prophets teachings also advice individuals to steer clear of paths that may appear uncertain (Tirmidhi No: 2442). One of the business practices that are extremely condemned in Islam is the charging of interest for lent money. Teachings from the Quran see interest as a form of exploitation and oppression, and strictly forbid it.

Mutual Consent

In Islam, for a business transaction to be considered valid, all of the involved parties must consent to the deal. As such, any transaction that is sealed as a result of coercion is considered unlawful. The practice of taking advantage of another persons despair and overcharging them is regarded as exploitation and is strictly forbidden.

Truthfulness

Islam teaches its faithful to always be truthful in any business transaction that they are involved in. Any trader that conducts himself in a truthful manner is highly regarded and is held in the same esteem as martyrs. From teachings in the Quran it is said that Allah only approves business transactions where both the buyer and seller maintain truthfulness to each other (El-Gamal 2006). Wholesome lies and omission of certain truths to gain business advantage results in automatic loss of divine blessing.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness is among the fundamental principles of ethical conduct in business transactions involving individuals of the Islamic faith (Morris and Salam 2008, 87). Trust is considered as a prima moral virtue and is expected of all Muslims in all their endeavors. Individuals are expected to be sincere in the dispensation of their duties and at the same time maintain clean intentions. Persons are encouraged to avoid fraud and deception as means of acquiring wealth. The seller of a product is expected to reveal both the strengths and weaknesses of a product to the buyer, so that the latter can make informed consent when purchasing the item.

Generosity and mercy

According to the Islamic faith individuals are expected to be lenient and generous in commercial relationships. Persons claiming debts are expected to do so in ways that will not embarrass the debtor. In this regard, the debtor is supposed to be polite and generous when asking for his money. The debtor on his part is required to pay back all debts on time, as well as show appreciation to the creditor for allowing him time to repay the debt.

Fulfilment of business obligations

Islam gives a lot of prominence to fulfilling of promises and contractual agreements. Muslims are expected to maintain their business transactions truth, honesty and integrity. The Quran teaches that all persons have a moral responsibility to fulfill all their undertakings. One of the verse that clearly emphasizes this message states, If he makes a promise, he breaks it, and if he makes a compact, he acts treacherously, (Bukhari, No: 32). For the interests of both parties in a business transaction to be well safeguarded, all the pertinent details of a deal need to be well spelt out including the quantity and quality of deliverables, as well as the timeframes of contractual fulfillment. Therefore, the buyer must have the commodity for sale with him and an exchange should occur with the buyer without any disputes.

Prohibited business

Aside from stipulating the basic ethical practices governing fair trade, there are a number of items that are outlawed in both the Quran and prophetic teachings. These are briefly explained below:

Sale and purchase of prohibited items

There are certain things such as carrion, pig meat and any other animal or bird that either died of natural causes or was not properly slaughtered are listed as prohibited items and individuals are banned from trading in them (Visser and Visser 2009). Stolen items are also considered as illegal and persons who sell or purchase them are seen to act in unethical behaviour.

Sale of items bearing high risk potential

In Islam, individuals are only expected to sell only commodities that are present at hand. In the same way, traders are forbidden from selling items whose consequence is not clear or those whose purchase is considered risky (Hassan and Lewis 2007). For instance, the sale of fruits before they fully mature or ripen, or fish that have not yet been caught is disallowed.

Fixing of prices

In Islam, traders are allowed to make profits to certain justifiable amounts. It therefore goes that taking advantage of monopoly in the market, or the shortage of certain commodities in order to increase ones profits is considered illegal. Public authorities are allowed to intervene in markets that have been infiltrated with traders involved in unfair practices.

Hoarding of food items

The storage of foodstuffs while waiting to sell it when prices rise so that one gets the maximum level of profit is disallowed in Islam and anyone involved in such practices is seen to be involved in unjust financial conduct, hence contravening the code of ethics (Hassan and Lewis 2007).

Conclusion

Each and every society has a number of ethical and moral standards determining how individuals relate with each other when conducting business transactions. However, Islamic societies are more humane and less utilitarian than those of most secular states. The rules guiding commercial transactions for Muslims have remained unchanged since the prehistoric times and they are bound to be in operational for all time. This paper has analyzed the rules governing business transactions in Islam. To this end, various items that have been recommended by the religion and those that have been illegalized in Islam have been given a critical mention.

Reference List

Ahmad, Teachings of the prophets, n.d, in Hadith Encyclopaedia Version 2.1, Dubai: College of Islamic Banking, World Al-Lootah University.

Ayub, Mohammed, 2009, Understanding Islamic Finance, John Wiley and Sons El-Gamal, Mahmoud A., 2006. Islamic finance: law, economics, and practice. Oxford: Cambridge University Press.

Hassan, Kabir and Lewis, Mervyn K., 2007. Islamic finance. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Morris, Virginia B. and Salam, Monem. 2008. A Muslims guide to investing & personal finance. New York: Lightbulb Press, Inc. Quran 2:188; 4:29.

Tirmidhi, Teachings of the prophets, n.d, in Azmi, Sabahuddin(Ed) Hadith Encyclopaedia Version 2.1, Dubai: College of Islamic Banking, World Al-Lootah University.

Visser, Hans and Visser, Herschel, 2009. Islamic finance: principles and practice, Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Introduction and Background

The link between Islamic art and religion has been brought out clearly in the 3-part DVD series The Glories of Islamic Art. The movie attempts to expound how Islamic movements led major players such as Sinian in the field of art. In addition, it develops a memorable aesthetic heritage that has withstood the test of time and events.

The stunning film also depicts major milestones that have been achieved through the instrument of Islamic faith. Although faith and art have been interlinked throughout the various themes in the movie, it is profound to note that the two aspects are quite distinct to some extent.

Some of the groundbreaking themes explored in the 3-part DVD series include Ottomans of Istanbul, Sunni Mamluks of Cairo, Shiite Fatimids and Umayyads of Damascus. They all existed between the 9^th and 16^th centuries. The Citadel of Cairo was also an outstanding feature of Islamic art during this period of time.

A wide array of audience is capable of simulating the contents of the 3-part DVD series due to the compelling storytelling approach and unsurpassed beauty adopted throughout the film. In addition, Christianity, Judaism and Islam have been correlated in the movie by Akbar Ahmed in terms of shared values and trust.

From the movie, it is evident that between 1250 and 1517, both Syria and Egypt were ruled by the Mamluks before the Ottomans overpowered them due to military might (Yalman 96). Nonetheless, the Islamic society of Egypt was still dominated by the Mamluks even after being overthrown by the Ottomans.

Some historical records also indicate that their presence in Egypt was eminent as early as the 9^th century. During their rule, they managed to secure Egypt and Syria by crashing down the influence of both the Mongols and Kingdoms of Outremer. By the onset of the middle Ages, the Mamluks had already converted Cairo into a pure city of Islamic influence.

In course of the same period of time, scholarship, architecture, craftsmanship and unlettered soldier-statemans rule flourished. It is against this backdrop that this paper takes an incisive look at the Islamic art that was developed by the Mamluks of Cairo with cross reference to the movie The Glories of Islamic Art.

Between 1250 and 1260, the kingdom of Ayyubid was outwitted in Syria and Egypt due to the dominance of Mamluk Sultanate. By this time, slave trade was the main source of revenue and manpower for the Ayyubid sultans. The governing class also incorporated some slaves who were deemed to be fit enough to lead. Hence, family succession was not the only political leadership system in place.

The Ayyubid strongholds that had been left around Mediterranean region were finally inherited by the Mamluks. Due to the strong influence of the latter, a very powerful Islamic empire was created. This empire embraced both Islamic art and religious fundamentalism in extending its dominance beyond Egypt.

For instance, major urban establishments such as Medina and Mecca were influenced by the Mamluks rule in Cairo, Egypt. It is also worth to mention that the Islamic world benefited a lot from the artistic work, cultural and economic activities that were centrally located in Cairo as the capital of Mamluk (Atil 102).

The different lines of dynasties during the Mamluks rule in Cairo necessitated the division of Mamluks history into two distinct eras. The first era lasted between 1250 and 1382 and was dominated by Bahri Mamluks.

This group of Mamluk had originated from the southern parts of Russia. The second historical era of the Mamluks was ruled by the Burji Mamluks. It lasted between 1382 and 1517. They are also believed to have originated from the Caucasian Circassian race.

The Islamic Art among the Bahri Mamluks

To begin with, it is vital to mention that the whole reign of Mamluk period was defined by the Islamic art and architecture that were developed by Bahri Mamluks. Moreover, the generous patronage by the Mamluks was mainly boosted by spices and silk since they were major items of exchange during the east-west trade.

Hence, intense Islamic art and architectural activities that developed in spite of the internal strife that was eminent during that time. The Ayyubids masterminded most of the artistic techniques based on Islamic architecture from various parts of the world (Atil 107).

The new form of Islamic art was also given higher momentum by refugees who were migrating from the west and east. Some of the specialized art activities that were embraced included textiles, woodwork, inlaid metal work, gilded and enameled glass.

Nonetheless, the Cairo Citadel can be considered as one of the most profound Islamic art and architecture ever constructed during the reign of Mamluk as depicted in the 3-part DVD series. It is located at the middle of Cairo City in Egypt at Mokattam Hill.

The choice of this location for the construction of this Islamic fortification was largely influenced by the strategic view of Cairo coupled with fresh breeze blowing from the Mediterranean Sea. It is currently being used as mosque and museum due to its pre-historic nature.

The Ayyubid ruler by the name Salah-al-Din fortified this Islamic art of Cairo before 1183 CE so that it could be safe from the attacks launched by Crusaders. The Islamic art also had a lot of significance to the religion bearing in mind that it signified Islamic presence and authority in Cairo. As a result, both Fustat and Cairo were surrounded by a wall after Fatimid Caliphate was defeated.

The wall was supposed to house the Citadel. It is also interesting to note that the Egyptian government used the Citadel of Cairo as its centre of administration until the nineteenth century.

The choice of this Islamic art was mainly attributed by its secure nature and effectiveness to offer protection against external aggression. According to the synopsis of the 3-part DVD series, the Citadel was used by the Egyptian government up to 1860s when the Abdin Palace was constructed and adopted as the new administrative centre by Khedive Ismail who was the then ruler of Egypt.

Even after the death of Saladin, the wall that he had commissioned some years back was still under construction. The wall was still being constructed in 1238 although by 1184, the Citadel had already been accomplished.

It was given more importance because it was an Islamic art that signified both the significance and dominance of that religion. According to the DVD series, it is definite that the Citadel was highly valued.

The Well of Joseph supplied the much needed plenty of water to the Citadel of Cairo. The well was about 280 feet in depth. It is still an outstanding feature at the Citadel. The inner parts of the well are wounded by 300 stairs in form of spiral constructions in order to facilitate easy access. This also explains why it has been referred to as the Well of the Spiral (Ades 225).

There were myriads of aqueducts positioned on the ground surface that assisted in supplying water to the Citadel. Adequate water supply to the Citadel was later improved during the reign of Nassir who channeled much of the water needed from the River Nile.

