Category: Islam

Introduction

• Islam recognizes that humans must undertake various economic activities to survive.
• Islam observes that it is through economic science and economic system that humans satisfy their various economic needs.
• Economic system matters most to Islam because it affects distribution of resources in the society.
• Shariah stipulates way means of acquiring, disposing and distributing wealth.

Islam recognizes that humans must undertake various economic activities to survive in a competitive society where resources are limited. It also observes that economic science and economic system enable human beings to satisfy their needs. The economic science, which involves production of goods and services, is the same irrespective of religion or geographical location. Comparatively, economic system determines distribution of resources, and thus of great interest to Islam (Kuran 149). Therefore, Shariah (Islamic law) provides means of acquiring, disposing, and distributing wealth.

Importance of Islamic Economics

• Islam focuses on economic system as an important aspect of society.
• Economic system enables Islam to alleviate poverty.
• Distribution of resources follows laws of supply and demand.
• Socialism and capitalism are major economic systems that influence distribution of resources.

Economic system of a society is important in Islam because it determines distribution of resources, thus contributes to occurrence of poverty. According to Nabhani and Tahrir, the economic problem results from the subject of possessing the benefits, not from producing the means which give the benefit (47). It is through economic system that a society can influence distribution of resources and alleviate poverty. The scarce resources in the society follows laws of demand and supply in their distribution, which are under the influence of an economic system such as socialism and capitalism.

Comparison

• Does not deny an individual right to property as in the case of socialism.
• Does not support capitalism ideology of wealth accumulation in few hands.
• Promotes circulation of resources among population.
• It provides equal opportunities for everybody to access wealth and progress in a competitive society.

Comparatively, Islam economic system is special because it does to deny or limits rights of individuals to property as in the case of socialism. Although it enables capitalism to thrive, it does not support selfish accumulation of wealth among the rich. Hence, it supports circulation and distribution of wealth in the population (Qureshi 103). With equal distribution of wealth in the society, everybody has equal opportunities to access wealth and progress.

Different Aspects of Islamic Economic System

• Acquisition of resources.
• Principles expenditure.
• Rights of property.
• Exploitation as in capitalism economic system.
• Distribution of wealth or resources in the society.

Islam economic system has different aspects that relates to ownership of property in the society. According to Qureshi, Islamic system has different aspects, viz. acquisition of wealth, principles of spending, rights to property, capitalism exploitation, and distribution of resources. Examination of each of the aspects gives an insight about Islam economic system.

Acquisition of Resources

• Islam does not discourage acquisition of wealth and resources.
• The Quran encourages earning of wealth through legal means because it has blessings.
• Allah expects people to work hard in their labor.
• Islam economic system differentiate lawful and unlawful means of acquiring wealth.

As Islam recognizes that human survive through economic activities, the Islam economic system does not discourage an individual from acquiring resources. Lawful acquisition of wealth is holy as the Quran says that Allah bestows blessings to people who work hard in their labor. According to Qureshi, Islam has accepted it as a human right that one should try find substance for ones life over the earth of Allah lawful according to ones nature, interest, and ones capabilities and abilities (104). The Islam does not allow people to indulge in corruption as means of satisfying their daily needs of bread.

Principles of Expenditure

• Harmful expenditure is immoral.
• Ones expenditure should reflects virtues, social welfare, and good works.
• The less fortunate and the needy members of society require help.
• The Quran urges the people not to squander wealth for the extravagance is evil.

All manners of expenditure that causes harm to individual or society is immoral according to the Islam economic system. Islam holds that the most desirable way of spending legally acquired wealth is by satisfying reasonable needs and saving others for the sake of other people in the society (Kuran 137). The Quran regards those who squander their wealth as brothers of Satan for they are ungrateful to Allah (Qureshi 104). Hence, one should not be mean in the manner of spending wealth for both family and self, because others are in need.

Rights of Property

• Islam bestows right to property ownership if earned through legal means;
• However, Islam places some limitations on the use of properties;
• Hence, there are three possible ways one can utilize the earned property:
  • Spending;
  • Investing;
  • Hoarding.

Islam provides that an individual has a right to own a given property provided the means of its acquisition is legal. However, although one can own any property, limitations arises in the use of earned property. Spending, investing, and hoarding are three possible ways that one can utilize earned property well. Since wealth has been given to us as a gift from Allah, we should also be generous in giving to others (Zaman 26). Allah has bestowed wealth to the people, and thus they must utilize it for the common good of all people in the society.

Exploitation

• Islam forbids imposition of interest because it is a form of exploitation.
• If one gives wealth to another, one should not expect interest.
• The Quran says that interests does not increase wealth in the sight of Allah.
• Thus, Islam is against the way capitalism amasses wealth through interests.

Islam perceives imposition of interest on borrowed wealth as a form of exploitation that capitalism has employed in amassing wealth from the population, thus contributing to poverty in the society. The Quran clearly states that Allah does not perceive interests as means of increasing wealth of others because it is oppressive (Qureshi 105). Therefore, the Islam does not support capitalism because it exploits the poor in the society.

Distribution of Wealth

• Accumulation of wealth is against Islam because it encourages selfishness.
• Wealth is a gift from Allah that people should share for the common good.
• One should spend wealth to satisfy needs, invest in legal businesses or provide to the needy.
• Islam economic system aims at circulating wealth so that populations can access and utilize it.

Accumulation of wealth in the hands of few individuals in against Islam because it encourages selfishness and causes poverty. Most people are poor in the society because the rich people have accumulated wealth, and thus inessential to others. If one continues accumulating wealth, by Islamic law he has to pay two and half percent annually on it (Qureshi 105). To avoid penalty, one needs to utilize wealth in satisfying own needs, investing in legal businesses or provide to the needs of the poor.

Principles of Economic System

• Economic problems emanates from ownership of wealth.
• Islam economic system has three principles that aid in distribution of wealth:
  • Wealth ownership;
  • Disposal of wealth;
  • Distribution of wealth in the society.

The economic problems emanate from ownership because people have selfish tendencies of accumulating wealth while depriving others. Nabhani and Tahrir state, the economic problems results from the viewpoint towards ownership, from the ill disposition of this ownership, and from the misdistribution of wealth amongst people (p. 49). Hence, the Islamic economic system has three principles, which cover ownership, disposal, and distribution of wealth in the society.

Types of Ownership

• Humans acquire their wealth through various means such as:
  • Work;
  • Inheritance;
  • For sustenance;
  • State grants;
  • Assuming ownership.

Humans employ several means to gain wealth. Naturally, humans must struggle to gain wealth because is provides means of satisfying various needs. The Islam holds that the means of acquiring wealth should be legal and moral to avoid perpetuation evil in the society. The acquisition should not be, however, be left to man to achieve, strive for, or dispose of as he wishes, as this would cause evil and corruption resulting in anarchy and disorder (Nabhani and Tahrir 64). The struggles in the society is inevitable as people have different abilities in acquiring wealth. Moreover, satisfaction of needs varies from one person to another.

Work (Amal)

• Work provides a major avenue through which people acquire and amass their wealth;
• Amal is term in Shariah that encompasses different types of work;
• According to divine rules, legal forms of work include cultivation, mining, hunting, brokerage, partnership, sharecropping, and employment.

Critical observation of generation of wealth shows that work provides a major avenue through which people can acquire their wealth in a legal manner. According to Sheriah, the term Amal indicates different forms of work that people perform to acquire their wealth. Allah blesses somebody who dedicates time to work for his labor is fruitful (Mannan 27). Thus, Islam recognizes wealth as a legal means of acquiring wealth.

Inheritance

• Islam accepts inheritance as legal means of owning wealth;
• The Quran dictates that male child should get double portion of wealth when compared to female child;
• Inheritance provide means of distributing wealth that has accumulated in one person;
• During inheritance, wealth distribution follows laws of inheritance.

Inheritance is a legal means through which children in the family can acquire wealth from their parents and own them. Inheritance enables children to acquire basic wealth that they can utilize in satisfying their needs and investing to increase. The Quran states that a male child should get double share of inheritance that a female child receives. Nabhani and Tahrir assert, in order that such accumulation of wealth does not continue after their death, it is then necessary to have a means to divide the wealth amongst the people (106). Fundamentally, inheritance enhances distribution of wealth among population.

For Sustenance

• One has inalienable right to property ownership for sustenance;
• If a person cannot access basic needs of life due to sickness, disability or due to old age, they have right to get assistance;
• The rich people have duty to support beggars and the destitute;
• Muslim community has duty in providing wealth of sustenance to the needy.

Some wealth fall under basic needs. Individuals who are unable to satisfy their basic have right to own wealth for sustenance. For example, the hunger cannot suffer yet the rich have plenty of food. In this case, the rich have duty to feed the hungry and save them from dying. Nabhani and Tahrir assert, Shariah did not consider the taking of food in the time of famine as a theft for which the hand must be amputated (108). Hence, the needy satisfy their needs when they gain sustenance wealth.

State Grants

• Citizens can gain wealth when state grants them properties.
• State can grant its citizens land, farm inputs, capital for business and animals to keep.
• When citizens gain such property, they utilize in satisfying their needs as well as investing them.
• State grants provides means through which governments can empower its people economically.

State has duty to empower its citizens economically. Given that some citizens are very poor and cannot access means of production such as land, a state can decide to grant them land. An individual can start owning property as grant from government, but continually increases the property by investing on it (Mannan 58). Therefore, state grants is a legal way of acquiring wealth as per Islam.

Assuming Ownership

One can assume ownership of property through the following mean:

• As a reward from another person;
• As compensation for harm caused;
• Property earned during marriage as a gift;
• Property picked up as lost;
• Compensation given to rulers for ruling.

One can assume ownership of a given property without necessarily buying it. There are five ways through which a person can own property in this manner. These ways are:- as a reward from another person, as a compensation for any form of harm caused, gifts exchanged in marriage, picking of lost property, and compensation to rulers (Nabhani and Tahrir 110). These forms of ownership are legal because an individual earns property without using immoral means.

Prohibited Means of Increasing Wealth

• Gambling:
  • It is harmful because it makes humans to depend on luck and cause negligence of work.
  • It drains wealth and destroy families.
  • It generates hatred among gamblers.
  • It diverts attention to worship and prayer to Allah.
  • It is wasting of time and efforts.
  • It leads to crime and suicide.

