Category: Islam

Many religions and faiths are classified by non-religious people as restrictive and filled with nonsensical rules and regulations that nobody should follow. The holy texts are concerned with every aspect of people’s lives starting from their dietary choices and ending with proper positions during sex. This gives the impression of unnecessary micromanagement and control over others that has no place in the 21st century. Indeed, the majority of these rules strike a modern person as odd at best and invasive at worst. However, there is a hidden wisdom to almost every rule that goes beyond the typical explanations given by the majority of religious texts.

Islam is considered one of the stricter religions when compared to Christianity and Buddhism. It requires its followers to obey many rules on a daily basis, starting with five prayers a day and ending with some of the more obscure restrictions such as not listening to music for idle pleasure. One of the more familiar restrictions for Islam followers revolves around eating pork. Pork is considered “dirty” according to Islamic teachings, but few ever go beyond that simple explanation. The same goes for the consumption of drugs and alcoholic beverages. Music, pork, and alcohol are strongly rooted in the very core of western society. Naturally, such restrictions find little appreciation in cultures with evolved traditions in music, cuisine, and beverage production. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the restrictions found in Islam on listening to music, consuming pork, and utilizing alcohol and drugs from not only religious, but also a more worldly perspective that involves scientific, medical, and governance concerns.

Worldly Perspectives when Analyzing Religious Prohibitions

Engaging in a worldly analysis of religious texts, rules and prohibitions mean putting aside any actual religious motivations behind them and looking at other possible explanations that may not be explicitly mentioned in the holy text but are very relevant from political, economic, medical, or sociological perspectives. Aside from guiding the faithful on a path towards Allah, the Islamic texts, namely Qur’an and Ahaadith, also have a purpose of assisting in governance (Lambton, 2013).

Religion used to be a powerful tool of government control throughout human history and remains such even in the 21st century. Although the majority of the governments in the world are secular, religion still plays an important part in everyday life of an average citizen, meaning that the words of the holy texts are still implemented and utilized to govern others. Most governments around the world would prefer their citizens to be healthy, reasonably obedient, trustworthy, hard-working, and abiding the law. It helps the state function better, provide a surplus of food and resources, and contribute towards the well-being of every individual citizen (Lambton, 2013). If we accept the holy texts as an instrument of governance, we must assume that its main purpose is the common good of every individual and the state in general. Therefore, in order to find worldly justifications for every individual rule and prohibition, we need to look at the circumstances under which they were created and identify the potential common good for the people and the state that may have been applicable at that time.

Islam and Pork Prohibition

Many people know that Islam prohibits the use of pork as food. According to the Qur’an, “I do not find within that which was revealed to me anything forbidden to one who would eat it unless it is a dead animal, or blood spilled out, or the flesh of swine – for indeed, it is impure” (DenBoer, 2013, p. 127). Similar notions towards pork can be found in other Middle-Eastern religions, such as Judaism and even Christianity. According to a passage from the Bible, “the pig, though it has a divided hoof, does not chew the cud; it is unclean for you” (DenBoer, 2013, p. 129). Different religions that exist in the Middle East, thus, see value and reason in such restrictions.

Religious texts rarely offer any reasoning behind such prohibitions, aside from the fact that it is the will of God. However, there are numerous worldly reasons that may have contributed towards such passages being included in the text. While pork is prohibited by Islam, the traditions of pork husbandry in the Middle East are thousands of years old. However, the geographical and climatic conditions of the Middle Eastern countries make growing pigs a difficult prospect (Lambton, 2013). The chicken remains the primary source of meat in the Middle East. Compared to pigs, chickens have many advantages. Chickens require less water than pigs (3,600 liters of water per kilo of meat versus 6,000 in pigs), they require less food for sustenance, and produce fewer impurities to be cleaned. In addition, chickens provide eggs, which is an important food source. Lastly, chickens are small, which makes transportation and consumption easier. Before the invention of refrigerators, the meat had to be consumed shortly after the animal is slaughtered. If a family could not eat the entire animal in one go, a lot of meat is wasted. Thus, the first reason for forbidding pork is to promote chicken husbandry – a more cost-efficient food source (Lambton, 2013).