However, the addition of mosque to the Citadel was the major contribution of Nassir. The Ayyubid structure that was built by Nassir was later converted into a mosque. By 1335, the structure had been modified several times to serve various functions (Ades 225).

For instance, the southern enclosure of the structure was added by Nassir. Besides, the courtyard and harem comprised the residential area of the Citadel were all added during the reign of Nassir. However, the House of Gold and the Hall of Justice were constructed inside the Citadel by the Baybars even before Nassir made further modifications to the structure.

The 19^th century events that surrounded the Citadel are quite fascinating. For example, its summit was perched with the 1848 Mosque of Muhammad Ali. The latter explains the reason why it is sometimes referred to as the Muhammad Ali Citadel. Although the Mosque of Muhammad Ali was named after his second son, the naming was largely meant to eliminate all the Mamluks dynasty symbols.

The significance of Muhammad Ali during his reign is an important feature that has adorned the Citadel. The present day Citadel still offers a vivid reminder of the Ottoman architecture that was extensively used to construct the Mosque of Muhammad Ali.

Needless to say, the 19^th century period witnessed the mosque as the largest structure within the Citadel especially after some sections of the Mamluk palace were destroyed (Ades 225).

As a matter of fact, replacing the Mamluk palace with the mosque was a definite attempt to do away with the memories of past detested rulers. Moreover, the mosque of Muhammad Ali was adopted as the official mosque for the state, taking the place of the mosque of al-Nassir (Ades 225).

The Citadel also accommodates two other remarkable mosques. Since the Bahri Mamluks period, the Al-Nasir Muhammad Qalaun Mosque has been operational. Besides, the Mosque of Suleyman Pasha was also built inside the Citadel using the architectural standards borrowed from the Ottoman Empire.

Works Cited

Ades, Harry. A Travellers History of Egypt. Cairo: Arris Publishing Ltd, 2007. Print.

Atil, Esin. Renaissance of Islam: Art of the Mamluks. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981. Print.

The Glories of Islamic Art. Ex. Dir. Akbar Ahmed. U.S. Relations with the Islamic World, Saban Center for Middle East Policy 2007. DVD.

Yalman, Suzan. The Art of the Mamluk Period (12501517). Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001. 85-103. Print.

The term Islamophobia is a word that has often been used to describe the discrimination that the Muslims face in Western Europe. The term emerged as a result of lack of a common understanding between the native Europeans and the Muslims politically, socially and legally. The term has in most cases been used imprecisely to refer to diverse phenomena including xenophobia and anti-terrorism. The use of this term has become widespread and mostly among the media and the politicians of the European countries. This research paper will focus on the issue of Islamophobia in Europe with particular interest on Switzerland.

A major demonstration of Islamophobia in Switzerland was exhibited when 58% of the whole population in this country voted for the banishment of Minarets, which are towers that are commonly associated with the places of worship of the Muslims. This was an act of betrayal on the part of the Muslims for it was as if they were being denied their freedom in countries in which they were citizens by law. The Muslims form five percent of the total population in Switzerland and this being no small number, their freedom of worship should be highly respected.

Immigrants from other Islam countries are in most cases seen as intruders and any hostility directed towards them is as a direct result of the conviction that such people are a threat to the freedom of worship of the other religions. The argument that the Muslims do not practise gender equality and instead tend to subject women to oppression has also been a factor that has contributed to the seclusion and disdainful regard of the Muslims in Switzerland. Therefore, not only are Muslims disliked in Switzerland because of their different culture but also because they defend ideas that openly contradict with those of most nationals of Switzerland (Haddad 20).

There is minimal public recognition of Muslims in the entire Europe, especially in Switzerland. The Muslims have had no choice but to remain culturally marginalized. The ironical part of it is that although the constitution of the Swiss guarantees the Muslims freedom of worship, there are no religious institutions such as a theological faculty or schools that will provide an opportunity to teach the upcoming generations the Islam principles and serve as a center for worship. Because of this reason, the condition of the Muslims in most European nations remains unchanged which is a major cause of their constant bemoaning.

The discrimination against the Muslims in the European nations has much to do with the attitudes of the very Europeans towards the same. Our views and opinions on people are greatly affected by the way we see them and what we see in them. In Switzerland, almost every national has learned to associate every Muslim face they see with the acts of terrorism going on across the globe. Because of this, the Muslims will always be subjected to open hostility for as long as the negative attitudes of the swiss on them do not change (Haddad 23). A major question arises: will Muslims at one time ever come to live as equal citizens to other Europeans with full rights?

In conclusion, the Muslim community is obliged to face open discrimination in the European nations and especially in Geneva, Switzerland. The major cause is the difference in culture and socially accepted ideas. It is high time the European community recalled their stance and gave the Muslim community ample time to practise their customs as required by their law.

Works Cited

Haddad, Yvonne. Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.

The issue of Islamophobia, as well as the term itself is relatively new, even though the phenomenon of exaggerated fear and prejudiced attitude towards Muslim people has been observed for centuries. Over the last couple of decades, Islamophobia has been aggravated by numerous clashes between the representatives of the Western societies and the individual groups of people originating from Middle East and African countries where Islam is the dominant religion. This happening has been researched by the scholars and experts of various spheres such as sociology, psychology, criminology, politics, public affairs, and international relations.

The present review studies the problem with the help of different sources such as books, journal articles, news portals, and websites. The issues of Islamophobia is characterised and defined as a concept. Further, the historical changes inflicted by various events are explored in order to follow the development of Islamophobia in the modern society. Next, the outcomes of this phenomenon are discussed. Finally, the pieces of evidence of Islamophobia in different countries are identified and presented. Basically, these are the four categories according to which the sources found for the work on this research will be divided and reviewed.

The Concept of Islamophobia

The Centre for Race and Gender of the University of California provides a detailed explanation and a definition of Islamophobia as a concept. This source refers to the Runnymede Trust Report published in 1991 that gave a start to the use of the term of Islamophobia. According to the report, this term stands for the groundless hostility directed at the representatives of the Islamic cultures (University of California: Center for Race and Gender, 2015). Gallup adds that the Runnymede Trust Report of 1997 provided more detailed information on the phenomenon of Islamophobia outlining several of its main components such as the assumptions that Islam is a fixed culture that cannot adapt to other kinds of lifestyles, that is it a religions based on violence, that its values differ from those of the West, and that is crude, primitive, and barbaric (Gallup, 2015; University of California: Center for Race and Gender, 2015).

Gallup (2015) also mentions an issue of the Runnymede Trust Report that appeared in 2004 and commented on the changes in the social environments in the West after the events of 9/11 and how they complicated the lives of Muslim people living in the UK and the USA. In other words, the massive social panic of the West after the events of 9/11 facilitated the association of all the Muslim individuals with terrorism, tendencies for unreasonable accusations and suspicions resulting in discrimination and marginalisation of the representatives of the Islamic cultures. In fact, about 50% of the population of the UK, Canada, and the USA admit that the Western societies generally are disrespectful towards Muslims, this percentage is slightly lower (but is still very significant in European countries such as Italy, Germany, and France) (Gallup, 2015). The ongoing clashes between the Western and Muslim worlds do not carry only cultural character; they have deteriorated to armed conflicts with thousands of victims. That is why Islamophobia as a phenomenon, social, and political tendency is the question of international relations.

The Development of Islamophobia

As mentioned earlier, Islamophobia is the phenomenon that has been active for quite a long while in the human society. It occurred in Europe after some of the states were taken over and owned by the Ottoman Empire for a long time (Goska, 2015). However, the events of 9/11 that happened in the United States were the point in time that made the rates of hatred towards Muslims skyrocket. In 2001, in the USA alone the number of hate crimes against Muslim individuals grew by 1700% (Khan & Ecklund, 2012). Surprisingly, even now, over a decade after those tragic terroristic attacks, not many psychologists took interest in the problems and roots of Islamophobia even though the rates of it have increased all over the world (Khan & Ecklund, 2012). The study by Khan and Ecklund (2012) compares the patterns of hatred or disrespect towards the Muslim population in the UK and the USA and finds them surprisingly similar with very frequent cases of anti-Muslim discrimination. The cause of this might be an extremely effective media propaganda that frames Islamic cultures as dangerous and hostile.

This source is extremely valuable for the investigation of the causes of Islamophobia and its mechanisms that form public opinions and launch stereotypes. While the authors of this article speak about the similar aspects of the attitudes towards Muslims in the USA and the UK, Goska (2015) discusses the different ideas of the people of Eastern and Western Europe towards the Muslim immigrants and refugees fleeing to the EU these days. The author points out the roots of the Eastern European alertness about the situation, and the Western European acceptance (Goska, 2015).

It seems that the factor of religious differences dominates the Islamophobic moods in the countries such as Poland, whereas Germany is more concerned about the political disagreements (Gallup, 2015; Goska, 2015). CAIR (Council of American-Islamic Relations) is another resource focused on the diverse attitudes of the Americans to Muslim people. It informs about multiple cases of Islamophobia found in the speeches and statements of the contemporary American politicians who claim that Islam is not consistent with the US Constitution (CAIR, 2015). This website explores all forms of Islamophobia present in the USA these days and helps the readers to understand how versatile and harmful stereotypes can be. As one may notice, Islamophobia is a global phenomenon reflecting in various cultures and targeting diverse individuals and groups of people, this issue lies in the international relations of the Islamic and Western societies.

The Outcomes of Islamophobia

Gottschalk and Greenberg (2008) offer the reader a simple exercise to test their own level of Islamophobia by writing down the images they associate with the words Muslim and Islam. Such exercise is likely to demonstrate that almost everyone pairs these concepts with violent pictures of suicide bombers, terrorists, and 9/11 attacks. The authors also mention that the contemporary Islamophobia is threatening to grow into the next anti-Semitism of the beginning of the 20^th century.

Naturally, the amount of hate and fear directed at Muslim citizens in the Western countries results in oppression and discriminative practices. Islamophobia Today is the news portal that collects and reveals evidence of the cases of discrimination of Muslims. The title of the article British Muslims Face Worst Job Discrimination of Any Minority Group speaks for itself as this work explains how Islamophobia prevents Muslim citizens of the UK from getting jobs (Islamophobia Today, 2014). Shryock (2010) mentions in his book that the Muslim presence in the Western world is growing by the year, and this exposes millions of people to discrimination and hostility. However, attraction and repulsion towards the Muslim culture go hand-in-hand in the European countries creating diverse paradoxical moods. The book by Shryock (2010) is helpful for the research as it explains how different the attitudes to Islamic culture can be within one European state.

Islamophobia around the World

The evidence of Islamophobia can be found outside of Europe as well. For instance, Russian leaders have been recently accused of Islamophobic moods as the mayor of Moscow Sobyanin refused to build new mosques for the rapidly increasing Muslim population in the capital that has reached several millions (Aluwaisheg, 2013). At the same time, the speech of President Putin at the recent UN summit showed that the leader is convinced that new mosques are highly important in Russia as their role is to promote the true Islamic values that are peaceful and have positive morals. Moreover, the book by Aslan (2009) reveals that Australia is another country with a massive Muslim presence not only from the Arabic countries but from Asia and Africa, yet all of these cultural groups somehow end up equated with the same collective image of a dangerous and oppressive Muslim person.