Gambling entails earning and losing money through bets without performing any real work. It has harmful effects that destroy individuals, families and humanity. Gambling normally leads to over dependence on luck for earning living, negligence of work, generates hatred among gamblers, diverts attention of worshiping and praying to Allah, wasting of time, predisposes people to suicide due to loss of wealth, destruction of families, and causes crime (Mannan 50). Hence, Islam prohibits gambling as a way of increasing wealth because it has harmful effects on individuals.

Interest (Riba)

• Islam recognizes interest as prohibited (Haram), hence illegal.
• The reason why Islam regards interest as Haram is that Muslims have a duty of helping one another.
• Demanding of interest after helping another person is against Sheriah law.
• The Quran regards both the person paying and receiving interest as sinners.

Islam prohibits of interests that banks do charge on borrowed loan. Charging of interests is a form of exploitation and selfishness because it does not allow people to help each other. According to Nabhani and Tahrir, Sharah prohibited usury absolutely, regardless of its percentage, whether it was high or low (173). People who take part in giving and receiving of interest are sinners for they perpetuate exploitation and selfishness in the society.

Criminal Fraud

• Criminal fraud in deceit in trading aimed at depriving customers of their wealth.
• Wealth acquired through deceit has no blessings but a curse.
• The Quran advises people to be cautious in the nature of trades they perform lest they fall into deceit.
• Thus, criminal fraud is unlawful means obtaining wealth in trade.

Criminals employ fraud in depriving customers of their wealth through deception. Criminal fraud is illegal means of acquiring wealth and the Quran prohibits it because it generates wealth that has not blessings but a curse. Therefore, the Quran advises people to be cautious in the nature of trades that they perform lest they become victims of fraud.

Conclusion

• Economic system of Islam recognizes that the economic system influence distribution of wealth in the society.
• Capitalism causes accumulation of wealth.
• Socialism deprives individuals of the right to ownership.
• The economic system of Islam discourages both capitalism and socialism.
• Islam embraces that acquisition of wealth should be legal and moral to avoid perpetuation evil in the society.

The economic system of Islam views that distribution of wealth in the society depends on the nature of economic system. While capitalism causes accumulation of wealth in the hands of the rich, socialism deprives individuals of their rights to own property. Hence, the economic system of Islam discourages both capitalism and socialism. Islam encourages legal and moral means of acquiring wealth such as work, inheritance, sustenance, government grants, and gifts amongst others. However, it prohibits immoral means such gambling, lottery, interest, and criminal fraud.

Works Cited

Kuran, Timur. The economic system in contemporary Islamic thought: Interpretation and assessment. International Journal of Middle East Studies 18. 2 (1986): 135-164. Web.

Mannan, Muhammad. Abstracts of researches in Islamic economics. International Center for Research in Islamic Economics, 2008. Web.

Nabhani, Taqiuddin, and Hizb Tahrir. The economic system of Islam. London: Al-Khilafah Publications, 2000. Web.

Qureshi, Abdul. Economical system of Islam. European Journal of Scientific Research 58.1 (2011): 103-107. Web.

Zaman, Asad. Islamic economics: A survey of the literature. International Institute of Islamic Economics, 2008. Web.

Introduction

Finance can be defined as a branch of economics that deals with resource allocation, resource management acquisition and worthy investment. Financial management, in this case, is the study and practice of making financial decisions. About 25% of the worlds population is Islam. This percentage is fairly distributed across the globe with the Middle East and Afghanistan, registering the highest populations.

This essay shades light on Islamic finance. The essay will strive to introduce, discuss, analyze and draw conclusions on Islamic Finance. Its main aim is to provide a clear understanding of the growth of Islamic finance by exploring its current and future advancements. The essay explains the characteristics of Islamic economies, highlights and explains the fundamental differences between Islamic economies and other economies. The essay also describes how Islamic finance will enhance and maintain economic justice within the Muslim community and other religious outfits. The essay will conclusively define the role of Islamic finance in the Islam context.

It has been said that a pre-Islamic practice of Aqilah, blood money, is the basis of the distribution of loss instead of transfer of loss in modern Takaful practice. Can you explain how Aqilah is linked to modern Takaful?

Aqilah is considered as a form of blood wit. It implies that when ones kinsman is killed, his tribe can be brought camels as a settlement of the blood wit. Aqilah is a group of people who have to pay blood in compliance with the Sharia law. Aqilah has its origin in an ancient Arab tradition which had the belief that when a member of their unit suffered harm of loss of life or property, it was the duty of the unit or the perpetrator to cover such loss through repayment.

Islam is bound by the same principle of Aqilah and diet, which imply social responsibility and blood money, respectively. This age old practice of compensation is considered the foundation for Takaful insurance system, which was defined along the line of Islamic beliefs and guided by the rules and the regulations of Islam or rather Sharia law. Takaful has the responsibility of encouraging people to take care of the needy while ensuring the financial stability of their kin and to further ensure that there are responsibility and bonding together in the society (Eek 1).

What are the key differences between Takaful and conventional insurance? List and discuss three of these differences

Takaful is the Islamic version of conventional insurance. Takaful is founded on the concept of mutual solidarity; its undertaking comprises of two main tier-structures that is: a hybrid of a mutual as well as a commercial form.

This form of structure presents a lot of challenges regarding supervisory and regulatory issues. Islam has no problem against any form of insurance, but it has some reservations regarding the practices of conventional insurance; this was evidenced by the fact that the principle of mitigation of risks was first applied in Islam insurance and it has now been adopted by the conventional insurance. The Islamic form of insurance or Takaful discourages the levying of interest and gambling. The main areas of divergence between the Islamic form of insurance and conventional insurance are:

Riba or Usury

This implies the earning of interest; Takaful system of insurance prohibits interest while conventional insurance permits it. In Islamic financing, levying of interest is forbidden in accordance with the Quran.

Uncertainty or Gharar

Gharar involves all activities which are executed basing on probability. Islamic financing does not encourage contracts based on guesses or rather probabilities. Gharar is therefore forbidden by the Takaful system of insurance but rather forms the foundational basis for conventional insurance.

Gambling or Maisir

This is prohibited by Islam; hence by the Takaful, the conventional system of insurance permits gambling.

The differences between Takaful system of insurance and conventional insurance are evident in the following aspects:

Contract

According to Takaful, contract combines Tabarru, which is a donation and the agency. The contract also includes a profit-sharing contract between the individual insured and the pool of the insured as represented in the Takaful. On conventional insurance, a contract is a policy document that governs the terms of insurance between the insured or the policyholder and the insurance company. The operator can also provide the interest-free loan in the event of deficiency so as to cover it.

Responsibility of policyholders

With regards to the conventional insurance, the policyholder has the responsibility to pay premiums to the insurance provider or the company, but in the case of Takaful, participants only have the duty to contribute to the insurance scheme. In the situation of surplus, the participant benefits and in the event of a deficit, liability is transferred to the policyholder. Underwriting, in the case of Takaful, is managed by the operator under the Mudaraba contract.

Liability of the operator or the insurance company

In the conventional insurance system, the company is under liability to pay claims through underwriting fund and in some circumstances through the shareholders fund. On the Takaful system of insurance, the operator acts have an administrator of the scheme, and he pays the benefits through the underwriting fund (Islamic Financial Services Board 6).

Explain the family and general Takaful. List the different types of family and general Takaful products available in the market

A family Takaful plan is one of the savings and investment programs that have a fixed maturity period. In this plan, the participant enjoys investment profit while the plan also offers mutual financial assistance to its participants.

General Takaful, on the other hand, is a practice where the participant contributes large sums of money into a Takaful fund which can be in the form of Tabarru or participative contribution. In the case of general Takaful, the participant enters into a contract so as to mutually contribute towards the Takaful fund.

The family Takaful is a form of financial program that pools efforts in aiding the needy in the event of need or emergencies like death or mishap. While general Takaful is a contract based on the principle of joint guarantee, and it is on a short-term basis, in the event of a mishap, the owner of the property bears the loss. Contribution in general Takaful is in the form of donation and involves the sharing of profits. In the case of family Takaful, the participant decides on the amount of money he is willing to part based on his/her preferred mode of instalment, whether monthly or yearly.

The products that are available under family Takaful are investment-linked Takaful, child education Takaful, Medical and health Takaful, family Takaful mortgage plan and family Takaful. Consequently, the products that are available in the market relating to general Takaful are home Takaful, motor Takaful and personal accident Takaful.

Given the fact that uncertainty exists only as to how and when an individual will die; can you explain how Islamic law allows the operation of a family Takaful life insurance scheme?

In the case of Takaful life insurance scheme, the participant should nominate a person who, in the event of death or any eventuality, can execute over the benefits of the Takaful scheme. The benefits should be distributed according to the Islamic law of inheritance when the participant dies. The person nominated receives the benefits only as a trustee; in the case where the nominee is not a Muslim, he/she should be considered to be an automatic beneficiary.

Consequently, the participant can bestow the benefits to an individual as a donee, and in this case, the benefits from the scheme are given in advance as a gift in favour of the donee. In this circumstance, the donee becomes the outright beneficiary of the benefits. In the case of conventional life insurance, the beneficiaries are not subject to any claim unless in the circumstance where the participant commits suicide within two years into the contract (Ali 1).

Compare and contrast the three different models of managing Takaful plans: Wakalah, Mudharabah and the mixed Wakalah/Mudharabah model. Focus on the following points:

1. Fees.
2. Level of profitability of Takaful operator.
3. Suitability for family or general Takaful.
4. Surplus.

Takaful plan utilizes three different kinds of models: Wakalah model, Mudarabah model and a mixed model, also called Waqf, which combines the principles of both Wakalah and Mudarabah models.

Fees

In this case, the Takaful operator receives payments from the participants based on rules of equity partnership. The profits are shared equally among the parties as per the terms of the contract. In this case, the participants provide the capital while the operator is the entrepreneur. In the case of Wakalah, the shareholders are the ones who provide the capital which can be in the form of donations.

In this arrangement, they dont receive any share from the income generated from the investment. It generates its income by charging a fee referred to as Wakalah fee. In Wakalah, the participant appoints an operator who will act as an agent at a fee which is referred to as a secured agent fee. It is the operator that fixes the fee which they deduct from partners contribution. This agency fee covers all areas of Takaful investments. In the case of Mudarabah, agency fees are not charged. The mixed model adopts both fee-based and profit-based principle (World Takaful Report 1).