The second reason why pork could have been prohibited is tied to medicine. For a large portion of its history, Islamic countries have endorsed and promoted medical endeavors. While ancient knowledge of medicine was not as advanced when compared to modern healthcare, many ancient physicians have found pork to be unhealthy. Pigs are known for transferring numerous diseases such as “Trichianisis trikinisis, which is caused by round worms, as well as Yersinia enterocolitica, which could cause fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach cramps” (Lambton, 2013, p. 79). Back in ancient times, when the Qur’an was written, even the simplest of diseases had the potential of killing a person.

Other diseases that are carried by pigs and are dangerous to humans include porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, porcine endogenous retrovirus, hepatitis E, swine flu, Menangle virus, and other dangerous afflictions (Lambton, 2013). Pig physiology is considered similar to human in terms of immune systems, digestive systems, and transmittable diseases. Lastly, pork meat is filled with fats, and excessive consumption of it is likely to induce obesity, which has the potential to lead to many other health-related problems. Therefore, another reason for prohibiting pork as a dietary choice in Islam could have been connected with health concerns. Any government is interested in promoted preventive healthcare on a large scale, as it would contribute to other parts of the economy and significantly reduce the burden of caring for the sick. Therefore, the state benefits of prohibiting pork through religion are obvious (Lambton, 2013).

Islam’s Stance on Drugs and Alcohol

Historically, religions around the world have a controversial stance towards drugs and alcohol. Some of the ancient religions, such as shamanism, use alcohol and drugs as a medium of communication with gods. Mediterranean pantheons typically had a God of wine, a nominal patron of pleasure and sensuality (DenBoer, 2013). However, living conditions and cultures of the Mediterranean countries were very different from Islamic and Proto-Islamic states. Forced to grow and develop in harsher and more hostile environments, Islam, like many other religions, declares alcohol and drug usage a mortal sin. From a religious perspective, these items distract the faithful from worshipping Allah, which is the sole reason why they came to this world. However, no one disputes that drug and alcohol addictions are dangerous to the society and the state (Lambton, 2013).

Alcohol, as the most widespread and readily available drug in the history of mankind, had caused a divide between various branches of Islamic followers. The Sufis, who are more moderate and accepting in their perceptions of Islamic teachings, accept the use of wine in small doses and for medical purposes, whereas the Sunni, Shia and the more radical followers of Islam find consumption of any alcohol as Haram, or sinful (DenBoer, 2013).

From a governance perspective, the production and distribution of alcohol is a two-sided coin. On the one hand, it brings economic benefits from trade and taxes, whereas on the other hand it negatively affects the population and the army. Alcohol brings discord to the organized armed forces and can effectively undermine a war effort from within by loosening tongues and making soldiers speak out sensitive information to enemy spies. Alcohol addiction causes a gradual decrease in mental and physical capabilities and has the potential of damaging and destroying families, which are considered the building blocks of any society. Drugs and mind-altering substances have the same effects as alcohol increased tenfold, which is why in Islam drugs are considered the root of all Sin.

Islamic scholars reject the use of drugs as means of communicating with gods. According to Qur’an, Allah is merciful. He would never make his subjects purposefully subject themselves to harmful substances as means of communication. The reasons why the holy texts are so adamantly against drugs and other substances is that back in ancient times the control of the government over imports and exports was not absolute (Lambton, 2013). Smuggling was common, meaning that any serious prohibitions would give rise to an expensive underground black market, which would continue causing harm to individual customers and the society in general. Therefore, the primary method of defense against harmful practices was to declare them Sins, thus using the peoples’ religious devotion to keep them from indulging in alcohol or using mind-altering substances (Lambton, 2013).

Therefore, between commercial profit and national security, Islam promotes the latter. Although many Islamic nations did not abstain themselves completely from wine and other kinds of alcohol, Hashish (Cannabis) and other types of mind-altering drugs were outlawed and persecuted (Lambton, 2013). The benefits of such policies are obvious. Diminished use of harmful and addictive substances improves national health and military aptitude. At the same time, many Islamic countries saw nothing wrong in selling wine abroad, as Qur’an sees no crime in selling wine and drugs to the unfaithful.