Conclusion

To sum up, many of the worlds cultures practice Islam. Muslim cultures can be found in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. The representatives of these cultures are diverse, as well as their societies and states. At the same time, whenever they appear in the West they immediately start getting treated like hostile and dangerous persons who cannot be trusted. This is a sign of Islamophobia that may work different ways but still has the same results.

Reference List

Aluwaisheg, A. A. (2013). Islamophobia in Russia. 

Aslan, A. (2009). Islamophobia in Australia. Glebe, N.S.W.: Agora Press.

CAIR. (2015). Islamophobia in the 2016 Presidential Election. Web.

Gallup. (2015). Islamophobia: Understanding Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West. 

Goska, D. V. (2015). Western European vs. Eastern European Responses to Mass, Unvetted, Muslim Immigration. 

Gottschalk, P., & Greenberg, G. (2008). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy.

Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Islamophobia Today. (2014). British Muslims Face Worst Job Discrimination of Any Minority Group. 

Khan, M., & Ecklund, K. (2013). Attitudes Toward Muslim Americans Post-9/11. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 7(1).

Shryock, A. (2010). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

University of California: Center for Race and Gender. (2015). Defining Islamophobia. Web.

The concept of Islamophobia has gained massive popularity over the last couple of decades. The clashes between cultures with different religious and ethnic backgrounds have been relevant for centuries. However, the modern globalizing world has facilitated a more active mutual integration of the cultures and resulted in local and global conflicts between countries, societies, worldviews, and sets of values. In the contemporary world that is widely referred to as highly civilized and extremely well-developed, the conflict between the Islamic and Christian worlds is one of the most frequently discussed global issues and sources of concern.

The 21^st century has just begun, and it already is known for a series of military conflicts between the representatives of the two cultures and versatile outcomes of these conflicts. The clash of the two powerful international communities destabilizes the whole world and endangers hundreds of thousands of people every day. The concept of Islamophobia derives from this confrontation between the Islamic and non-Islamic population and has its causes and outcomes.

This paper explores the aspects and features of the evidence of Islamophobia in several different countries (such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Russia, to name a few) and investigates the causes of Islamophobia in different parts of the world, its forms, and peculiarities. The paper attempts to provide an explanation of the nature of this phenomenon and establish whether or not it is a homogenous phenomenon, and if it consists of branches and types of fear mixed with hatred towards the representatives of the Islamic cultures.

Islamophobia as a Concept

The term Islamophobia has introduced not so long ago, even though the phenomenon itself has been in place for centuries. The Centre for Race and Gender of the University of California provides a detailed explanation and a definition of Islamophobia as a concept. This source refers to the Runnymede Trust Report published in 1991 that gave a start to the use of the term Islamophobia. According to the report, this term stands for the groundless hostility directed at the representatives of the Islamic cultures (University of California: Center for Race and Gender, 2015).

Gallup adds that the Runnymede Trust Report of 1997 provided more detailed information on the phenomenon of Islamophobia outlining several of its main components such as the assumptions that Islam is a fixed culture that cannot adapt to other kinds of lifestyles, that is it a religion based on violence, that its values differ from those of the West, and that is crude, primitive, and barbaric (Gallup, 2015; University of California: Center for Race and Gender, 2015).

Gallup (2015) also mentions an issue of the Runnymede Trust Report that appeared in 2004 and commented on the changes in the social environments in the West after the events of 9/11 and how they complicated the lives of Muslim people living in the UK and the USA. That way, it is difficult not to notice that the events of 9/11 in the United States became the major catalyst of the relationships between the Islamic and the Western worlds for the next several decades (or maybe even longer) and created a fruitful ground for the deterioration of the peaceful relations between the two cultures due to the mutual fear and hate.

The situation is complicated by the fact that the evidence of new conflicts and armed clashes between the Islamic and Western cultures keep occurring almost every month. As a result, the association of Muslim individuals with aggression and terrorism unleashed in 2001 has been fed by multiple situations ever since; among them, there is the war in Afghanistan and Iraq led by the United States with the participation of some European countries, the conflicts in the other Middle Eastern countries (such as Egypt, Jordan, and Syria) that contribute to the generalization and association of the Muslim world with danger and conflict, the formation of Islamic State, a massive wave of immigration in the European Union caused by the wars in Afghanistan and Syria happening right now, the terrorist attacks in Europe (especially the most recent ones in France), and the participation of the United States, Russian Federation and European Nations in the armed conflict in Syria.

Dynamics of Islamophobia

Regardless of all the numerous factors contributing to the negative development of the situation and tension between the two worlds, the majority of both are aware of Islamophobia and its impacts. According to the survey data provided by Gallup (2015), the overall attitude towards Muslim individuals across such states as the United Kingdom, Germany, the USA, France, and Italy remained consistently respectful throughout 2008 and 2010. This statistic demonstrates that under the impact of all the conflicts and their frequent framing or misrepresentation on the news, society, in general, is able to apply critical thinking to the situation in the world and stay away from unreasonable hate in most cases. However, according to the data of Khan and Ecklund (2013), at the very beginning of the 21^st century when the events of 9/11 hit the world, the rates of Islamophobia grew to the extreme heights within a very short period of time.

Namely, the authors estimated that the growth of hate crime rates against Muslim people grew by 1700% (Khan & Ecklund, 2013). Gallup (2015) confirms that the dynamics of Islamophobia tend to work along the lines of political interests of the two clashing sides and be affected by their differences in religious and cultural worldviews. To be more precise, in Western societies, citizens often view Islam as clashing with the values of liberal democracy. Some of the recent pieces of evidence of Islamophobia in different countries are their refusal to construct minarets and mosques; these issues recently arose in Switzerland and Russian Federation (both of these countries have a large segment of societies represented by Muslim people) (Aluwaisheg, 2013; Gallup, 2015).

Causes of Islamophobia

Ever since medieval times, the clashes between Muslim and Christian populations erupted in the territories of Europe and the Middle East (Geisser, 2004). The Ottoman Empire powerful throughout centuries was associated with a massive threat to the Christian values and the old European world as it was known back then (Geisser, 2004). In addition to religious threats, the Muslim states and Empires clashed with the rest of Europe along the lines of the geopolitical interests (Geisser, 2004).

Khan and Ecklund (2013) emphasize that today Muslim is a religious label and does not pertain to race, the line between racism and religious discrimination is often blurred. In other words, even today, the representatives of all the Islamic nations and cultures that are multiple and located all around the world are generalized and stereotypes and homogenous based on their religious preference. Due to the generalization, the slightest evidence of ones belongingness to an Islamic culture automatically makes them associated with all the negative beliefs.

The fact that Muslim individuals dwell in many Western countries and, in many cases, continue to be faithful to their cultural traditions (wearing specific clothing, for example), makes them stand out and immediately characterizes them as others amongst the Western population. As shown in the research by Khan and Ecklund (2013), the American individuals are inclined to show more negative attitudes in situations with Muslim individuals than in the exact same situations with individuals of unspecified ethnicity. That way, biased perception is very clear.

In contemporary society where new facilitators of Islamophobia emerge nearly every few months, it would be pointless to look too far into the past in search of the roots of the modern anti-Muslim moods. The fear of terrorist attacks supported by multiple tragic and horrifying actions linked to the Islamic groups that occurred in Europe since 9/11 has contributed to the expansion of anti-terrorist apparatus into most of the state branches, whereas initially, it was meant to be a part of the intelligence and police services only (Miller, Massoumi, Mills, & Aked 2015). Some of the countries that became the targets of terrorist attacks are Turkey, Sweden, France, Germany, Bulgaria, Greece, Russia, to name a few (WSJ News Graphics, 2015). Naturally, the rates of Islamophobia and overall alertness in relation to the representatives of the Muslim world grew there.

Outcomes of Islamophobia

Anti-terrorist practices of the modern world expose the entire Muslim population of the world to various stereotypes and judgments many of which are offensive and humiliating to people not related to any outlawed groups. Moreover, non-Muslim individuals who look Muslim are exposed to random searches at work, in the airports, and even document checks in the streets (Shryock, 2010). Moreover, finding employment for the citizens of European countries who happen to have Islamic names has become much more difficult (Islamophobia Today, 2014). As a result, one may notice that all over the world, Muslim individuals are exposed to a range of racist and discriminative practices and are forced to search for more social desirability making themselves heard and seen to emphasize their difference from the dangerous communities they are associated with.

For instance, after the tragic terroristic attacks in Paris, the crowds of people expressing compassion and condolences to France were headed by Muslim individuals silently demonstrating that they do not share the positions of the Islamic State and do not want to be associated with aggression. Finally, under the influence of the current massive wave of immigration of people from Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq, the Muslim population in European countries is going to grow by hundreds of thousands of people who are likely to be exposed to discriminative attitudes and poor treatment due to their origins.

Islamophobia throughout the World

The homogeneity of anti-terrorist practices victimizing Muslim individuals regardless of their citizenship and background can be observed in the countries of Eastern and Western Europe, the United States, Australia, and the Russian Federation. Most of these countries have a history of conflicts with the Islamic cultures and were attacked by Islamic terrorists in the past within the last 15 years. Besides, all of these countries have a diverse population with a strong Muslim representation.

Islamophobia in Australia

In her book, Alice Aslan (2009) reveals that Australia is a country with a massive Muslim presence. The Islamic population there originates not only from the Arabic countries but from Asia and Africa, yet all of these cultural groups somehow end up equated with the same collective image of a dangerous and oppressive Muslim person (Aslan, 2009). The author mentions that the common Western moods are prevalent in Australia meaning that Muslims are a minority and are subconsciously stereotyped as inferior to the Western population, and therefore, are underrepresented in such spheres as politics and higher executive positions in business (Aslan, 2009).

The perception of Muslim people by the Australians is dominated by the social stigma that became extremely popular in the West after the events of 9/11 and was mainly dictated by the American media driven by the increased fear and anxiety about the Muslim presence in their country (Aslan, 2009). Among common idea among the Australian population is that the Islamic people are unfitted for life within a Western society due to their values (Aslan, 2009).

Islamophobia in Europe

West

One of the most commonly discussed issues related to Muslim individuals in modern Europe is veiling. In particular, the leaders of the Western European countries employ prohibitions of the veils and hijabs because they cover the faces of women. This attitude is in place due to such factors as the perception of veiling as the oppression of women in Islam, and the association of covered faces and bodies with terroristic attacks. In Western Europe, the battles on hijab have been going on for decades; for instance, of the first incidents of this type dates back to 1989 (the prohibition to the students with covered faces to enter the school in France) (Taylor, 2004). In this example Islamophobia victimized children. Various practices prohibiting wearing the Islamic clothing that covers faces in public places are evident across all the countries of Western Europe.