Level of profitability of Takaful operator

Mudarabah model generates a lot of surplus and profit due to the fact that the contributions by the participants can be invested. This is unlike Wakalah, which does not generate a lot of income and only operates on a risk-sharing basis. The Takaful operator reaps a lot of profit in the Musharabah model when compared with other models.

Suitability for family or general Takaful

Mudarabah in the case of a family Takaful may not be appropriate. The funds from the general Takaful cannot be invested, and it is only the participants who can choose to invest their premiums in particular funds.

Surplus

In the case of Mudarabah, surpluses are obtained from the activities and the operations of the Takaful system. The surplus can only be shared after the Takaful operations have fulfilled the desires of the participants. Sharing of the surplus acts as an incentive to the participants and more so to the operator in order to execute the underwriting process in an effective manner and also to manage the claims properly.

There is no sharing of underwritings in the case Wakalah; there is the only negotiation of expenses by the operator on behalf of the participants (Financial Islam 1). In some circumstances, the parties share the surplus as an incentive fee for the operator where the operator gets upfront agency fees based on the underwriting surplus. In the mixed or the hybrid model, the surplus is shared based on the Mudarabah model, and at the same time, the operator receives secured income in the form of agency fees.

Briefly describe how an underwriting surplus is distributed under the AAOIFI standard

Distribution of surplus is considered to be a fundamental operation in Takaful business. It acts as an instrument of providing mutual guarantees at possible risks. There are three recognized ways of distributing surplus; these are the pro-rata model, selective mode and offsetting mode. The AAIOFI standard on Takaful operations indicates that the underwriting of surplus and its returns, less the expenses and the payment of claims are considered to be the property or the share of the policyholders or the participants, this is distributable surplus. This form of calculation is not applicable in the commercial insurance sector. Based on this assertion by the AAOIFI, the issue of claim over premium ownership is considered (Soualhi 3).

On the pro-rata, the underwriting surplus can be distributed based on the premiums paid by the participants without putting many efforts on the difference between the claimable and non-claimable assets accounts. Selective mode, on the other hand, only indemnifies non-claimable accounts. Off-setting mode offsets the underwriting out of the amount claimed, and it is only practical on those accounts with more claims than the underwriting surpluses.

Why might an insurance company need to get insurance from another insurance company?

The practise where insurance companies choose to be insured by another insurance company is referred to as reinsurance. This will permit the insurance companies to pass those risks that they may not wish to handle or absorb. Insurance companies choose to insure part or whole of their risks that they are exposed to with specialist reinsurers. In this arrangement, the insurer recovers part of the claims paid out from insurers.

This has the ability to reduce the risks of failure of the insurer in the event of calamities which produce a higher degree of claims. Companies dealing with reinsurance are very big, have access to massive funding and widespread operations. Their measures of risks, for example, risk margin, are always adjusted. Reinsurance arrangement is found in two forms: facultative and treaty reinsurance. In facultative reinsurance, each risk that the insurer underwrites is a product of separate arrangement. In the treaty, reinsurance is an arrangement for a block on insurers underwritten policies. A big portion of the insurers business is reinsured by the reinsurer (Money Terms 1).

Which of the following statements relating to Takaful are true, and which are false? Briefly explain your answer.

A Mudharaba contract is a contract of management between the Takaful participants and the Takaful operator

True: this statement is true in the sense that Mudharabah is one of the models of Takaful where the participant makes contribution to the operator. In this case the income from the investment is shared between the two parties based on the terms of the signed contract. The contract also entails how much should be contributed by the participant. The contract also entails the fact that the participant shall be entitled to the entire underwriting surplus and no deduction will be made

Tabarru3 is a donation contract given in favor of the Takaful operator

True: based on this principle of Takaful, the participants premium should be paid as a form of donation. This is aimed at eliminating the Gharar or uncertainty from the contract in order to make it conform to the principles of Islamic insurance system. During the donation contract, all participants requiring protection would be available so as to demonstrate their desire to donate to any other Takaful participant who may be faced with difficulties (Tlemsani 99).

The Takaful operator can manage the Takaful operations and investments on the basis of a Wakalah contract

True: in the case of Wakalah model of Takaful, the operator only acts as an agent of the participants and is only responsible for managing the Takaful fund. The contributions in Wakalah model are not motivated by the desire to make profit; it is only the pooling of risks. The operator only acts as a custodian of the fund. All surpluses belong to the contributor.

Actuarial principles help to decide the appropriate amount to be donated by the participant toward the Takaful fund

True: actuarial principles are applied in the calculation of the amount to be contributed by the participant to the Takaful scheme. This is evidenced by the fact that there is an actuary department in insurance companies that practice Islamic banking. The actuary has the duty to determine the amount to be contributed by the participant by analyzing mobility rates. It is the actuary who determines the Takaful plan, costing and the projector investment plan.

Donation or Tabarru3 is the basis for mutuality in Takaful

True: participants make their contributions to the Takaful fund in the form of donation. The participants are bound by a contract they sign as an agreement mutually assist each other in times of calamities; this calamities might arise in the form of death o physical injury or any misfortune that is covered by the terms of Takaful. Consequently, the premiums collected from the participants are treated as donations and are invested under the Takaful fund and it is regularly reimbursed (Islamic Law of Finance 1).

Modern Islamic insurance did not exist until 1980

False: Takaful is form of insurance company that is based on Islamic commercial law. Its development in the modern times was initiated in Sudan in 1979 and gained prominence after being practiced in Malaysia in 1984; this led to the declaration of the conventional insurance as illegal or for bidden or Haram in 1985.

Distribution of loss is similar to transfer of loss

False: the two terms are not similar. Islam does not allow the transfer of risks or loss to another party and instead advocates for the sharing of losses. It is only in conventional insurance where risks are transferred.

Can you think of an occasion where moral hazard could arise if the requirement of insurable interest did not exist?

Moral hazard implies that people will only take risks when they are provided with incentives. This might lead to the ignorance of the moral implications that might emanate from the risks. Moral hazard operates on the principle that once you are much insulated from risks, temptations emerge. Insurance interest is the restriction of valid insurance cover for those who demonstrate particular type of interest in property and the life that is to be insured. Insurance interest is only aimed at eliminating or preventing moral hazard.

Regarding to moral hazards, insurance cover is to be restricted so as to prevent it from becoming an incentive for unwanted behaviors like crime. This can happen for example in a scenario where a one individual can insure the life of a stranger and after sometime kills the stranger in order to obtain the payment (Law Commission and Scottish Law Commission 9).

Works Cited

Ali, Kazi. About Takaful (Islamic Insurance). Prime Islamic Finance, n.d. Web.

Ayub, Muhammad. An Introduction to Takaful  An Alternative to Insurance. Islamic World, 2003. Web.

Eek, Tee. Takaful for all. Takaful, n.d. Web.

Financial Islam. Takaful Business Models. Financial Islam, 2011. Web.

Islamic Financial Services Board. Issues in regulation and the supervision of Takaful (Islamic insurance). Insurance Financial Services Board, n.d. Web.

Islamic Law of Finance. SHARIAH ISSUES IN TAKAFUL. Islamic Law of Finance, 2010. Web.

Money Terms. Reinsurance. Money Matters, 2011. Web.

Soualhi, Asa. Shariah inspection in surplus distribution: Shariah views in current implementation. Scribd, 2008. Web.

Tlemsani, Issam. Islamic banking. Abu Dhabi, UAE: Higher colleges of technology, 2010. Print.

World Takaful Report. UAE Laws and Islamic Finance: Takaful Management Models. World Takaful Report, 2010. Web.

Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal is a grand mausoleum that has an advanced architecture. It was built during the period 1632 to 1652 by Shahjahan, the Indian Mughal emperor in commemoration of his favorite and beloved wife Mumtaz, who left for the heavenly abode while giving birth to her child. The land for the mausoleum was procured from Raja Man Singh, a Rajput king.

The premise is rectangular with dimensions of 567 meters from north to south and 305 meters from east to west. The mausoleum is situated at the center and is constructed on a platform towards the northern portion. A mosque was built towards the western side of the mausoleum and in order to balance the architectural look, a guest house was constructed on the eastern side (Ruggles 118). The location of the mosque on the western side can be attributed to the fact that Muslims face towards the west while offering their prayers.

Four minarets around the mausoleum have been kept lower in height so that the impression of the huge dome is not diminished. A canal is constructed at the front in a manner so that a reflection of the mausoleum can be seen in the water. The entrance gate is so massive that it can be considered a historical monument in itself (Taj Mahal Garden par. 1). Quranic verses are inscribed on the walls that give an impression of Islamic architecture.

The total area of the Taj Mahal is 174,000 square meters, out of which the gardens alone occupy 90,000 square meters. These gardens are based on geometrical designs and a peculiar thing is that number four and its multiples are used in the arrangements. It is worth mentioning that the number four is considered to be sacred and auspicious in Islam (Taj Mahal Gardens par. 2).

Alhambra

Alhambra is one of the most renowned castle gardens of Europe. It is situated on a fortified plateau that is encircled by the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The word Alhambra has been derived from Arabic literature and its literal meaning is red castle. Though the castle was initially built by Muhammed I, the garden was developed by Muhammed ibn-Yusuf ibn-Nash. The Court of the Pool, within the garden, has abundant instances of Islamic architecture. An impact of northern European gardens design is visible in Alhambra (Alhambra par. 1).

The garden is based on the concept of Islamic paradise, the influence of which is apparent all over the place. It is worth mentioning that according to the Quran (holy book of the Muslims) paradise is a lavish garden. Water was a scarcity during those days in the deserts and was considered to be a luxury.

Within the Alhambra gardens, water has been used liberally in order to give people reprieve from the usual scorching heat of the desert; water was believed to humidify and cool the surrounding atmosphere. The sound of water was considered to be soothing to the ear as well (The Alhambra  Islamic Jewel of Granada par. 12).

Islamic architecture is also evident in Alhambras huge horse-shoe-shaped entrance. It was called the Gate of Justice. Trivial complaints were heard and justice was rendered here; an Islamic custom. Generalife, a Moorish villa, can be considered an extension of Alhambra. It is also an excellent paradigm of Arabic landscaping and is considered to be one of the most beautiful gardens (The Alhambra  Islamic Jewel of Granada par. 13).

Works Cited

Alhambra, 2014.

Ruggles, Fairchild. Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. Print.

Taj Mahal Garden, 2014.

Taj Mahal Gardens, n.d.

The Alhambra  Islamic Jewel of Granada, 2006.