Islam and Music

Out of all possible restrictions, music is, perhaps, the most misunderstood and controversial of them all. Islam texts find music to be Haram, depending on the choice of music, instruments, lyrics, and motives. In the 21st century, music is present everywhere – in the radio, in TV, the Internet, and even our cellphones. There is no escaping it, which begets the question if banning music is a legitimate and practical rule to follow. Modern Islamic scholars consider the instructions on music to be outdated. Forced to adapt to the modern realities, official Islamic authorities are typically not very concerned with music and motion pictures. The only group that practices these out-fashioned beliefs in full is the radical Wahhabis, who shun all music that is not dedicated to the worship of Allah as “sinful” (DenBoer, 2013).

However, in order to understand the roots behind restriction on music in Islam, we need to look upon its creation in a historical perspective. In ancient and medieval times, music was one of the primary forms of entertainment along with theater and physical competitions. From a societal perspective, the profession of a musician is not essential to the existence of the state. A musician, unlike a farmer or a doctor, does not produce anything, therefore does not directly contribute to a country’s wellbeing. Like any form of entertainment, music can be addictive. Modern forms of entertainment addiction include binge TV marathons, computer addiction, social media addiction, and others. It is possible that a penchant for entertainment and music was a more serious problem in the past, with a potential to cause workflow disruptions and make individuals lazy and passive.

Nevertheless, I believe the primary reason for music being forbidden by the religion was that it was potentially dangerous to the state. Music and poetry motivate people. This motivation could be used to promote undesirable political agendas and spread messages of grief and hopelessness in times of strife. Similar calls for control and censorship of poetry and music can be found in Plato’s Republic, which is dedicated to the founding principles and mechanisms used in ancient and modern governance (Lambton, 2013). According to the Islamic texts, the only types of music permitted by the Qur’an are songs that worship Allah and encourage the listeners to perform daring, heroic, and worthy deeds. Songs with political messages behind them, mourning songs that bring about sadness and depression, and music that promotes sex, the use of drugs, and reckless behavior is usually frowned upon. In other words, Islam encourages the use of music in order to mobilize the society rather than divide and separate it. It sees music as a useful tool for controlling the peoples’ moods and motivations. For any government, it is paramount to see its people happy, as happy citizens are less likely to turn to crime, rebel, and commit to disruptive behavior (Lambton, 2013).

Songs and music that promote sexual promiscuity and careless behavior are traditionally frowned on by religion and government for several reasons. The message promoted by such media has the potential of disrupting families, which are considered the building blocks of the society, which provide a stable increase in population and contribute to the society through labor and performing other civic duties. Promiscuity and careless behavior disrupts such social connections and has the potential of bringing about orphans, who become a burden for the society and potential criminals if left without proper care. Thus, Islam seeks to put restrictions on music not only for religious but also for practical concerns. Nevertheless, out of all three prohibitions, the restrictions on music in Islam were least enforced. As civil authorities likely discovered, banning music was not really an option due to a lack of total control over the population. Heroic sagas and prayers to Allah, while important, soon lost novelty and entertainment value, without other genres of music and song to complement them and provide contrast. Nevertheless, the prohibitions remained in Qur’an as relics of the past, but without much power or sway over the populace (DenBoer, 2013).

Islamic Prohibitions in the 21st Century

As our analysis showed, all three prohibitions reviewed in this paper had their reasons for coming into existence, based on political, economic, social, medical, or governance concerns. Religious texts, however, have a tendency of being dogmatic (DenBoer, 2013). Once released, they do not receive any adjustments or updates to keep up with changing times. Qur’an is no different. Many of the tenets and prohibitions mentioned in it are impractical at best and harmful at worst, and rightly so. Of course, the issue with providing edits and updates to holy texts contradicts the very idea of religion, as the Qur’an is considered to be written by Allah himself through the hand of its prophet, Mohammad (DenBoer, 2013). Therefore, as Allah is almighty and all-knowing, the very idea of the scriptures becoming outdated is considered blasphemous in religious circles.