East

The Islamic population is not as numerous in Eastern Europe as it is in the West. That is why Eastern Europeans are often associated with xenophobic moods (Goska, 2015). One of the sources of such beliefs occurred recently in a form of massive protest across such countries as Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland against the placement of Syrian and Afghan refugees on the territories of these countries. According to the claims and statements of the leaders of the Eastern European countries protesting the immigration, they share the beliefs of the Western countries about the differences in cultural and religious aspects between Muslim and Christian people that make them unsuitable for the life within each others societies (Goska, 2015). However, Goska points out that even though the opposition to the immigration is viewed as a proof of Islamophobia, its support across some of the Western countries is motivated mainly by the capitalist and selfish interests viewing the refugees as a source of very cheap labor.

Overall, the analysts of the European attitudes towards the Muslim immigration today fear that the rapid growth of the Islamic presence in predominantly Christian Europe will cause the increase in nationalist moods and may cause serious conflicts in the future. In fact, this might be the ultimate intention of the Islamic State  to cause social instability in Europe and weaken its states using Islamophobia as a weapon.

Islamophobia in Russia

The evidence of Islamophobia can be found outside of Europe as well. For instance, Russian leaders have been recently accused of Islamophobic moods as the mayor of Moscow Sobyanin refused to build new mosques for the rapidly increasing Muslim population in the capital that has reached several million (Aluwaisheg, 2013). At the same time, the speech of President Putin at the recent UN summit showed that the leader is convinced that new mosques are highly important in Russia as their role is to promote the true Islamic values that are peaceful and have positive morals. In fact, throughout the existence of the USSR, Russia was to interact closely with multiple Islamic cultures of Central Asia. Further, Russia was involved in the wars in Afghanistan and Chechnya.

These interactions formed the overall opinion about Muslims there. Officially, the government of the Russian Federation is supportive of the official Islam; however, the factual growth of Muslim presence in the country accompanied by the decline in the native population is seen as a threat to the countrys integrity (Ylmaz, 2013). At the same time, to avoid clashes between the two cultural communities, Russian political leaders Medvedev and Putin attempt to maintain friendly and warm relations with the Muslim republics within the Federation and address the nationalistic and racist movements targeting non-Slavic individuals on the territory of Russia.

Islamophobia in the United States

Gottschalk and Greenberg (2008) offer the reader a simple exercise to test their own level of Islamophobia by writing down the images they associate with the words Muslim and Islam. Such exercise is likely to demonstrate that almost everyone pairs these concepts with violent pictures of suicide bombers, terrorists, and the 9/11 attacks. The authors also mention that contemporary Islamophobia is threatening to grow into the next anti-Semitism of the beginning of the 20^th century. Interestingly, that the discussion and research of anti-Islamic moods everywhere in the world are driven by the events of 9/11 and is viewed practically indistinguishable from this particular attack whereas all the other numerous terroristic actions in Europe, Middle East, and Russia are not perceived as happenings of the same level of significance.

Searching for the roots of Islamophobia today one is to refer to the framing of terrorism on the news that has been extremely active ever since the beginning of 2001 and served as the main facilitator to the overall paranoia in the West in reference to the Muslim presence and its growth. In other words, the American mass medias repetitive statement that the threat of Islamic terrorism is ever-present and the attacks can happen anywhere and at any time caused the initial and the most powerful waves of Islamophobia that spread from the USA to the rest of the Western world. The further evidence of terrorist attacks there automatically was taken as the proof of the ubiquitous nature of the danger and resulted in an even stronger Islamophobia.

Analysis

The books and articles discussing various pieces of evidence of Islamophobia found in various parts of the world reveal a consistent pattern for the analysis of the character of Islamophobia that is based on several basic beliefs.

First of all, the association of Muslim people with terrorism and particularly with the events of 9/11 demonstrates the power of framing and the strength of the American influence on such countries as Australia and the states of Western Europe. Practically, none of the other terrorist attacks are mentioned as frequently as the attack in New York that resulted in the following war on terror declared by George Bush and the initiation of military operations in the Middle East that eventually turned into a series of ongoing armed conflicts that involved the troops of the United States and are still in place today.

Secondly, another popular stereotype concerning the Muslim presence in the predominantly Christian countries is the perceived cultural incompatibility between the two worldviews. This belief is often used as the main reason to argumentative to the opposition of the Muslim presence in Europe and the United States. However, the two cultures have been living beside one another for decades or even centuries. The presence of Muslim immigrants in the United States had been going on for a long time before 9/11. The same goes for the countries of Western Europe and Russia. The fascination by the Middle Eastern romance and the perception of the Islamic culture as exotic and filled with mysteries prevalent in the 20^th century and earlier was quickly replaced by the hostility and rejection in the 21^st century.

Thirdly, the association of all Muslim ethnicities and cultures with a specific and narrow range of stereotypes is one more factor that contributes to Islamophobia. Regardless of the fact that Muslim cultures can be found all over the world (in Africa, Asia, and Europe), they are mainly associated with some of the Middle Eastern cultures and then generalized. That way, if one is asked to describe a typical representative of any Christian country they would have difficulty finding a suitable image, however, when the same task is given in reference to a Muslim individual, one would immediately begin to describe an Arabic person. Behavioral patterns, just like appearances of Muslim people are widely stereotyped.

Conclusion

To sum up, even though different parts of the world interact with different Islamic cultures (Russia is in relation with North Caucasus and Central Asia, Europe deals with Middle Eastern refugees, African countries have strong Islamic presence, Australia is closer to the Islamic Asia, and the United States accumulates Islamic migrants from all around the world) the general perception of Muslim people is reduced to a very narrow list of negative stereotypes that go down to terrorism, the oppression of women, and aggressive religiousness. These stereotypes are homogenous throughout the world even though the Islamic cultures and people are very diverse.

The negative judgments and prejudice are promoted by the mass media (such as Charlie Hebdo, for example) that position Muslims as inferior to Western societies. As a result, anti-Muslim racism similar to that directed against Africans that used to have especially severe forms in the USA in the past is not happening in the whole world. The previous histories and relations of various countries with their Islamic neighbors are forgotten as the modern attitudes to Islam and its representatives are dictated by the events of the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries and their promotion and framing through the channels of mass media.

Reference List

Aluwaisheg, A. A. (2013). Islamophobia in Russia.

Aslan, A. (2009). Islamophobia in Australia. Glebe, N.S.W.: Agora Press.

Gallup. (2015). Islamophobia: Understanding Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West.

Geisser, V. (2004).Islamophobia in Europe: from the Christian anti-Muslim prejudice to a modern form of racism. In I. Ramberg (Ed.), Islamophobia and its consequences on Young People (pp. 36-46), Budapest, Hungary: Council of Europe.

Goska, D. V. (2015). Western European vs. Eastern European Responses to Mass, Unvetted, Muslim Immigration.

Gottschalk, P., & Greenberg, G. (2008). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Islamophobia Today. (2014). British Muslims Face Worst Job Discrimination of Any Minority Group. Web.

Khan, M., & Ecklund, K. (2013). Attitudes Toward Muslim Americans Post-9/11. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 7(1).

Miller, D., Massoumi, N., Mills, T., & Aked, H. (2015). The five pillars of Islamophobia and the roots of anti-Muslim racism. Web.

Shryock, A. (2010). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Taylor. P. (2004). Hijab Battles Around the World. Web.

WSJ News Graphics. (2015). Timeline: Terror Attacks Linked to Islamists Since 9/11.

Ylmaz, Y. (2013). Muslims in Contemporary Russia: Russias Domestic Muslim Policy. European Journal of Economic and Political Studies, 6(2), 101-120.

Introduction

Eatons goal was made evident in the introductory portion of his article. He wanted his readers to realize the failure of Western scholars in particular, and the Western world in general, when it comes to an accurate understanding of the Muslim world and the religion of Islam. He immediately sought shared common ground in order to establish a human connection with his readers. In this regard, Eaton decided to point out the stereotypes that oftentimes lead to perverted views of distant cultures and other people groups.

When he discussed how ordinary Americans and Europeans easily bring out stereotypes of Indians and Chinese people, he succeeded in setting the tone for the whole article. Eatons goal was to transform the Western worlds view regarding the Arab Muslims and the role of Islam in global history.

Islamic History as Global History

Eaton pointed out errors in thinking when it comes to the Muslims living in the Arab world. He said that nothing much had changed when it comes to the original depiction of Muslims as idolaters, polytheists, violent, and sworn enemy of Christendom. These views were rooted in the discussions and observations made before, during, and after the crusades (Eaton 7). Thus, it was made clear that much of the Western worlds appreciation of Arab Muslims and their religion came from the experiences related to the crusades

Eaton was unhappy, to say the least with the simplified version and the lazy attempt to establish Arab Muslim caricatures based on stereotypes and prejudice. Eaton was eager to reverse the trend, and one can argue that he was pleased to present a historically accurate description of the Muslim people when he presented facts aimed at radically altering common misconceptions. For example, the Western world may find it a surprise to know that there is much in common between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

It was also part of Eatons objectives to point out the misconception that Islam was a static tradition or a set of religious beliefs that was as neutral as Hinduism. In fact, Eaton set out to prove that Islam was the dynamic force that compelled Arab Muslims to carve out a civilization based on religious elements that predate the arrival of Mohammed. Eaton went further, and he proposed that the emergence of Islam as a formal religion during the early part of the 7^th century was unique in the sense that Arab Muslims responded to create a new human society in obedience to Mohammeds divine message. He also added that this reaction paved the way for Islams ability to shape global affairs. As a result, Eaton was justified in his pronouncement that one can equate Islamic history with global history.

Dividing Eatons Discussion

Eaton constructed a persuasive argument that there is a need to modify the Western worlds view of Arab Muslims and the religion called Islam. He divided his discussion by setting up a complicated set of reference points that were based on key historical facts. He started the division by focusing on how ordinary Americans and Europeans view Arab Muslims and the religion of Islam. After establishing the fact that present-day Westerners are guilty of stereotypes, Eaton traveled back in time so-to-speak in order to examine the crusades. He established the fact that this religious war between Arab Muslims and European Christians, at the turn of the 11^th century, was the starting point for the emergence of wrong ideas regarding Islam and its followers.

Eaton shifted gears and moved forward into the historical timeline when he developed the idea that during the modern period Western scholars view of Arab Muslims started to change. After establishing the point about the modern scholarship, he traveled back through time in a manner of speaking, in order to revisit the origins of Islam in the context of Mohammeds divine vision. In this process, Eaton highlighted the common ground shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. At this point, Eaton started a predictable pattern of establishing the idea that Islams influence on Arab Muslims paved the way for the inauguration of a way of life that shaped the modern world from the Arab Peninsula to China, India, Africa, and beyond (Alsultany 71).

Conclusion

Eatons developed an effective strategy in his attempt to alter the Western worlds view of Arab Muslims and their religion called Islam. He accomplished his goal by establishing a clear and well-structured argument that started with the identification of stereotypes. He went on to review historical facts, and he went deeper into the works of modern-day scholars. As a result, Eaton created a persuasive argument that it is important to view Islamic history as part of global history.