Introduction

The concept of Islamic city is among the most controversial topics in the contemporary urban studies. The three given articles analyze and assess this concept. J.L. Abu-Lughod considers the concept of Islamic city inconsistent with reality and claims that it is social, political, and natural factors, not religious ones, that shape a city. K. Adham states that the Islamization of the architecture is a result of capitalism, and for M.M. Sakr it is an outcome of globalization. I agree with R. Alissa, according to whom Islamic architecture is affected by the Western gaze, but I recognize the benefits of the Islamization of architecture.

Summarizing the Articles

The three articles offered for analysis, The Islamic City  Historic Myth, Islamic Essence, and Contemporary Relevance by Janet L. Abu-Lughod, The Theming of Arabia: Cultural Capitalism and the Re-Invention of Tradition in the Persian Gulf by Khaled Adham, and Creating the Arabian Architectural Style by Mamdouh Mohamed Sakr are discussing the topic of the Islamic city idea and its relevance to the todays Islamic world.

In her article, Janet L. Abu-Lughod, an eminent American sociologist, emphasizes the influence of Western literature on the modern Orientalist trend in architecture (Abu-Lughod, 1987, p. 155). She criticizes the assumptions of the supporters of the Islamic city concept and proves them irrelevant. In particular, the mentions the following assumptions: Islam is an urban religion; Islamic cities are founded by new powers or dynasties; Islamic cities have a congregational Friday mosque and a bazaar; they are divided into resident and non-resident zones. As Abu-Lughod states, all of the assumptions relate only to North African cities and ignore the social organization of the cities (Abu-Lughod, 1987, p. 136-137). As a conclusion, the author claims that cities are shaped more by environmental and political factors than by religious ones (Abu-Lughod, 1987, p. 172).

Khaled Adham defines the Arabic trend in city architecture as a form of cultural capitalism (Adham, 2008, p. 10-11), i.e. an architectural fashion shaped by economic reality. The re-invention of heritage, Adham says, is performed to attract tourists and business partners (Adham, 2008, p. 13). The author offers Dubai and Souk Waquif in Doha as examples of bringing the old traditions back in a somewhat different form and the commercialization of cultural heritage. In a conclusion, Adham mentions that, for cities, Arabic style is a way to survive and cope with the conditions of the global capitalist economy. Additionally, such architectural shaping attracts not only tourist but important entrepreneurs as well (Adham, 2008, p. 15).

Mamdouh Mohamed Sakr, on the example of Dubai, studies the identity of a global city and its relevance to the popularity of Arabic style. He thoroughly examines the historical background of Dubai, its initial architecture, the building materials used, the customs, and environmental conditions such as climate. Then, he speaks about the unusually rapid urbanization of Dubai and points out that, within globalization, the city has lost its identity (Sakr, 2008, p. 148-149). The loss of identity, Sakr claims, led to a crisis in its architectural specificity since the architecture was affected by globalization as well (Sakr, 2008, p. 149-150). In general, Sakr approves of the attempts to revive Arabic style, naming them a successful implementation of both aesthetic values and economic purposes (Sakr, 2008, p. 157).

The Concept of Islamic City

All the three above-mentioned authors recognize the existence of the concept of Islamic city, but assess it differently. To my understanding, while Abu-Lughod does not believe that this concept has any relation to reality and considers social, political, and environmental factors prevailing over religion, Sakr and Adham do not make such claims. All the scholars emphasize the importance of social and environmental factors shaping a city, while Sakr, additionally, is interested in its historical process of development. Unlike Adham, Abu-Lughod and Sakr study Arabic cities outside the Gulf (India, North Africa) to make comparisons. Abu-Lughod also mentions the gender component (sexual segregation) of the social conditions forming a city (Abu-Lughod, 1987, p. 172).

Abu-Lughod seeks to deconstruct the notion of Islamic city (Abu-Lughod, 1987, p. 172) while Sakr does not consider that it needs deconstruction. To him, this concept rather needs explanation through the problem of globalization. Similarly, Adham analyzes it as an outcome of capitalization. Among the three authors, Sakr is the only one to address the issue of a citys identity (including its architectural component), its alterations, and its possible loss. Apart from that, he is the only one to emphasize some positive results of the commercialization of a Gulf citys architectural image.

The debate over Islamic city has been and is going on. Some scholars point out that, since Arab Muslims usually settled in already existing cities or even at villages at the beginning of their history, they could not create a pattern of their own city architecture, and they could not associate cities with Islam. The features of the cities that became Islamic, hence, are inherited from previous inhabitants. Some archeologists are sure that Arabic cities strongly resemble Roman ones in planning and architecture, mentioning the medina of Maghreb (Tunisia) as an example. This is not surprising, considering the fact that a lot of Roman and Hellenistic cities of North Africa and the Middle East lived to be Arabic (Islamic).

Those scholars, who support the idea of Islamic city, usually name the following significant features: the main mosque, markets, a citadel (the residence of the governor), residential quarters (cluster of people, who maintain strong ties), specific street planning (narrow private and semi-private streets connecting residential headquarters with other places), a defended wall surrounding the city, separated cemeteries for the representatives of different religions outside the wall, and an animal market, also outside the wall (Saoud, 2001, par. 13-22).

The Critique by Reem Alissa

As it can be seen, the concept of Islamic city, though is very popular, is criticized by prominent scholars as a commercial enterprise. Reem Alissa, a contemporary architect, urban designer, and historian, criticizes the whole idea of Islamic architecture, marking it as something that emerged from the Westerners, who simplified the traditions of the East, and then, in an objectified form, returned back to the Easterners and managed to become an architectural style (Alissa, 2012, p. 113).

Surely, the trend that Alissa describes is well-represented in the countries of the Gulf. One of the most bright examples is Dubai. It is an ancient city, and in pre-oil times it was a town, which Europeans perceived as a typical Arabic one: with the fishing industry, a bazaar, a Friday mosque, and, finally, traditional architecture. In post-colonial times (however, the start of this process can be traced back to the 18th century), Eastern traditions, including architecture, were imported to the West. In medieval times Islamic architecture had a strong influence on Spanish and Portuguese traditions, but it became fashion in later times. After Napoleons expedition to the East, due to the fact that he took scholars with the army, the Eastern cultural traditions, including architecture, were introduced to Europe as Orientalist traditions and became a trend (Petersen, 2002, p. 90). In the West, Islamic architectural traditions became unified, i.e. Westerners saw Oriental traditions as something integral and made no distinction between, for instance, North African Islamic traditions and Indo-Chinese Islamic traditions).

In other words, the Westerners appropriated and transformed the Eastern architectural traditions. As far as I understand the problem of Dubai, since this city is a major center of business, and a significant part of its business connections are Western countries, it has to represent what the Westerners think Arabic/Islamic city must look like. This is the reason for the phenomenon, which Reem Alissa criticizes.

As for my own opinion, I would agree with Reem Alissa: it is true that this Islamic architecture trend originates from the West, which is supported sufficiently by evidence. Nevertheless, I would not consider it something very negative. While it may be not very pleasant to know that some parts of your city are designed to be a tourist attraction or a business advertisement, it is useful to think about the positive outcomes of this phenomenon. Attracting Western partners and tourists allows a city to flourish and its population to be wealthy, have job opportunities, and live in a safe place with well-developed infrastructure.

Conclusion

The concept of Islamic city is among the most controversial topics in the contemporary urban studies. J.L. Abu-Lughod, K. Adham, and M.M. Sakr analyze this problem differently. While R. Alissa is right in her critique of Islamic architecture, I think that employing this style brings a lot of benefits to a city and its population.

References

Abu-Lughod, J.L. (1987). The Islamic city  Historic myth, Islamic essence, and contemporary relevance. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 19(2), 155-176.

Alissa, R. (2012). Building for oil: corporate colonialism, nationalism, and urban modernity in Ahmadi, 1946-1992 (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, California). Web.

Khaled, Adham. (2008). The theming of Arabia: Cultural capitalism and the re-invention of tradition in the Persian Gulf. In Cultural capital and the reinvention of heritage (pp. 1-25). Berkeley, California: International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments.

Petersen, A. (2002). Dictionary of Islamic architecture. New York City, New York: Taylor & Francis.

Sakr, M.M. (2008). Creating the Arabian architectural style. In A. Moustafa, J. Al-Qawasmi, & K. Mitchell (Eds.), Instant cities. Emergent trends in architecture and urbanism in the Arab world. Amman, Jordan: CSAAR Press.

Saoud, R. (2001). Introduction to the Islamic city. Web.

Topic Characteristics

The thesis will focus on the influences of modernity on Islamic architecture and geometry as well as examine whether they should be mitigated in order to preserve traditional design solutions. The principal reason why architects engage in the process of unremitting honing of their specialized skill is to ensure that they make possible the continuation into the future of valuable qualities of the environment, form, texture, material, and of detail and decoration, that would otherwise disappear (Steele 18).

In the Middle East, the construction of intricate environments that incorporate regional spatial organizations and rhythmic design components can be regarded as the natural result of progression in cultural norms and beliefs of society as a whole. After the First World War, new technologies have made possible the proliferation of construction materials, thereby allowing a high level of standardization of urban infrastructure (Sabouni and Vanegas 199).

This development has led to architects exploring new applications of geometry and seeking new forms to realize functional needs created by the availability of innovative materials (Alami 39). The unique dynamics of economic development enhanced by changing socio-cultural environment have triggered the creation of new architectural types. This evolution has necessitated the provision of effective solutions to the problem of finding an individual character that combined the heritage of historical regional building traditions with the expression for a modern society (Sabouni and Vanegas 200).

Islamic architecture, which can be regarded as the actualization of cultural needs of the Middle East, is inspired to a significant extent by religious perceptions of God. Therefore, it can be argued that the notions of tradition hinge on the necessity to preserve a physical locus of the religious message (Steele 19). Given that Islamic architecture and, to a lesser extent, geometry are value-loaded traditions, it is particularly important to investigate whether they benefit from changes introduced by modernity.

Problem

In the age of stylistic pluralism, it is extremely difficult to critically assess the impact of modernity on Islamic geometry and architecture. Even though numerous attempts have been made to examine the influence of current trends on the tradition of Islamic architecture, there is still no comprehensive framework in which it can be assessed. Thus, while some architects have argued that Islamic architecture should shun modern techniques and systems, others have maintained that it ought to reflect current environmental, technological, and political developments (Frampton et al. 46). There is also a group of scholars who hold the view that architecture should not be moored to architectural design principles that exist within a microcosm of Islamic culture but rather has to retain a balance between modern and traditional approaches (Gonzalez 72).