Be that as it may, it is difficult not to think of improvements that he could have made if he resisted the temptation to jump back and forth through different timelines in human history as if he was a time-traveler giving a lecture to accomplished historians. It is important to point out that those who are not familiar with world history or the historical forces that shaped ancient civilizations may find his discourse a bit confusing. It is also possible to improve the article with minor adjustments, such as, the need to point out that the Arab Muslims response to create a new human society is similar to the traditional story of the formation of the Jewish people when they emerged as slaves from Egypt (Stefon 1).

Works Cited

Alsultany, Evelyn. The Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11. New York University Press, 2012.

Eaton, Richard. Islamic History as Global History. Islamic & European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order, edited by Michael Adas, Temple University, 1993, pp. 1-12.

Stefon, Matt. Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. Britannica Education Publishers, 2012.

Globalization essentially aims at expansion of the economic status of communities usually at the expense of the cultural, social, and religious beliefs of a given community. It promotes the expansion of capitalistic ideologies whereby, the most resourceful succeed economically and socially, while removing religion from all spheres of human life. From this perspective, Islam can be viewed as counter-globalization as it promotes the development of a more spiritual society with similar social, religious, and economic ideologies (Al-Azmeh 1993, p.122). Globalization, in Islamic context, is an alternative to the Western globalization, which promotes economic and technological developments particularly in health and communication with little regard to religion (Salamandra 2002, p.203). Globally, Islam constitutes the second populous religion with diverse cultural and socioeconomic classes. Although new communication and information technology has promoted the dissemination of Islamic teachings, globalization, in the Islamic context has had negative impacts on the articulation of a unified Muslim identity.

Globalization and Islam Identity

Globalization manifests in different ways and it can be understood through economic, political, and cultural perspectives. These different articulations of globalization have led to emergence of various manifestations of Islamic identities in many parts of the world including the Middle East region, North Africa and South Asia (Armbrust 2003, p.67). In particular, cultural globalization that is often blamed on western cultural influence, has affected the values, traditions and the sense of identity among the Islam in the world. Assimilation of Islam into the Western culture in the wake of cultural globalization has affected the articulation of a global Muslim identity (Al-Azmeh & Fokas 2007, p.65). Modern technology in transport and communication has promoted the interaction between Muslims all round the world in the areas of education, trade, commerce, and welfare programs that help articulate Muslim identity.

One of the main factors that drive globalization in the new world has indeed been the communication and technology, which has promoted the development of an Islamic network across the world. Information and communication technology particularly the internet has turned the world into a global village by allowing people with different social and cultural backgrounds to interact freely (Al-Rasheed 2005, p.54). In this regard, the information technology has influenced Islam by reducing national sovereignty and distance between Muslims living in different parts of the world. The Islamic identity, in accordance to the Umma doctrine, is founded on nationhood and unity, which defies ethnic, gender, racial, and national boundaries. The Umma doctrine seeks to address the global challenges particularly the environmental problems by requiring that people associate as communities and take moral responsibility to the ecological problems facing the Earth (Achcar 2008, p.18). Equity and justice are the fundamental factors in achieving the Umma community. This implies that, Umma community has a commitment to reduce poverty among the people in various parts of the world. In addition, trades as well as new methods of transaction and financing are also given a priority under the Umma doctrine.

The doctrine of Umma achieved some success in promoting nationhood and reviving national consciousness with printed word. In contrast, the new communication technology has contributed to the disappearance of the idea of national sovereignty as the Umma teachings intended. In addition, the technology and communication has played a vital role in the creation of trans-ethnic communities whereby, national boundaries and national sovereignty, the barriers of establishing a unified community, are eliminated (Achcar 2008, p.22). The modern technology has enabled Islam to realize the Umma doctrine by spreading its teachings thus achieving a universal community in the wake of globalization. Information technology has also led to reduction in distance allowing Muslims all over the world to interact.

Islam as a religion celebrates movement to holy places, where the Muslim faithful gather to celebrate special occasions according to the Islamic calendar. The holy city of Mecca receives millions of faithful, who visit to communicate with God. Through communication technology, millions of Muslims are able to celebrate the rise and disappearance of the full moon that marks the end of fasting (Salamandra 2002, p.211). In earlier days prior to the advent of globalization, Muslims participated in annual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. However, satellite television and the internet are playing a major role in the acceleration of globalization in the Muslim world. All Muslims around the world can witness globalization involving the satellite television events including the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. There are many private satellite television channels dedicated to the spread of Islam teachings (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.62). The development of telephone technology has allowed millions of Muslims around the world to interact virtually for either social or business purposes. The Muslim faithful are able to communicate with families who could be living in different parts of the world and can keep in touch regarding their pilgrimage.

While globalization involving the use of the new technologies has had negative consequences in the Muslim world, it has promoted the penetration of Islam into the Western civilization (Haddad 2002, p.112). The Western consumer culture has been exported to Muslim nations using information technologies influencing the moral and social aspects of the Muslim world. Consequently, globalization involving the use of new information technology is perceived as a way of introducing Western values and ideas including unacceptable moral standards into the Muslim youth. However, globalization has also contributed to the spread of Muslim to other nations through international relationships. According to Salamandra, globalization has promoted the flows of people, images and wealth internationally (Salamandra 2002, p.287). The cooperation between Arab Gulf and London contributed to the spread of Gulf Arab local culture and heritage.

The Muslim interaction with foreign culture has also been promoted with the use of new technologies. Prior to globalization, the level of interaction involving Muslims who had migrated to the West was limited. According to Ansari, the interaction of Muslim with the British state differed in respect to areas of work, education, family, and friendships (Ansari 2004, p.102). The first generation of the Muslim migrants to Britain never made much demands to the state as they intended to return to their Muslim country of origin. This led to isolation of the migrant Muslim community, who in turn created strong ties with their family and community members in their home countries through use of communication technologies.

It is evident that globalization involving the use of information technologies has promoted the spread of Islam in accordance with the Muslim teachings of the Umma community. With the help of the internet, Muslims are able to form trans-ethnic communities that associate in social and cultural aspects of Muslim life, which helps to articulate the Muslim identity (Al-Azmeh & Fokas 2007, p.81). However, the Western influences often associated with globalization make the adoption of globalization to be limited in the Muslim world.

The Muslim presence in Britain spans over 300 years with majority of the migrants originating from Yemen. The earlier Yemen settlers continued to practice their religious and cultural beliefs including marriage within Britain. During World War II, many seamen mainly from South Asia were recruited to fight in Britain but remained after the war (Lewis 2002, p.26). The mass migration of British Muslims occurred between 1950 and 1970, with the majority of the migrants being Muslims from South Asia. During the same period, other Muslims from Middle East and North Africa also migrated into Britain with the Somali, Iranian, and Arab communities settling in Britain later (Al-Rasheed 2005, p.113). The majority of the Muslim migrants took manual jobs during the industrial revolution of Britain particularly in the cities of London and the textile towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Religious practices and observances including Friday prayers and cultural practices were common among the migrant Muslim community. The migrant Muslim community retained their Muslim identity despite the negative social and moral challenges they faced in the new society.

Many of the migrant Muslims intended to return to their home countries after raising sufficient funds in Britain. However, the majority remained in the UK and even brought their families to UK from their home countries such as Bangladesh marking the beginning of Islam as a religion in Britain. The Muslims then began conducting religious teaching to their children in a neighborhood dominated with the non-Muslim residents (Eade1989, p.114). As a result, they faced negative responses affecting the expansion of Islam. However, despite the unreceptive atmosphere, Islam continued to expand in Britain with the establishment of a Mosque in Bradford in 1959 (McLoughlin 2001, p.1049). Currently, the British Muslims are citizens of the UK and form part of the larger worldwide Umma community. In addition, British Muslims form national and international alliances with other Muslim faithful around the world. However, in the UK, the Muslim community togetherness raises concerns over security and the potential threat of terrorism in Britain. The British Muslims are accepted as citizens by the British government, which at the same time creates policies that regulate transnational Muslim communities.

In his book, The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain since 1800, Ansari outlines the Muslim migration, intermarriage and the conversion of the local people to Islam. The author raises the question of a single Muslim identity even in the wake of the acceptance of British Muslims as citizens. The poor immigrant seamen from Muslim countries contributed to the development of the British Muslim heritage (Ansari 2004, p.118). The author also describes the history of Muslim migration and the problems they experienced from the host community who were not receptive of the Islamic doctrines into their lives. In addition, there were negative perceptions of Islam by the British, with the earlier converts who spread the teachings according to their own perceptions (Gilliat-Ray 2010, p.128). Socio-cultural scholars agree that no understanding of a particular religious community can occur without prior understanding of the cultural, ethnic, and racial factors that interact to enhance the religion. The migratory channels of the various Muslim communities go back to Britain. Ansari discusses how race and gender influenced Muslim identity among Muslim communities (2004, p.121). The interracial marriages involving Muslim men and indigenous English women affected Muslim identity during and after World War II. In addition, the interracial associations were promoted by the increase in economic status of the migrant Muslim community. Majority of the Muslim men took military tasks during the world war and as a result acquired economic stability, which allowed them to acquire social acceptance of the local community (Gilliat-Ray 2010, p.131). However, after the war, the indigenous British community reacted to discourage the white women from marrying black or non-English men for fear that, the non-British men would no longer be subordinate to British men.

With the rise in international terrorism, the distinction of the British Muslims from the indigenous community has become apparent (Lewis 2002, p.124). Although the British Muslims have made great achievements in various aspects of their lives, including education, improvement in the standards of living and have increased their participation in the British national issues, the increase in the international terrorism has revived the discrimination and marginalization of the British Muslims. Ansari notes that some British Muslim minority subscribe to jihadist believes because of marginalization in Britain (2004, p.143). The young generation of British Muslims, however, is more informed of its rights as British citizens and it avoids being discriminated upon unlike the elder generation, which has to endure discrimination. The elder generation has to find ways to survive in the increasingly discriminatory environment. Ansari concludes by noting that the modern generation of British Muslims can accept a hybrid Islamic identity, with some Western ideologies more acceptable.

While the acceptance of the British Muslims by the indigenous British community is limited due to the rise in international terrorism, the young generation would be able to overcome these obstacles and integrate well in the British society. This indicates that, the majority of the white British citizens still are not receptive of the British Muslims as UK citizens hence continue to discriminate against them.

Many studies fail to address the conditions of Muslims in Europe, which has resulted into conflicting policies regarding the Muslim identity in Britain. Al-Azmeh and Fokas argue that, cultural differentiation and identity of the Muslims are the causes of tensions between Muslims and the other European societies (Al-Azmeh, & Fokas 2007 p.84). Unlike Ansari, who attributes the lack of integration of the British Muslims to the perceived security threats by the indigenous communities, the study by the two authors concludes that the apparent tensions do not arise from the culture or religious practices of the British Muslims. Christians and Muslims in Europe hold divergent views of striving for uniformity rather than integration, which fuels the tensions. The European Muslims face challenges when it comes to cultural and religious practices and in establishing their identity, which complicates the integration of the immigrant Muslims into the larger European community (Al-Azmeh, & Fokas 2007, p 76). In conclusion, cultural and ethnic integration of the Muslims would promote their acceptance as citizens and remove the immigrant and security threat perceptions held by the host communities.