Objective

In order to arrive at a comprehensive framework for assessing the influence of modernity on Islamic architecture and geometry, I will attempt to show which one of the views described in the previous section of the paper has the most merit. I will inquire into the development of Islamic architecture and geometry in a large qualitative literature survey. To this end, I am going to use data from the following academic databases and search engines: Academic Search, EBSCO, Safety Lit, Scientific Information Database, ScienceOpen, Search Team, and SpringerLink. I will also collect additional information from books in local libraries.

Hypotheses

1. There are three approaches to the interpretation of the influences of modernity on Islamic geometry and architecture: a) the influence results in a net loss and ought to be mitigated; b) the influence results in a net benefit and ought to be encouraged; c) the influence is neutral.
2. One of these three approaches is more preferable than others two.

Methodology

In order to make my contribution to the topic, I will use the qualitative literature review methodology which is commonly referred to as a systematic review. The objective of a systematic review is to address the problem of differences between various studies that occur for reasons that include, but are not limited to, design flaws, chance, and sampling variations (Siddaway). I will attempt to identify and critically evaluate the findings of the most relevant and high-quality extant literature on the topic of the influence of modernity on Islamic geometry and architecture that addresses at least one of the research questions.

The systematic review will try to determine to what extent existing body of literature has progressed toward clarifying the issue. It will also attempt to establish contradictions and inconsistencies in individual studies on the issue, and provide new explanations for the discussed phenomena in order to account for the contradictions. When trying to analyze the results of the literature review, I will try to adopt a judicious mindset in order to minimize bias.

Works Cited

Alami, Mohammed. Art and Architecture in the Islamic Tradition: Aesthetics, Politics and Desire in Early Islam. I. B. Tauris, 2011.

Frampton, Kenneth, et al. Modernity and Community: Architecture in the Islamic World. Edited by Philippa Baker, Thames & Hudson, 2001.

Gonzalez, Valerie. Beauty and Islam: Aesthetics in Islamic Art and Architecture. I. B. Tauris, 2001.

Sabouni, Ikhlaas, and Jorge Vanegas, editors, ACSA Houston Fall Meeting 2011, ACSA, 2011.

Siddaway, Andy. What is a Systematic Literature Review and How do I do One? Stir. Web.

Steele, James. Architecture for Islam Societies Today. Academy Editions, 1994.

Introduction

The modernization process that started at the beginning of the twentieth century has raised the problem of reconcilability of Islamic geometry and architecture with those used by non-Muslims (Mortada 127). The bifurcation of scholarly opinions on the place of modernity in traditional Islamic building design is a testament to the complexity of the issue. Taking into consideration the need to recognize a sacred role of geometry in Islamic philosophy, the influence of modernity on Muslim built environments should be closely investigated (Meehan 112). This part of the thesis proposal outlines arguments pertaining to the research topic. Research objectives and questions will also be discussed in detail.

Overview of the Topic

Despite the fact that Islamic geometry and architecture are two interconnected and diverse entities that cannot be easily generalized, it is not possible to disregard the homogeneity of conflicting arguments on these two fundamental cultural components. The discourse of Islamic identity inevitably enters the analysis of architectural expression of structural needs, forms, and functions that are often treated as eternal truths that can be discovered through contemplation. According to Al-Meheid, the metaphysical reality of Allahs existence is recognizable in Islamic geometry and architecture (qtd. in Meehan 112). It means that the interpretation of the influence of modernity on geometrical and architectural expressions of Islamic culture should not be analyzed separately from its philosophical and religious underpinnings.

It has been well established in a variety of publications that two opposite viewpoints on the issue under discussion are expressed with equal intensity of scientific rigor. Some scholars defend the proposition that modern approaches to Muslim built environments should be shunned at all costs (Frampton et al. 46). Others maintain that Islamic architecture and geometry have immensely benefited from the process of modernization (Gonzalez 72). The emergence of these two views marks the turning point in the analysis of Islamic spatial organizations and layouts. The need of a new analytical discourse is emphasized by the ever-growing pace of economic development of the Middle East. In the age of global capitalism and almost palpable sense of temporariness, it is essential to recognize the two perspectives in order to better understand the transformation of the key artifacts of the Islamic culture under the influence of modernity.

Research Objectives

Preservation of historical elements of Muslim spatial layouts and organizations is a collective endeavor. This endeavor cannot be approached without a clear understanding of modernity with respect to socio-cultural needs of Muslim communities whose built environments undergo the process of change. Therefore, in order to properly address the issue of the preservation of cultural patrimony in the Middle East, it is necessary to create a comprehensive framework for the assessment of the modernizing process impact on the architectural and geometric vocabulary of Islam. The creation of such framework is the first objective of this study.

According to Gharipour, the influence of modernity on the architectural fabric of Muslim societies should be analyzed through the perspectives of tradition and community, as well as a universal concern for aesthetic messages delivered by monuments or landscapes (199). It follows that the modernization of modern architectural infrastructures has to be evaluated in the context of culture, religion, values, society, and history. However, the inclusion of these contextual elements in the analysis of modernitys influence on Islamic geometry and architecture would acknowledge the validity of the argument that the Muslim built environments are not improved by the transformative impact of the twenty-first century. Thus, it is of utmost importance to ensure that economic and practical implications of new architectural methods are also subjected to analytical scrutiny, thereby making an allowance for the competing point of view. It follows that a framework for the evaluation of Islamic geometry and architectures modernization should include the following analytical components: culture, religion, values, society, history, economics, and utility. By carefully considering these conceptual facets of the issue, it will be easier to reach the second objective of the study, which is to understand the degree of compatibility of Islamic building design and geometry with modernization.

The presence of a conceptual chasm between contemporaneity and tradition is emphasized by Esposito who argues that socio-political developments of the last several decades serve as evidence of the incompatibility of Islam with twentieth-century life and technology (qtd. in Mortada 128). This point of view, which is only one out of many on the opposing end of the issues spectrum, points to the fact that the intellectual and aesthetic transformations of Islamic geometry and architecture are often regarded as socially problematic. A wide range of perspectives on the modernizations influence on Islamic built environments can be roughly classified along two extremes. However, there are also those who believe that the identity of Islamic culture and civilization needs to be both traditional and modern (Sphahic). It follows that the study of the issue will help to systematize fragmented views on the replacement of architectural and geometric tradition of Islam. Therefore, the third objective of the study is to categorize disparate views on the influence of modernity on the key elements of Islamic spatial organizations.

Research Questions

In order to make a meaningful contribution to the topic, it is necessary to critically approach the uncertainty about the impact of modernity on Islamic architecture and geometry. The success of the study will hinge on the ability of the inquirer to formulate clear and concise research questions, which will guide them towards the attainment of the objectives outlined in the previous section of the paper. In addition, the questions will help them to determine how to properly approach the investigation of fundamental aspects of Muslim built environments with regard to a research paradigm, ontology, and methodology. The choice of the studys design and data accumulation methods will also be affected by the research questions.

Given that the investigation should contribute to the ongoing discussion of the role of modernity in the transformation of the architectural heritage of Muslim communities, the research questions have been formulated after the evaluation of the following criteria: relevance, feasibility, and ethicality. The research questions for this study are:

1. What are the perspectives of Islamic scholars on the influence of modernity on Islamic geometry and architecture?
2. Are Islamic building design and geometry compatible with modernization?
3. Does the influence result in a net loss or a net benefit for the Islamic culture?

Conclusion

The paper has outlined two polar perspectives on the influence of modernity on Islamic architecture and geometry. The following objectives of the study have been presented in the paper: to create a comprehensive framework for the assessment of the modernizing process impact on architecture and geometry of Islam, to assess the degree of compatibility between these three variables, and to systematize fragmented views on the issue.

Works Cited

Frampton, Kenneth, et al. Modernity and Community: Architecture in the Islamic World. Edited by Philippa Baker, Thames & Hudson, 2001.

Gharipour, Mohammad. Tradition vs. Modernity: The Challenge of Identity in Contemporary Islamic Culture. 2011 ACSA Fall Conference in Houston, edited by Ikhlas Sabouni and Jorge Vanegas, ACSA Press, 2012, pp. 199-205.

Gonzalez, Valerie. Beauty and Islam: Aesthetics in Islamic Art and Architecture. I. B. Tauris, 2001.

Meehan, Mark. Islam, Modernity, and the Liminal Space Between. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014.

Mortada, Hisham. Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Environment. Routledge, 2011.

Sphahic, Omer. Islamic Architecture Between Tradition and Modernity. IslamiCity, www.islamicity.org/9199/islamic-architecture-between-tradition-and-modernity/. Accessed 27 Oct. 2017.

Introduction

Many religions use figures to represent their faith and convictions, but in Islam, the use of figures is seen as a form of idolatry and worldly thus the discouragement of its use. Calligraphy as a form of writing and art was adopted. It is a significant form of visual art in Islamic architecture. This is due to its simplicity in conveying messages such as the Quran and Mohammeds sayings and teachings. It is used to express the Muslims faith and identity and brings forth a great type of decorative art. Calligraphy inscriptions are everywhere in the Muslim culture: in the Quran, mosque, madrasa, the libraries and mausoleums, tombs, palaces, and so on. This raises the subject of the use of calligraphy in the Muslim world. How is modern-day technology innovation influencing the use of this form of art? In what ways are the Muslims trying to preserve the art? In this paper, the focus is made on the history and use of calligraphy as a form of Islamic architecture in the Timurid and its contemporary development.

Islamic history

Islam commenced in the Arabian Peninsula. The prophet Muhammad was born in 570 AD in Mecca (What is Islam? 1). He was raised by his mother who died when he was 6 years old. His grandfather took over after his mothers death. Meanwhile, people in Mecca were worshiping gods, goddesses and idols. In 610AD, he experienced his first vision from God and from then onwards, he embraced Islam and proclaimed Allah as the true God. He preached Islam to the people with difficulty due to their heavy opposition. In 621 AD, he went to Medina with some people from the Arab tribe. In Medina, Hejira took place and Muhammad was almost killed. A battle took place between the Jews and those from Medina and Muhammads men wore it. His rule was tightened and people acknowledged him as the prophet. He died in 632 AD and Abu Bakr took over as the Muslim leader (What is Islam? 5).

After Muhammad, Islam rapidly expanded to the west. However, the opposition was experienced in some regions due to the infiltration of Christianity. His sayings were assembled and the Hadith was generated.