Globalization coupled with migration from Islamic countries has contributed to the expansion of Islam in the Western world. However, majority of the people in the Western countries hold negative perceptions regarding Islam mainly due to ignorance and the media. Most often, the media reports are incorrect further contributing to the growing hatred of Islam by the citizens of the Western countries (Awan 2007, p.254). The media portrays Islam as an extremist or terrorist religion that is anti-Western affecting the integration of Islam into the Western culture. Stereotypes spread by the Western media make the West identify Islam as an enemy (Eickelman & Anderson 1999, p.45). The radical Islam, is a common stereotype spread by the media often associated with terrorist tendencies. The news reporters develop a different image about Islam, which the West adopts.

The main factor that contributes to the stereotyping of Islam in the Western countries is the media. The choice of words used when referring to Muslims such as extremist or terrorist are often misleading to the people (Said 1981, p.56). In addition, the media portrays Muslims as fundamentalists who are opposed to the Western culture and religion. The Western media is very influential to the Western culture and way of life and thus the negative stereotypes regarding Islam are popular. The interpretation of the Islamic doctrines by the Western media is often erroneous like the use of the term fundamentalist to refer to extremism (Awan 2007, p.261). A fundamentalist in the actual sense refers to Muslims who follow their religion and the fundamental Islam beliefs including pilgrimage to Mecca. However, the media reports refer to Islamic fundamentalists as extremists showing that the media is ignorant of the meaning of Islamic fundamentalism. The misconceptions regarding Islamic religious practices that are spread by the media further affect how the citizens perceive Islam.

Another misconception regarding Islamic practices is about the Jihad or holy war doctrines of Islam. The media portrays the jihadists doctrines as war and violence to other religions. The Jihad is portrayed as the justification of Islams inclination to war and terror (Said 1981, p.29). However, the Islam teachings do not advocate for killing of innocent people and jihad refers to the struggle in accordance with Gods demands. It refers to the many things that a Muslim can do for the sake of God. Instead, the media interprets jihad to mean killing of the non-believers by the Muslims, which is wrong. In addition, Islam is historically associated with violence and killing by the media. The Western media spreads the misconception that Islam is a religion spread by the sword, which means that Muslims forced non-believers to convert to Islam (Awan 2007, p.264). In fact, Islam was spread by teachings and by some holy wars but not through use of force.

The media reports on politics of the Arab world are often associated with Islam. The reports on the political events in these Arab nations take a religious dimension when reported by the Western media. In addition, the events of the Arab world and the Middle East are often linked to Islam and Muslims. However, Arabs constitute 18%, which is a minority of the Muslim population across the world (Said 1981, p.33). The media, being a profit-making organization, creates false images about Islam to gain support and coverage among the public in the United States. Even though the negative images might not be in accordance with Islamic teachings, the media continues to propagate the negative images, which influence the views of the public about Islam. Poor translations of the Arabic language lead to misrepresentation of Islam by the media (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.96). In addition, developed news agencies that can ensure unbiased and reliable news reports and reporters who understand the Islamic culture are lacking in the Muslim world leading to poor representations by the Western reporters and media.

The representation of Islam particularly with regard to Islamic conflicts is poor among the Western nations in terms of the press and the media. There are only a few international media agencies in the Muslim world leaving the foreign media agencies to broadcast news to the Western audiences (Poole & Richardson 2006, p.92). The reporters from these media agencies are inexperienced and do not understand the local language and cultures leading to biased representation of the political and social events happening in the Muslim countries. The Western public becomes misinformed through television news, magazines, radios, and editorial cartoon strips in popular newspapers, which influence the public perception about Islam.

The Western media also represents Islam as being male-dominated society with less regard to the rights of women. Popular topics in the Western media include women dressing in the Islamic culture, which implies that Islam women are not free (Mernissi 1987, p.213). In addition, Islam is portrayed as a male dominant religion, which discriminates women and denies them of their fundamental rights. However, the traditional roles of Islam women were replaced with new roles that granted them rights to education and socio-economic freedom allowing the women to progress. Another contentious issue propagated by the Western media regards the mode of dress of Islamic women; the media portrays the wearing of the veil as a harsh treatment to women denying them freedom (Said 1981, p.39). However, the veils promote chastity and moralities among Muslim women and besides, the women have the choice to wear the veils or not. In most Western countries, the perception created about the system of governance in the Islam world is that there is no clear separation of the state and religion. In this respect, the Western governments oppose any radical political movement on the basis that it has Islamic inclinations. However, the movements could be political, advocating for expanded political and social freedoms.

Reference List

Achcar, G., 2008. The Deepening Crisis: Islam and the Structure of Global Power The Humanist, 68 (2), pp. 16-20.

Al-Azmeh, A., 1993. Islams and Modernity. London: Verso.

Al-Azmeh, A., & Fokas, E., 2007.Islam in Europe: Diversity, Identity and Influence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Al-Rasheed, M., 2005.Transnational Connections and the Arab Gulf. London: Routledge.

Ansari, H., 2004. The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain since 1800. London: Hurst and Col.

Armbrust, W., 2003.Mass mediations: New approaches to popular culture in the Middle East and Beyond. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Awan, N., 2007. Virtual Jihadist Media: Function, Legitimacy, and Radicalizing efficiency. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 10 (3), pp. 254-56.

Eade, J., 1989. The Politics of Community: The Bangladeshi Community in East London. London: Gower Pub Co.

Eickelman, D., & Anderson, J., (Eds). 1999. New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere. Bloomington: Indiana University press.

Gilliat-Ray, S. 2010. Muslims in Britain: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Haddad, Y., 2002. Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lewis, P., 2002. Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics, and Identity among British Muslims. London: IB Tauris.

McLoughlin, S., 2001. Mosques and the Public Space: Conflict and Cooperation in Bradford. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31 (6), pp.1049-56.

Mernissi, F., 1987. Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Modern Muslim Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Poole, E., & Richardson, J., 2006. Muslims and the News Media. London: IB Tauris.

Said, E., 1981. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Pantheon Books.

Salamandra, C., 2002. Globalization and cultural mediation: the construction of Arabia In London. Global Networks, 2 (4), pp. 211269.

Introduction

The Ten Commandments and the Pillars of Islam serve as the foundations of the Islamic and Christian religions. In general, they consist of predetermined norms that lay the groundwork for how Muslims and Christians should conduct themselves in their interactions with the Almighty and those with whom they interact. This paper compares three of the Ten Commandments and three of the five pillars of Islam.

The First Commandment and The First Pillar

Using Gods name in dishonor is forbidden in the first commandment, which reads, I am the LORD your God: you must not put other gods before me. This is consistent with the first pillar of Islam, which is called the Shahada. This pillar forbids Muslims from honoring another God apart from Allah, whose messenger is Muhammad. Allahs prophet Muhammad declared relevant knowledge from the supreme Creator; thus, Muslims must follow Muhammads instructions. This pillar represents the cornerstone of the Muslim-Allah relationship, and it cannot be disputed by anybody of a different faith or belief system.

Accordingly, it is consistent with Jesus being Gods messenger, and as a result, Christians are expected to follow his teachings. These commandments and pillars serve as a foundational justification for the fundamental religious conviction that there can only be one God.

The Third Commandment and The Second Pillar

In both Christianity and Islam, a specific period is reserved for devotion and, hence, the public proclamation of an individuals religious beliefs in an open forum. The third commandment directs Christians to observe the Lords Day as a sacred day. On the other hand, the Salat, the second pillar of Islam, consistently defines how Muslims must carry out the prayer ritual. It outlines five prayer periods every day, which must be directed toward the compass bearing of Mecca (Pathan and Subhan 30). In this way, all devotion is due to God or Allah, as He establishes the norms guiding human connections and responsibility to one another. However, evident variations emerge when the two are compared in that in Christianity, the holy day is dependent on the different branches of Christianity, whereas, in Islam, it is consistent. Moreover, the second pillar stipulates a time of worship, unlike the third commandment.

The Seventh Commandment and The Third Pillar

In the subsequent commandments, Christians are reminded of their responsibilities, which include prohibitions against slaying and immorality as well as robbery, false testimony, desiring another woman, and coveting anothers wealth. However, while they are also not seen favorably in Islam, perhaps the sole pillar that concerns day-to-day conduct is the third pillar called the Zakah. This pillar addressed the need to give alms, tithe, or donations (Pathan and Subhan 26). More broadly, it can be associated with the seventh commandment, which forbids Christians from stealing what is not theirs. In addition, this commandment forbids any form of cheating or behavior that deprives others of their rights or property. It also instills responsibility, such as paying taxes to the state. Therefore, both laws are designed to instill a feeling of civic duty in people.

The Islamic and Christian religions are both established on the Pillars of Islam and the Commandments. These form the fundamental laws governing how islands and Christians should behave towards each other and how they should be related to Allah or God. Therefore, those who break these specific norms are guilty of sin. They must make amends to the Supreme Being, which necessitates their acknowledgment of the respective teachings about their mistakes.

Work Cited

Pathan, Muhammad Anwar, and Mr Hafiz Muhammad Abdul Subhan. Five Pillars of Islam and their Social Impacts. Journal of Religious Studies 1.2 (2018): 24-45.

Outline

Islam is a universal religion of Millions of Muslims around the world. I chose this religion because of my curiosity to know more about it and its sacred text, The Quran. The holy book of Muslims is unique and it is in its original form since its revelation on Prophet Mohammad. I came to the conclusion that the book is very comprehensive and easy to read and understand. Commands of God are clear and concise. The sacred portion weve chosen for the study in Chapter 19 (Surah Marium).

Ive chosen Islam for studying. The sacred text in Islam is The Quran, which is said to be the true Word of God in its original form since its revelation on the last prophet Mohammad (Salalalho-alaihay-wasalam). We have sent down this message, We will be its Protector. (Quran  15:9). The sacred text under study in Chapter 19 (Surah Marium). I am very excited to read this new text and how the word of God would be in its original form. Am very much curious to know what Islam is and Quran is about.