The Muslims believe in one God (Allah), angels who serve Allah, the scriptures such as the Quran, Muhammad as the last prophet and the last days for resurrection (What is Islam?10).

The Timurid architectural history

The Timurid was an empire in Central Asia founded by Timur and consisted of Samarkand, Herat, Bukhara and Shahr-i Sabz. Its architecture is mainly Persian, though a lot of reinvention has been made to include decorative elements (Blair and Bloom 45).

The architectural development in the Timurid is categorized into four distinct eras according to the leader at that particular time. These are:

• Timur (1370-1405)  under Timur, the Aqsaray palace was constructed and tile decorations and brick mosaic were used (Blair and Bloom 45). In addition, he built a tomb and a mosque (Bibi Khanum) which followed the Persian architecture (Thackston 3).
• Shah Rukh and wife Gawharshad (1405-1447)  under Shah Rukh and his wife, the madrasa system of education was introduced. These enabled people to learn Islam and governance and architecture development was embedded in them. Shrines were also built-in communities such as the Shite. Qavam al-Din Shirazi was used in the design of buildings. A complex was erected at Herat using the squinch-net vaulting method.
• Husayn b. Mansur Bayqara (1470-1506)  under Bayqara rule, many mosques, madrasas, bridges and khanqahs were built. Furthermore, one hospital was also built (Golombek and Wilber 10).
• The Qaraqoyunlu (1380  1468) and the Aqqoyunlu or (1378  1508)  their rule was executed from western Iran and were enemies with the Timurids. Not much architectural work was done under their rule beside a few buildings at Tabriz, Isfahan and Hisnkayfa and most of the architecture was borrowed from the Timurids (Blair and Bloom 47).

Introduction of calligraphy in Islamic Architecture

Calligraphy derives its name from Greek and it means the art of beautiful writing. Islamic calligraphy was curved out of Islamic art. Islamic art is comprised of Arabic script, calligraphy, floral motifs, geometric patterns and vegetal motifs (Oweis 1). The Arabic script was derived from the Nabataea script in the 5^th century by the Arabians dwelling in Hirah and Anbar and stretched to Hijaz among the Quraysh who were from Prophet Muhammads tribe. Calligraphy is used to portray the visual and creative side of Muslims. The Arabic script consists of 28 letters (Paschuck 5).

Safadi states that: The primacy of the word in Islam is reflected in the virtually universal application of calligraphy. Writing is given pride of place on all kinds of objectsobjects of everyday use as well as entire wall surfaces, mosque furniture, the interiors and exteriors of mosques, tombs, and al-Kaba, the most famous sanctuary of Islam. But like the icons of most other faiths, the script also represents power. Its preeminent use is the writing of the divine message of the Quran, of course, which endowed it with extraordinary strength and transcendent significance. From this worlds manifold possibilities, Allah had chosen Arabic as the vehicle for his final revelation. (qtd. in Mubireek 2).

There are various styles of calligraphy-based on various aspects. However, the majority of them fit into two classes: the Kufic (dry style) and cursive script (moist style). Examples of calligraphy styles are:

• Thuluth is based on the width of the pen used for writing and is a cursive script.
• Naskh derived from its usage. It is a cursive script.
• Kufic or Kufa derived from the place of its development i.e. the town of Kufa. It is a dry style.
• Yaquti derived from the artist or the creator.
• Yabis derived from the styles curvature.

The Kufic style is one of the styles adopted in the early years when calligraphy was introduced. With time, other styles have been adopted and enhanced to ensure easy readability by non-Arabs. It is mainly used in Quran writing. It is unique due to its square and angular nature as shown in figure 1.

Initially, the cursive scripts were mostly used for secular or worldly functions because they fell short of style and discipline. With time, improvement has been made to ensure strict standardization and adherence to the rules. The dot and circle were adopted as units for determining line and letter proportions (Sakkal 9). The thuluth is mostly used for ornamental writing and came up in the 11^th century.

The Naskh was developed in the 10^th and has a rhythmic line. It is used for writing the Quran because of its simplicity in reading and writing and is deemed as the ultimate script.

Calligraphy is also written in form of pictures to convey different messages such as figure 3.

Calligraphers used reed and brush pens for doing their calligraphy. Other tools included knives, ink pots, scissors and sharpening tools. The alif is the unit of proportion in calligraphy.

Importance of calligraphy in Islamic art

The art of calligraphy has been embedded in the Islamic culture and is used in virtually every form of their activity. But why have Muslims embraced this form of art?

Calligraphy in Islamic art is a sign of the cultural values of the Muslims. It signifies their identity. It is used as a form of worship and in spiritual activity in glorifying and beatifying Allahs words (Mossalli 1). Its inscriptions are used to identify places such as mosques, madrassas and mausoleums. In addition, it shows various types of historical information such as dates and artists and used as a form of decoration.

Calligraphy in the Quran

The Quran is the vital instrument for the Muslims just like the Holy Bible is for Christians. It is the Holy Bible for the Muslims. It is Gods word that was delivered through Archangel Gabrielle to Prophet Muhammad during the 23years he was a prophet (What is Islam? 5). It consists of 114 surahs and divided into three periods:

• The early surah written prior to Muhammads departure to Medina before Hejira in the years 610-622 AD.
• The median surah written during his time at Medina between 622-630AD. During this time, the Jihad doctrine was formulated.
• The late surah written before his death between 630-632AD.

According to Welch, calligraphy writing was introduced in Islam as a result of a revelation in the Quran. It was revealed that calligraphy is a beautiful script written using a pen and Allah preserves it. This led to its use in all the Islamic activity, buildings and books. He quotes:

Thy Lord is the Most Bounteous,
Who teacheth by the pen,
Teacheth man that which he knew not.
 (Surah al-Alaq, 96:3-5). (qtd. in Mubireek 5)

The writing in the Quran was originally done using calligraphy in the Kufic style. However, styles of writing such as Naskh have also been used to write the Quran.

Examples of calligraphy in the Quran are shown in figure 4 and figure 5.

Calligraphy inscription in Timurid buildings

Under Timurs rule, different architectural designs were introduced in Timurid in 1390. Many buildings were put up in Herat and Samarkand (Dickens 15). Numerous artists were brought and encouraged to articulate their ideas and this led to a variety of designs. The calligrapher at Timurid, Omar, was able to translate the Quran into small and large volumes. The successor of Timur also introduced his own unique designs of the mosques, madrasas, and etcetera. Despite these, most of its architecture was borrowed from the Persian architecture which introduced mausoleums as funerary places and khans (caravanserai). The Timurid architecture also borrowed the exterior tile decoration from the Persian architecture. Muqarnas were used but over time, they were replaced with intersecting arches which could be changed to different forms. Moreover, more colour and tiles were used during this period. The tiles had stucco or terra-cotta decorations.

After the adoption of calligraphy in the writing of Quran, it was passed onto building inscriptions.

Different calligraphy and architecture are applied and used in decorating the interior and exterior of buildings. Basing on the region where the building has been set up, the architecture can be Timurid, Persian, Ottoman, Azbeijan and Indo-Islamic. The wall and window inscriptions are copied from the Quran and Hadith. The function of the building is defined by the inscriptions and calligraphy i.e. mosques have different inscriptions from the madrasas or mausoleum.

In the early Timurid architecture, structures had axial symmetry and double domes. In addition, bright colours were utilized for decorative purpose. Depending on the type of building, some features like the minarets, mihrabs, iwans and muqarnas were either included or left out. For example, a palace, such as the AqSaray, was not domed.

Identities for the Islamic architecture

Islamic architecture in buildings is easily identified by the following features:

• Domes
• Towers or minarets which were used as watchtowers.
• A four iwan plan with halls facing Mecca.
• Mihrab (niche in the wall) pointing to the direction of Mecca.
• Iwans leading to the main hall and used for prayers, teachings and book keeping.
• Geometric patterns
• Islamic calligraphy with no pictures.
• Mocarabe and muqarnas  muqarnas are decorative elements and are mainly in 3D.
• Central fountains

Mosques

Calligraphy is widely used in the inscription of internal and external walls of the mosques. Mosques are buildings for worship in the Islamic culture and a lot of attention is paid when doing its inscriptions. The buildings architecture consists of minarets, iwans, mihrab, calligraphy, central fountains and domes. Quran messages written on the windows, walls and the minarets are about Allah, Prophet Muhammad and his sayings and teachings.

Various forms of roofing for mosques are used including the dome, the T type and Abbasid. The dome is the most common form of roofing and was launched in the 15^th century. The dome normally covers the prayer hall.

The Mir Chaqmaq mosque in Yazd, Iran was built using the Timurid architecture in 1437. Bricks were used for construction. No minarets were put and a four-iwan structure was done. Mosaic tiles were used for decoration as shown in figure 6. Other mosques built using Timurid architecture include Bibi-Khanum mosque. This mosque was built by Timur and was used to show his immense concern for art.

Madrasas

The Madrasa is an example of a school where Islamic history, content and literature is taught plus the preservation of the Islamic tradition. The Imam Reza Complex was constructed in 1439 and consists of a double domed iwan plan with niches. The iwans are vaulted and the one at the southwest has a mihrab. Mosaic and haft-rangi tiles have been utilized as forms of decorative art.

Palaces

Palaces are buildings where the rulers of the timurid resided. Most of the palaces were epitomes of beauty with excellent decor consisting of silk, gold and carpets (Dickens 16). The palace was used for carrying out public duties such as solving disputes, social arena and for holding meetings.

Between 1379 and 1396, Timur constructed the Aqsaray palace in Shakhrisabz, Uzbekistan. It was constructed using the timurid architecture with a niche on its west side. Most of the buildings decoration was done using glazed tiles and motifs and had no dome. The palace was almost totally damaged in the 16^th century but the ruins are still standing up to date (Dickens 16).

Mausoleums

The mausoleums had cylindrical, octagonal or square shapes with domes. The wall inscriptions and calligraphy bore messages of death, resurrection and paradise. The words are obtained from the Quran (Saoud 11). The mausoleums were built at the cemeteries or next to mosques or madrasas. The Qazizadeh Rumi mausoleum in Samarkand, Uzbekistan was built in 1420. It consisted of domed halls and interiorly decorated using muqarnas. Its exterior was coloured bright blue depicting one of the features of Islamic architecture.

Khans or caravanserais

The Khans were built for use by travellers. They were positioned at intervals and were set up due to the Islamic emphasis on charity. The buildings consisted of courtyard and iwans. The rooms were organized according to the intended function. The khans structure was square in shape. Its walls were very strong and supported by semi circular towers. Most travellers who stopped at the Khans were provided with food, water and a place to sleep and keep their horses (Saoud 10).

Contemporary development of Islamic art and architecture

Various factors determine a buildings quality. These include, the type of material used, the structure employed, and its dimension. With the growth of modern and industrial developments in almost all aspects of life, the Islamic world has not been left out. This has caused an identity crisis since the western technology has started taking root and the traditional Islamic culture is slowly being edged out. For instance, computer technology has been on a steady increase in the recent past and this has resulted in no major advancement on the Islamic calligraphy and art other than the usage of digital media and computer technology to improve the already existing work. Similarly, the crisis has taken toll on the various architectural designs and construction of buildings and has necessitated the use of modern technology in all the processes such as planning and designing thus crafting an unfamiliar atmosphere in the Middle East.

Unity is a key factor in ensuring the Islamic communities preserve their culture. Architect Martin states that:

The concept of Unity in multiplicity is the determining factor in integrating Islamic societies. Historically the revelation of Islam as expressed by the prophet Mohammed and the Holy Koran brought together the most diverse cultures and peoples from Spain across to India and beyond. The architecture of the Islamic world throughout history adapted and responded to different cultures and existing traditions of buildings without weakening the spiritual essence which was its source of inspiration. Urban centers in Islamic cities evolved over long periods of time with generations of craftsmen whose sensitivity and experience added variety and a diversity of styles to the environment. The traditional Islamic city reflected a unity which related the architecture of the mosque, the madrassa , the souq, palace and the home as a sequence of spaces& The identity of the city lay in the relationship of its elements. These relationships were generated by the harmonizing of the community with the forces acting on it, which enabled the interaction of cultures, building methods and methods to evolve an Islamic identity in the same way a language maintains its own identity even when it absorbs outside words. (qtd. in Islamic Architecture 6)

To apply the modern technology and still retain the traditional culture, a compromise has to be reached. This is done by applying the technology offered to express the Islamic architecture. New materials, designs and construction methods are used for building erections while their Islamic art of calligraphy is used for decorative purposes. In other regions of the Middle East, the ancient technology has been left behind and modern technology has been adopted while in other regions, the opposite is done (modern technology has been disregarded and the community has opted to retain its traditional culture).

Architects such as Hassan Fathy, Rifat Chadirji and Basil Al-Bayyati have been looking for diverse ways of ensuring that contemporary architecture is still expressed in the tradition of the Islamic culture. As one puts it:

These and many more such as: Basil Al-Bayyati, and Abdel Wahed El Wakil are the gladiators in the arena of competing concepts of architecture in the Muslim world. They have contributed significantly to the evolving patterns of the built environment, to the intellectual debate prevailing in the Muslim world, and to the architectural professions image of its role as articulator and promulgator of societal values. (Islamic Architecture 9)

Conclusion

The Islamic art and architecture are some of the richest forms of art. Calligraphy is used as a decorative form of writing. Calligraphy originated from the Arabian script and was first used in the Quran. Calligraphy was visually used as a sign of worship to glorify Allah and His words, as a sign of identity, in providing historical information and as a form of decoration. Calligraphy is classified into the kufic and cursive scripts of writing. Islamic architecture is described in all their buildings including mosques, madrasas, palaces, shrines, mausoleums and tombs. Different features of the buildings architecture include, towers also known as minaret, domes, mihrabs, muqarnas and geometric patterns.

The Timurid architecture has been studied with reference to the various types of inscriptions in their buildings, how calligraphy was started in the Quran and the contemporary or modern development of the Islamic art. With the era of industrial development, most of the Arabic countries embracing Islam are shifting towards modernization and this is seen in the types of buildings being erected. Despite this, some countries are still clinging to their traditional culture while others are applying modernization and traditional aspects of their culture to ensure culture preservation.

Works Cited

Blair, Sheila S. and Jonathan Bloom. The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press, 1994. 37-54.

Dickens, Mark. Timurid Architecture in Samarkand. 1990. Web.

Golombek, Lisa and Donald Wilber. The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. Vol 1and 2. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.

Islamic Architecture. The Future of Islamic Architecture. 2004. Web.

Mossalli, Marriam. Amin Introduces a New Dimension to Calligraphy. Halal Journal, 2011.

Mubireek, Khalid. Arabic Calligraphy. 2000. Web.

Oweis Fayeq. The Art of Arabic Calligraphy. Web.

Paschuk, Melissa. Islamic Calligraphy.2005.

Sakkal, Mamoun. Art of Islam: History of Calligraphy. 1993. Web.

Saoud, Rabah. Muslim Architecture under Seljuk Patronage (1038-1327).

Thackston, Wheeler. A Century of Princes: Sources on Timurid History and Art. The Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture. 1989.

What is Islam? The Rise of Islam. Web.

Introduction

The Greek architects were the designers of the early buildings in the Islamic empire. The buildings had to be the works of the Greek architects, they resembled the buildings in the late Roman Empire. Because they were building the mosques, unlike the churches, the Greek architects saw the need to try out some new designs. This contributed to the rise of different models of Islamic style of constructions.

This paper seeks to explore Islamic architecture with special attention to Al-Masjid Al-Haram. The report begins with the significance of Kaaba to Muslims. It also explores a brief history of the characteristics of Islamic architectures, with special emphasis on Makka and Masjid Al-Haram. Al-Masjid al-Haram is considered one of the largest mosques in the world. The report describes its architectural design and major renovations which have taken place since it was constructed. Kaaba plays a significant role in the spirituality of every Muslim. It is a cube-shaped structure that is about forty-three feet high. The report describes Kaba architecture and gives its historical link between the graves of prophet Ismail and his mother Hajar.

Significance of Kaaba to Islam

Kaaba, besides its architectural designs, is significant to every Muslim believer. The Muslims who proceed to the area around Mecca must undergo a ritual cleansing and wear a special white robe (Hankin, 2003). The pilgrimage starts with a procession (tawaf) around the Kaaba seven times in the anti-clockwise direction as viewed from above (Mubarakpuri, 2002). In the south-eastern side of the Kaaba, there is a sacred black stone mounted in silver. It is around 11 inches wide and 15 inches high. Muslims believe that this stone was sent from heaven by Allah and is considered highly sacred. Because of the numerous numbers of Muslim faithful crowding into Kaaba at any given time, it is almost impossible to get close to the stone and kiss it (Mubarakpuri, 2002).

History

General Characteristics of Islamic Architectures

According to Mubarakpuri (2002), the Islamic systems of architecture are mirrored byzantine and Sassanid models. The effects of these models inspired the architects of the time hence it contributed to the building of similar models such as the; dome of the rock in Jerusalem. The dome of the rock is adorned with arabesque patterns and the great epigraphic frieze. Architectural concepts and plans are enhanced by embracing the advice of civic and religious leaders.

Islamic architectural styles are unique. They encompass camouflaged walls of most mosques and Madrasa. The principle involved is the application of infinite patterns on the surfaces of any medium. The final architectural work involves superimposing elements, which tricks the eye into an illusion of the image. The architecture was enhanced by using decorative works. Tiles and plaster decorations were commonly used to cover up solid walls of Mosques and Madrasa while arches and vaults were camouflaged with epigraphic and floral decorations. Infinite patterns of radiating designs were put into a dome which reduces the solidity of masonry and stone.

Makka

Makkah is located east of the port of Jedda. It is about 45 miles east of the red sea. Makkah is known to many people as Mecca. Makkah is considered the mother of the cities and a holy place in the Islamic world. Muhammad, the founder of the Muslim faith was born here in 570. Within this Great Mosque, there is a shrine named Kaaba (Mubarakpuri, 2002). There are also considered to be the holiest shrines of Islam. Devoted Muslims throughout the world pray five times a day, and when they pray, they bow down facing Mecca. Those who can afford it take a tour to the holy city of Mecca once in their lifetime. This is referred to as a Hajj. It is done during the Muslim month of Dhu-al-Hijah (Hankin, 2003).

Discussion

Masjid Al-Haram Architecture

According to The Message of Islam (2011), Al-Masjid al-Haram is the largest mosque in the world, and it is in Mecca. Al-Masjid al-Haram covers an area of 356,800 square meters and has a capacity to hold 4 million people during Haji period (Baz, 1996).

The Al-Masjid al-Haram mosque was destroyed by a flood and was rebuilt by Ibrahim and his son Ismail.

A large number of travelers to Mecca contributed to a complete rebuild of the Al-Masjid al-Haram. Therefore, the wooden columns were substituted with stonework decorations. The oldest surviving parts of the building are the support columns placed by Sultan Selim II in 1570 and decorated domes that replaced the flat roof (The Message of Islam, 2011). In the 1620s, the mosque was reconstructed.

The second major renovations were done from 1982-to 1988 under King Fahd. A new outdoor prayer area and a new wing were built. The third extension saw a more prayer area constructed around the mosque and a Kings residence overlooking the mosque created 18 gates, 500 marbles columns, heated floors, air conditioners, escalators were part of the third extension. This was done between the years 1982 and 1988. The fourth extension started after the death of King Fahd in 2007 and is expected to last until 2020.

Kaaba Architecture

Kaaba structure is enclosed in the mosque in Mecca, and it is here that Muslims come for the journey (Haj). Around Mecca, there is a blessed zone where only Muslims are allowed to step in. This is a stonework cube-shaped structure that is about 43 feet high. Its sides are regular with a length of between 36 to 43 feet. This structure is covered in a black cloth called Kiswah which has Quran text sewed in gold and silver thread (The Message of Islam, 2011). The gold curtain (Kiswah) is replaced annually during the Hajj. The entrance into the Kaaba is a 2-meter gold door. Inside, the Kaaba floor is made of marble and limestone and the walls are made of marble on it are Quranic engravings. Outside the Kaaba is a semi-circular wall that is 90cm high and 1.5 m wide (The Message of Islam, 2011). It is believed that the gap between this wall and the Kaaba is the graves of prophet Ismail and his mother Hajar.

Conclusion

Islamic architecture derives its style from the foundation of Islam and shows a wide range of both religious and secular styles. These styles are expressed in different edifices and buildings thus representing the unique Islamic culture. Different styles of decorations have played a part in ornamenting mosques.