Introduction

Al-Quran is the book of Guidance for Millions of Muslims around the world. Of course, the book has a great message to convey thats why its so much popular among Muslims and non-Muslims. Though some non-Muslims misinterpret the text and are unable to understand the text as a Muslim does. The reason is that Muslims are taught the book since their childhood and explained to them by teachers hence they find it easy to understand and obey. Their culture also supports the way of life the Quran addresses. In fact, Quran itself design a culture for Muslims to live in. Only after reading the sacred text from Quran, we can judge the book whether it is good or bad. This scientific onslaught increasingly focused on the Quran, to be dismantled in the same way the Old Testament (OT) and New Testament (NT) had been already. (Al-Azami, 2006)

What is the general description of the Scripture

The Quran is the Holy Scripture, Gods message to whole mankind on this earth. It is guidance for Muslims and all others who need to seek advice from their Lord. In a very clear and concise manner, God has conveyed His message to humanity leaving no room for misunderstanding. The core theme of the Quran is to bring in faith in only One God without adjoining any partners with Him. None share His sovereignty in His ruling, His kingdom, and in His own-self. Meaning He is only Unique and one, He has no son or daughter. Another part of the text emphasized the responsibilities and duties of believers, stressing that weve to pay rights of each other while living in a community and leading an honest life with fair dealings. Quran narrates stories of different prophets when God sent them to their nations to spread the message. The reason was to tell the last prophet how people behaved when they were called upon to obey Guidance from Allah in order for him to be patient if His call is rejected. It also aims to inform us about His attributes, Power & Knowledge, Essence, Uniqueness, and Names (Gulen, 2006). Quran is a gift of God to mankind, but only those who understand, believe, and obey with Guidance will be successful.

This is the Book, there is no doubt in it, a guidance for those who fear. (Al-Quran  2:1) These people bring in faith in what is sent down to you and what was sent down before you and are sure of the last.(Al-Quran  2:4)

The Quranic text is the most radiant, miraculous, and enduring message for all. The style of expression is superb, its articulation with any age and time, principles to be followed, legal rulings, social discipline, and education to mankind is expressed in such an amazing way that none can compete and bring similar writing into existence. And if you are in doubt as to that which We have revealed to Our servant, then produce a Surah (chapter) like it and call on your witnesses besides Allah if you are truthful. (Quran 2: 23). Its a perfect, complete word of God, an errorless, and untainted fountain, and an infinite resource. The creation of Earth and Sky, Sun and Moon, Day and Night are expressed in an incredible way revealing important elements of all sciences.

Origination (Religion/writing from which the Scripture is originated)

Religion is Islam. Quran was revealed to Prophet Mohammad (Salalaho alaihay wasalam) during the period of 23 years. The Quran (also known as the Koran) is the principal sacred text of Islam. Only the Arabic version of this Quran sharif is the actual Quran, translations into any language are only efforts to interpret the meaning of the words of Allah (the Only God) to all people. No translation is perfect to match the words of God. Hence to understand the text it is important to read several different translations to grasp the meaning. The other way is to learn Arabic itself to understand the words of God.

He has sent down the Book with certainty, authenticate that which is before it, and He sent the Tourat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel) before, (Quran 3:3)

Author and the authors position/status at the time translate

The only author of the book is Allah the only God. No one can be the author of the book except Allah Subhanahu Tala. Translators of the book cannot be the authors of the Book. Hence for this reason well use the word translator instead of author. Sacred writing of the Quran is only and only from God. Its not from any man. Its the word of God, hence no space for arguments.

For whom is your chosen text intended?

Muslims and Christians specifically and generally every intelligent man or woman who can read and understand, and is not psychic.

&the Book I have sent down to you so that you may bring these people out of darkness to the light with the will of God to the path of Al-Mighty and the Praiseworthy. It belongs to Allah that exists within the heavens and within the earth, and for non-believers, there is a great torment. (Al-Quran  14:1-2)

Context (Historical, Social, Cultural situation when the passage was written)

This portion of the text (Chapter 19) was revealed in Mecca. It was revealed before Muslims started migrating to Habash. One of the Muslims Hazrat Jaafar recited verses 1-40 of this chapter (Marium) in front of Negus King in his court when he called upon Muslims to ask the reason for migration.

After 5 years of revelation when Islam was spreading fast in Mecca and leaders of Quraish felt that they are failing in suppressing Islam by ridiculing them, false accusations and threats they started persecution, torture, discrimination, and put economic pressure on Muslims. New Muslims and their relatives were caught starved, physically tortured, dragged on the hot sand of Mecca, get work from them, and would not pay them wages to give up Islam. Most threatened were poor people and slaves who worked for richer and well-off. When their affliction increased to the intolerable prophet with the will of God ordered Muslims to migrate to Habash and told them that their king is a peace-loving person and does not allow injustice to the people.

He told them to stay there until God wills another thing for them. Hence, initially, new Muslims migrated to Habash. Quraish sent precious gifts to the king and asked him to return their migrants who have denied their old faith and also not accepted the faith of the king. The king of Negus called upon them and asked about their new faith. Then one Muslim stood up and told the king that O King, we were sunk deep in ignorance and had become very corrupt; then Muhammad (salalaho alaihay wasala) came as Messenger of God and taught us and reformed us. But the Quraish began to persecute his followers, so we have come to your country in the hope that here we will be free from persecution King asked them to recite the revelations from God. They recited few verses of Surah Marium (chapter 19). The King believed in what was said and gave them protection. He said I will not give you back to them. Youre safe here and in peace.

How does the chosen Scripture relate to the general writings as a whole? (What precedes and follows it?)

The main focus and purpose of the Quran as a whole script is to call upon people to believe in one God Allah and do make partners with Him (In Arabic text it is called shirk). Shirk (making partners with Allah) is extremely prohibited. The core theme of the Quran is to believe in Oneness of Allah. He has no son, no daughter, no wife, no brother, no sister, no father, no mother, none to share His sovereignty. Prophets He sent were all men and none were His son. Hence, people who claim that Jesus was His son are wrong. In the portion of text, specifically story of Marium is narrated to tell people how Jesus (Essah) was born from his mother only with the command of God. God has power to do anything anytime. He can create anything without any help of anyone. If He wants to create anything Hell just say Be and the thing will come into existence. He commanded creation of Jesus in the womb of Marium, so he born from her without having any sex relation with any man. Jesus is without any father. Its miracle God showed to everyone. God did not father Jesus, nor does Jesus is son of God. In different portions of text story of Jesus and other prophets is repeated to place emphasis on the subject of oneness of God.

Purpose of the text

Purpose of the text is to convey the message that different prophets came because God sent them and none was His child or son. When God wishes to do anything he orders that to be and it eventually comes into existence. He has complete power over anything and complete knowledge of everything. He answered prophet zakariyas prayers for a son when his wife was a barren and he himself was very old age. But still when God wanted to create He does not need men and women, He can create with just His willingness to do anything. And We sent after them in their footsteps Isa, son of Marium, confirming what was before him of the Taurat and We gave him the Injeel in which was guidance and light, and confirming what was before it of Taurat and a guidance and an admonition for those who guard (against evil). (Quran 5:46)

Summary of Content

Prophet Zakariya called upon his Lord in secret to give him a son, an heir of prophethood. He knew his wife was barren and hes now old age but he trusted God and prayed. His prayers were answered and God gave him a son, Yahya. Then it states story of Marium and her son Jesus who was born without a father only with the will of Allah. He was normal human but born with Allahs command. When she brought back the child people thought she has committed adultery, but she pointed towards the newborn baby, who then spoke and told them that hes a prophet and blessed in both worlds. It is clearly explained that Allah hasnt adopted any son, the birth of Jesus was from His incomparable power and knowledge. It also gives warning about the judgment day and each person will be answerable to his deeds. God confirms that everything on the earth will be destroyed except that Allahs name will remain. Then it narrates story of Abraham who questioned his father for worshipping statues. He declined to worship statues and declared that he would only pray one God Allah. Though his father threatened him to death and misery, but still Abraham chose to decline his faith of worshipping statues because that doesnt make any sense to him to worship lifeless & speechless statues.

Allah also showed Abraham His power of creation from the pieces of a dead bird scattered on the mountain. Story of Ismail & Moses is followed with specific mention that they were blessed. Along the side of narration it gives advises on adopting good habit, praying and giving charity to poor. Nuh, Ibrahim and Yaqoob all were blessed. It also gives threat to those who deny and wasted their prayers. God shows His mercy on those who repent and follow the commands will be in heaven. Paradise will be a place for honest and duty-full. He is the only Lord of universe with no one standing equivalent to Him. The worst kind of punishment will be for those who were leaders in misdeeds and not believing in Allah. Those who do not fear God will have worst of punishment while those who fear Allah will be saved from Hell. The disbelievers who ridicule will have their judgment, and many such generations were destroyed who disobeyed God. After this it addresses issues of adopting and worshipping several fake gods or worshipping other than Him. Thus all their endeavors will go in vain. He repeatedly addresses punishment for those who associate son with God. It addresses itself that Quran is very easy to read book and conveys the message to God fearing people who want to obey.

General subject matter (theme)

There is no son of God. He is all powerful to create anything anytime. Jesus was His prophet as other prophets. Allah is all powerful and knowing, He can do anything and create humans from nothing. All His prophets were blessed and conveyed His message, none was His son. There is Paradise and Hell. Paradise for those who believe and follow commands of Allah and Hell for those who disbelieve and deny oneness of God and make partners with Him or say He has got a son.

Analysis of Text

Format(s) of the text (prose, poetry, historical, symbolic, metaphor, irony, analogy, parable, short story, tale, miracle story, speech, part of a letter, argument, definition, explanation, moral instruction, defense, etc.) How are the formats (above) organized (placed and utilized) within the text (i.e. how often and in which type of pattern are they repeated, if at all?) How well does the organizational method of the formats develop the argument, theme, and/or mood of the text? Give examples. Is the argument/theme complete, or is it possibly continued in another text? Do you find contradictions within the text itself? What is the tone/mood of the text (not the main point?) In what way is this conveyed?

The text contains a message and theme that relates to one another. It is a combination of historical events, miracle story, moral instructions, parable and metaphor. The organization of the text is very well. The text narrates different stories to make reader understand the purpose of sending messengers and their message. It also places emphasis on uniqueness of God, His power and His knowledge. Its a complete guide and code of life for every person who wants to seek guidance. Argument proposed is very strong and complete message in itself. However it does continue the message in another text. There are no contradictions within the text. The text endorse and in agreement with other parts.

Evaluation of the Text

What is/are the main point(s) of the text, if any? Is it ambivalent, or is/are there meaning/meanings within the text? Does the text have an overall usefulness to the audience for which it was intended?

Yes the text is not an ordinary kind of essay written by any person. But it is the word of God, truthful very clear and concise in meaning. I am impressed to read the text and felt God is directly communicating with me through His book. It is very useful to read and comprehensive.

The main points are that

The text is not similar to any human writings. In human writings there are proper headings and sections addressed under each heading separately. But in this text as it is not a human way to write the text flow is different thus one subject is not collected under one heading to categorize. But one will find same message in several chapters for the reason of its importance and emphasis on particular message. Sometimes only one particular message is mentioned in one chapter and not repeated else where.

Reflection

Did you like/dislike studying the text? Did the text have meaning for you? Are you left with questions? What are they? What did you think? What did you feel? Has the study of your chosen text left you with a new insight? A new puzzle? While researching your paper, did you encounter an event in your life that allowed you to think about your chosen text?