Makkah is a very significant city to the Muslim faith. Perhaps, this is the reason why a strong Muslim believer has to undertake a pilgrimage to the city once in his or her lifetime. The architecture of Makka has stood as one of the unique in the Islamic world. This is attributed to the style; design and construction process accorded. The architecture is characterized by strong Islamic tradition which has dictated its construction and subsequent renovation over the ages. Makkah has continued to carry on with the traditional practices of Islam. This is seen through various religious practices and rituals.

References List

Baz, A. A. A. (1996). Verifying & Explaining Many Matters of Hajj. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers.

Hankin, R. (2003). Makkah. London: Evans Brothers.

Mubarakpuri, S. R. (2002). History of Makkah. Riyadh. Darussalam Publishers.

Student of the Quran. (2011). Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca. Web.

The Message of Islam. (2011). The Kaaba as a Place of Worship in History. Web.

Introduction

Honor killing is a general practice among Muslim community against girls, young women or adult women. The families perform honor killing because a certain female member has dishonored them. Initially, parents use death threats to control their daughters. Families perform honor killings using various barbaric and ferocity means.

It may involve the use of burning, raping, stoning, beating to death, slitting throat, decapitating and suffocation, among others. Community and extended family members set and maintain honor killings. The community does not condemn the perpetrators. Instead, they see it as normative religious process. If the girl escapes, the family searches her in order to perform honor killing.

Opposing religious views on honor killing

Melissa Robinson argues that nowhere in Islam are honor killings encouraged or condoned. Rather, the Koran states that the family is suppose to honor women and girls and never abused, hurt, or murdered them (Friedman, 2010). However, Robinson acknowledges that honor killings are problems in Muslim societies, but she points out that there are many cultures and religions that experience domestic violence and murder.

She explains that people make misogynistic statements, not just by Muslim religious leaders, but also by Christian preachers, philosophers, revolutionaries, existentialists, historians, scientists, poets, and others. She concludes that honor killings are not inherently an Islamic problem. However, when they occur in Muslim families, they should be condemned by Muslims everywhere as being un-Islamic.

On the other hand, Robert Spencer notes that families use Islam to justify honor killings. He argues that although Koran does not encourage the killing of women based on such offenses, the prevalence of honor killings is too often in Muslim societies and families to the extent that they can no longer be cases of domestic violence. Spencer draws from the history of Islamic countries where societies use religion to justify violence against women.

Spencer says that it is impossible to assume that Islam has nothing to do with honor killings when majority of such killings happen in Islamic context. Spencer notes that there are circumstances where people link honor killings to Islamic practices. He further observes that there are cases where Islamic culture inculcates attitudes that can lead to honor killing (Friedman, 2010).

Robinson and Spencer encourage Muslim leaders to condemn honor killings among Muslim societies if they believe that Islamic faith has nothing to do with honor killings.

Socio-economic views on honor killings

One of the factors that determine whether a question of honor leads to an honor killing is the relationship between Muslims and their community members. For instance, Turks experience social difficulties when community excludes them from other members. Therefore, a family whose honor is at stake will experiences pressure from the community to perform honor killings.

The extent of public knowledge will determine if honor killing occurs or not. Therefore, if many people know about the dishonor then the family is likely to engage in honor killing. Turks are likely to carry out honor killings when confronted directly with the loss of their honor. A family can ignore the loss of its honor till openly confronted with it, at which point it cannot ignore it any longer (Eck, 2003).

Public accusation increases the likelihood of honor killings, rather than to a point to which loss of honor is a common knowledge. This is because public accusation leads to punishment. The party responsible for loss of honor may be publicly accused by the injured party if he or she cannot take responsibility. In this case, personal motives might influence honor killing.

Loss of honor among Muslim societies may provoke public ridicule or gossip. Families try to restore honor by carrying out honor killings. Therefore, loss of honor no longer subjects them to isolation and ridicule. Honor killing serves the purpose of restoring peace, respect and purifying the family name (Eck, 2003).

Loss of honor in a family that results into job loss and fear of unemployment is likely to results into honor killings. Loss of honor can be disastrous for families who possess their businesses. Once the society has isolated a family, customers will withdraw resulting to collapse of business ventures. Therefore, the communities condemn the family to a life of suffering.

Studies show that social ambition is among the considerations controlling a decision to engage in honor killings. However, this may be influenced by traditional values. A family may attempt to regain its lost glory and respect by means of honor killing within their own class, where members of the class view such killings positively. However, it is significant to note that honor killing does not improve ones social mobility within the class system (Wenona & Hyndman, 2004).

There are instances where honor killing does not serve the purpose of restoring and purifying the family. The motives of such honor killings range from incitements to kill certain people, improve a girls chances of getting marriage, taking children away from stepfather, to crimes of passion.

At present, some other factors such as availability of weapons like firearms create an enabling environment for honor killings. Some case may be related to use and abuse of drugs and alcohol. Critics argue whether there is a difference between honor killings and domestic violence involving killings.

References

Eck, C. (2003). Purified by Blood: Honour Killings Amongst Turks in the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Friedman, L. S. (2010). Womens Rights: Introducing Issues with opposing views. New York: Greenhaven Press.

Wenona, G. & Hyndman, J. (2004). Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones. California: University of California Press.

Abstract

This research paper explores different marketing strategies that businesses may use within the Islamic countries. Detailed appraisal of cultural, economical, and demographic inclination of the Islamic countries is presented to facilitate relevant and quick market penetration. Companies should apply cauterization of marketing, distribution channels within their augmented network alongside a strong financial arm.

The challenges that companies may face in the Islamic market include limited political, cultural, and social freedoms encircled in a religious parameter. Besides, there are legal restrictions and poor infrastructure challenges which might be encountered. Putting into consideration of the external and internal dynamics, companies targeting the Islamic markets should adopt a customized marketing strategy in order to remain relevant and benefit from the highly stratified market.

The findings indicate that the Islamic marketing system is very complex besides having the ability to improve the product visibility among the players, since it is designed to internalize the Islamic beliefs. Besides, the Islamic marketing system is driven by the object of perfection designed to convey information to customers on the unique features of a product. Finally, the community engagement initiatives often employ very emotive marketing language to appeal to the hidden benefits to the sensitive Islamic customers.

Introduction

This paper seeks to establish a meticulous research and documentation of the results of a successful marketing within the Islamic markets. The essay will integrate the marketing strategies, entry strategies, feasible marketing mix, and socio-cultural segmentation of the Islamic market. Also, this paper attempts to present a detailed analysis of the marketing system plan for any company interested in selling its products or services within the Islamic markets, and its choice of penetration technique without causing any disturbance.

The findings reveal that the global Islamic marketing is effective when the marketing system is inclusive of the direct players such as the consumers and producers, suppliers, independent entities such as business associations or regulatory agencies (Ali 1999). Besides, there is a need to promote proactive community engagement since it involves directly encouraging customers to proactively participate in brand evolution. The global Islamic marketing promotes development of sustainable relationship among the parties.

Findings

Kotler and Keller (2012) state that in order to build a strong marketing system, it is necessary to ensure that the potential customers will be in a position to identify with the product, due to the benefits it has (Kotler & Keller 2012, p. 32). Thus, the marketing strategy should be very effective in increasing the visibility of such a product. This is internalized in the global Islamic marketing.

Bert (2011) states that before an organization can acquire customers through the content of its products, it must, of course develop a marketing system to attract potential parties (Bert 2011, p. 37).Specifically, the global Islamic marketing system has become the most common and highly effective among small, medium, and even large companies targeting the Islamic markets (Sandikci 2011).

Reflectively, marketing system communication revolves around the optimal utilization of the communication channel for encoding and decoding information about a product between the company and potential customers (Blythe 2006).

Analysis

It is vital for businesses targeting the Islamic markets to embrace the available knowledge on effective marketing through the use of a marketing communication system (Cheverton 2004). The effectiveness of the global Islamic marketing communication system in a business determines the scope product performance, which translates into a better comparative advantage (Ladhari 2011).

Besides, the marketing agencies may use this system to review the product performance in line with the marketing objectives or goals within the Islamic markets (Dagnino & Rocco 2009). This is because the system has direct influence on customer purchasing behavior. This makes the marketing system essential in the current business environment.

Basically, community engagement in the global Islamic marketing system involves directly encouraging customers to proactively participate in brand evolution (Cones 2011). It basically promotes development of sustainable relationships between a customer and the product. Through advertisement, it is easy to understand community perceptions.

Conclusion

The advertisement offers the cognitive perspective of a product or service perception to influence the purchasing pattern of members of the target group at the individual level. In the product market, life style defines the activities clients are involved in such as beliefs, opinion, health aspects, and interests (Ries & Ries 2002). Therefore, the properstructuralglobal Islamic marketing system is critical towards sustainable community engagement in terms of appeal to needs, desires, and values.

Recommendations

In the ideal, the value and benefits of a product are easy to present to potential customers through an intrinsic marketing system. The values are packaged to ensure that the potential customers find it easy to associate with a product that promotes their cultural orientation.

Thus, through emphasis on the culture of freedom and happiness as visualized within a product or service, the global Islamic marketing system and community engagement variables may persuade the potential customers to purchase the product or service frequently. The decision may be influenced by the need to feign community feeling within the Islamic markets (Rossiter & Bellman 2005).

References

Ali, A. (1999). Middle East competitiveness in the 21^st centurys global market. Academy of Management Executive, 31(1), 102-108.

Bert, R. (2011). Marketing channels: A management view. Sydney, Australia: Thompson South-Western.

Blythe, J. (2006). Essentials of marketing communications. New York, NY: FT/Prentice Hall.

Cheverton, P. (2004). Key marketing skills:strategies, tools, and techniques for marketing success, Sterling. London, UK: Kogan Page.

Cone, S. (2011). Steal these ideas: Marketing secrets that will make you a star. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Dagnino, G., & Rocco, E. (2009). Competition strategy: theory, experiments and cases. New York, NY: Routledge.

Kotler, P., & Keller, K. (2012). Marketing management. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Ladhari, R. (2011). Determinants of loyalty and recommendations: The role of perceived service quality, emotional satisfaction and image. Journal of Financial Services Marketing, 169(1), 111-124.

Ries, A., & Ries, L. (2002). The 22 immutable laws of branding: how to build a product or service into a world-class brand. New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Rossiter, J., & Bellman, S. (2005). Marketing communications: Theory and applications. French Forest, France: Prentice Hall,

Sandikci, O. (2011). Researching Islamic marketing: Past and future perspective. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 2(3), 246-258.