Yes I liked studying the text and enjoyed reading it. I noticed it is a bit different from other sacred text and very easy to understand. Yes it does has meaning and very comprehensible. It addresses several issues related to uniqueness of God. Stories of different prophets are addressed in the text. It narrates stories of Marium and her son Jesus (messiah). Prophets Zakariya, Abraham, Moses are also mentioned. The text clearly state that there is only One God and no one shares His sovereignty. Jesus was son of Mary but not son of God. He doesnt hold Lord position. He was not God. But he was blessed messenger of God. The text defines uniqueness and oneness of God. All the prophets were sent for the purpose of spreading His word to mankind. None of the prophets share sovereignty of God. All were men, and all were blessed who conveyed His message. None were His son.

I feel very good about reading the text because till now I was informed that Jesus Christ was son of God and Lord himself. In Christianity it is taught that God is trinity i.e., three in one. Hence this is not believable and does not confirm to normal intelligence that Jesus as son of God.

References

Al-Alzami, M. M. (2004) THE HISTORY OF THE QURANIC TEXT FROM REVELATION TO COMPILATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. By Muhammad Mustafa Al-A[zami. Leicester: UK. Islamic Academy, The Muslim World Book Review, 24:4; 2004. Web.

Surah Marium. Web.

Gülen, F. (2006) On The Holy Quran and Its Interpretation. Web.

Surah Baqarah. Web.

Introduction

Mecca has been a significant social, economic, and political hub in the Middle East since the ancient period. Before the rise of Islam, Mecca mainly served as a commercial and religious center in the Middle East. Mecca was strategically located along major trade routes that linked the Middles East, North Africa, Mediterranean, and Europe (Belyaev and Gourevitch 2-5).

The word Mecca means a busy place that attracts huge crowds of traders and worshippers. After the rise of Islam, Mecca developed exponentially. This paper discusses the Meccan society before the rise of Islam.

The Rise of Mecca

According to the traditions of the Muslims, the progenies of Ishmael founded Mecca. Many Muslims link the rise of Mecca to a pilgrimage that was conducted annually in the Valley of Baca (Belyaev and Gourevitch 12-14). The origin of Mecca has been interpreted through the teachings of Psalms in the Old Testament (Reuven 36).

During the fifth century, many nomadic tribes inhabited Mecca, but the Quraysh tribe was the most dominant (Reuven 7-8). Members of the Quraysh clan became prosperous merchants. They commanded many resources that enabled them to dominate other tribes, such as the Bedouins. The Quraysh tribe was subdivided into small clans, which included Banu Hashim and Banu Ummaya (Muller 13).

Political Organization in Mecca

Before the beginning of Islam, there was no specific political system of administration in Mecca. The Quraysh tribe was the largest in Mecca. The Quraysh tribe dominated other tribes economically. Indeed, Yemen was the only part of the Middle East that had a basic kind of political organization. Most of the Arab communities detested political authority. In the absence of laws and political authority, Mecca was marred with chaos since disputes were settled in battlefields.

In the absence of leaders and courts, communities protected their members. Thus, all tribes had the responsibility of protecting their members from aggressive neighbors. Indeed, there was a lot of emphasis on tribalism such that members of a given community could protect their own criminals. Therefore, there was serious moral decay due to a lack of ethics. A community that could not defend its members became vulnerable to attacks from hostile neighbors.

Since Mecca lacked a system of governance, any slight provocation led to conflict. In this case, conflict was institutionalized among the Arabs. Scarcity of basic resources such as water and pasture often led to conflict since each community wanted to access the limited resources (Muller 23-25).

Apart from the reasonable causes of conflict, Arabs engaged in warfare as a type of dangerous game. Some war events attracted cheerful crowds because people liked fighting. Young Arab men demonstrated their tactics in the battlefields (Belyaev and Gourevitch 167). Therefore, it is evident that most conflicts did not have serious causes. To some extent, these conflicts point out the origins of the persistent conflicts in the contemporary Middle East.

According to Muller, the Quraysh of Mecca considered themselves superior to the Bedouins, but the latter had only contempt for the town-dwellers who for them were only a nation of shopkeepers (Muller 15-16). After the rise of Islam, the Quraysh tribe formed a political dynasty that ruled Mecca for several centuries.

Muller also notes that the Arabs were extremely arrogant, proud, callous, and dishonest. The extreme arrogance of the Arabs made it difficult for them to acknowledge any form of authority. Thus, they did not have political leadership (Muller 16-17). After the rise of Islam, there were many conflicts in Mecca since each tribe struggled to dominate its rivals (Reuven 15-16).

Economic Organization in Mecca

Trade was the predominant economic activity of the people of Mecca. Communities that settled close to trade routes participated in trading activities. Trading activities were carried out at village, regional, and international levels (Muller 145). The caravan trade was the most lucrative venture in Mecca. Merchants formed caravans and often traveled together to avoid attacks from hostile desert tribes such as the Berbers. During summer, many merchants made voyages to Syria.

Conversely, many merchants took their goods to Yemen during winter. Merchants from Mecca also traveled to Bahrain, North Africa, and Iraq. Wealthy traders dominated the caravan trade because they had many resources.

The arrival of merchants in Mecca was often a significant occasion because they brought exotic goods from other parts of the world (Belyaev and Gourevitch 53). Indeed, many people invested in camels and horses. These animals carried goods across the deserts of the Middle East. Thus, whenever caravans arrived, there were dramatic changes in the economy of Mecca.

Besides caravan trade, the Quraysh and the Bedouin tribes in Mecca practiced usury. The caravan trade demanded huge capital, and this compelled most traders to seek loans. High interests were charged on loans because the caravan trade was risky. Despite high-interest rates, many traders were convinced that they could make some profits and pay debts.

Thus, some wealthy merchants engaged in both caravan trade and usury to make more profits. Moneylenders survived on interests. The teachings of the Koran later condemned the practice of usury because it led to serious exploitation of the poor by the rich. Merchants and financiers occupied the highest social class in Meccan society. They became rich through exploitation of people (Muller 67-68).

Slavery was another lucrative venture, which was practiced by the people of Mecca. Slaves were acquired through various mechanisms. Those who failed to pay loans were subjected to slavery (Belyaev and Gourevitch 169-170). Both men and women could be subjected to slavery (Muller, 48). Slaves were subjected to harsh working conditions (Belyaev and Gourevitch, 134-135). Indeed, slavery was practiced in many parts of the world, including Africa before the rise of imperialism in the 19th century.

In Mecca, the practice of agriculture was very limited due to the lack of arable land. In addition, most communities in Mecca were nomadic; thus, they could not practice farming (Muller 156). Peasants mainly reared animals because they never engaged in trading activities.

Social organization

Today, Mecca is popularly known to be an important religious center where Muslims conduct important annual prayers. However, before the rise of Islam, people visited Mecca for very different reasons. Before the introduction of Islam, people worshipped Idols in Mecca (Fazlur 289-290). Many Arabs visited Mecca every year to participate in the pilgrimage, which entailed worshiping of deities. Since Mecca was a city, it attracted thousands of wealthy traders. People engaged in immoral activities such as fornication, alcoholism, and gambling.

In the absence of ethics, people engaged in uncivilized practices. Women were inhumanly treated and never had rights. Men could marry as many women as possible, and they could divorce their wives. Newborn girls were killed or buried alive because women were not valued in the Meccan society (Reuven 17-18).

Mecca was an extremely patriarchal society, and women were treated like sex objects (Fazlur 289-300). When a man died, his son had the freedom to inherit all his wives with the exception of his mother (Muller 45). Relationships between men and women were not sustainable since men abused women.

Before Islam, there were many religious practices in Mecca, which included the following. Worshiping of deities was prevalent in Mecca. Polytheism was commonly practiced because many people believed in many gods (Belyaev and Gourevitch 34). Each community had its own deities. Hubal was the main deity worshipped by the Quraysh.

In Mecca, the worshipping of idols took place in a designated place of worship called Kaaba. Islamic tradition holds that Kaaba was originally built by Adam, but the Quran states that its foundations were raised by Abraham and his son Ishmael (Fazlur 289-301).

Some individuals worshipped their wealth because they believed in materialism. Some individuals practiced Christianity. Roman traders are believed to have introduced Christianity in Mecca (Fazlur 290). A few individuals in Mecca practiced monotheism before the beginning of Islam. Monotheists never worshipped deities and were mainly supporters of Prophet Abraham.

Most members of the Bani Hashim clan, from which Muhammad the founder of Islam descended, practiced monotheism. Some individuals also worshipped stars. They were called Sabines. Last, Zoroastrianism was practiced in some parts of Mecca.

In terms of education, many people in Mecca were illiterate before the emergence of Islam. Very few people in Mecca could read and write because people were not motivated to learn. In the absence of writing, verbal communication and use of signs were the main means of exchanging ideas.

Poetry was a significant academic achievement of the people of Mecca (Belyaev and Gourevitch 167). Formal education began in Mecca after 630 A.D, when Muhammad began spreading Islamic teachings, which later led to the rise of Islamic civilization (Belyaev and Gourevitch 169).

Conclusion

This discussion has revealed that Mecca was one of the most developed places in the Middle East before the rise of Islamic teachings. However, the lack of political organization in Mecca led to many conflicts. Lack of courts and security officers led to an emphasis on tribalism because there were no proper mechanisms for punishing criminals. In terms of economic organization, the people of Mecca mainly practiced trade and usury. Nonetheless, other economic activities, such as farming were practiced by a few individuals.

It is evident that the economic organization of Mecca was better than its political organization. The Meccan society was very patriarchal, and this led to the abuse of women and female children. Moreover, the absence of formal education might have contributed to the serious moral decay and lawlessness in Mecca. Thus, Mecca had very weak social, political, and economic institutions before the rise of Islam. During 630 A.D, Muhammad began preaching against polytheism and gradually converted people to Islam.

The rise of civilization among the Arabs began after the introduction of Islam. Islam led to the transformation of social, economic, and political practices in Meccan society. Today, Mecca plays a dominant role in the religious organization of the Muslims. Therefore, Mecca has developed gradually since the ancient period due to religious practices and economic activities.

Annotated Works Cited

Belyaev, Evgeny and Adolphe Gourevitch. Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the early middle ages. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Print.

This book traces the origins and development of Arab communities from the ancient time. The social, political and economic organization of the people of Mecca has been discussed in details in this book.

Fazlur, Rahman. The Religious Situation of Mecca from the eve of Islam up to the Hijra. Islamic Studies 16:4 (1977): 289-301. Print.

This journal article is about religious practices in Mecca before the introduction of Islam. It discusses how the rise of Islam brought fundamental changes in religious practices in Mecca.

Muller, Herbert. The loom of history. London: Sage, 1959. Print.

This book focuses on the ancient history of the Middle East. Mecca is one the ancient cities in Arabia that has been discussed in this book. The emergence and development of Islam in Mecca is analyzed in this book. The development of Mecca after the rise of Islam is widely covered in most of the chapters.

Reuven, Firestone. Abrahams Journey to Mecca in Islamic Exegesis: A Form-Critical Study of a Tradition. Studia Islamica 76:2 (1992): 5-24. Print.

This journal mainly discusses the origin of the city of Mecca. The early communities in Mecca have been discussed extensively in this article. The development of Mecca as a religious and commercial hub in the pre Islamic Middle East has been given much attention by the author.