However, if we accept religion as a social construct aimed at stabilizing the society and promoting the greater good, then the mission of keeping its message attuned to modern realities becomes easier. However, some restrictions, while impractical, are engrained into peoples’ minds by centuries of practice and tradition (DenBoer, 2013). The ban on pork is one such example. Modern technology and high standards of animal husbandry and hygiene remove the majority of concerns behind the consumption of pork that were present in the medieval period, yet millions of people still see pork as impure. Same goes for products derived from pork, such as gelatin, which has none of the properties that pork allegedly has. Same holds true for other religions, as all of them suffer from the inability to promote change due to the concept of infallibility of divine will. Unless a new Prophet emerges and brings about the updated version of Qur’an, it is unlikely for Islam to change its stance on some of these problems anytime soon.

Conclusions

Islam is not just a set of practices, rulings, and beliefs that exist to inconvenience its followers. It is a complex system of laws and regulations based on contemporary practices in law, philosophy, medicine, economics, and other important areas of life. Almost every regulation was created for a reason and with a purpose to serve the common good and ensure the prosperity of a nation in a hostile and dangerous environment. However, as globalization envelops the world, barriers and borders are taken down, and new values become prevalent in the society, Islam needs to adapt as well, in order to continue to function as a pillar for the Islamic nations without having to rely on outdated sets of terms and conditions that no longer benefit the society and the government.

References

DenBoer, J. T. (2013). The history of philosophy in Islam (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Lambton, A. K. S. (2013). State and government in medieval Islam. London, England: Routledge.

The Islamic religion is guided by the 5 pillars of Islam that are indispensable and must be followed to lead responsible lives. First of all, the Shahadah (Faith) and Salat (prayer) will be discussed in this paper. Secondly, the influence of Moses on the Jewish religion will also be discussed.

Islam

The Muslim faith is built on the belief that only one true God (Allah) exists, and Mohammad served as his prophet (Zarabozo 2). An individual must willingly say the Shahadah three times before a witness in order to be considered a Muslim. Furthermore, the individual must fully understand the meaning of the profession and accept the truth by their heart.

Every single day, Muslims repeat the utterance as a way of showing their never failing faith in God and his prophet Mohammad. According to the Islam religion, the testimony of faith is considered the most important among the five pillars because of the profession. The requirements for this practice remain the same for all genders and allow women and men to relate well in the entire Islamic religion.

In order to meet the requirements of the practice, there are nine principal conditions that should be understood by the Muslim faithful. “Knowledge, certainty, acceptance, submission and compliance, truthfulness, sincerity, love, rejecting any other worship, and following the shahadah to the last day form the nine conditions” (Zarabozo 1-5).

Prophet Mohammad encouraged people to believe his message that only Allah should be worshipped in order to enter paradise (Zarabozo 1). Furthermore, the Koran encourages Muslims to submit themselves to Allah in order to ask for repentance and live holy lives (Zarabozo 3).

The Salat requires that all Muslim faithful make prayers five times daily that have quotes from the Koran (Islamicity 7). “As reported in the Koran, prayers should be made at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and in the evening in order to be considered complete” (Islamicity 7).

Prayers increase solidarity and growth in faith because it allows direct communication with God. In connection to that, the Koran mentions that it is respectful to make prayers with a clean heart, mind and body; hence, the faithful should wash themselves in water before making prayers.

On the contrary, there exist variations in the practice depending on gender and purpose of the prayers. For instance, it is a common practice for a woman to pray behind a man so that prayers remain valid. Moreover, women lack the authority to lead men in prayers or even sermon for exceptional prayers like rain and eclipse prayers. The Islamic religion considers prayers powerful and compares the holy life of Prophet Mohammad to his devotion in prayer. Additionally, the revelation of God is considered linked to his commitment in prayer.

Judaism

According to relevant sources, Prophet Moses introduced the religion of Judaism more than 1600 years before Christ. Judaism, as a religion, was mainly defined by the Mosaic laws passed to the Israelites through Moses (Brumfield 7). The laws and various practices were observed by the early Jews in order to remain clean, undefiled, and holy before God. Judaism and Islam religions share several similarities such as the belief in only one true God and commitment to prayer for nourishment of the soul (Brumfield 2).

However, there are several practices that define Judaism and differentiate it from the Islamic religion. Judaism still exists among contemporary Jews as depicted in several of their practices including adherence to Mosaic laws. For instance, modern Jews respect the ten commandments of God and adhere to strict dietary laws that were established in the early times. The laws are based on the five books of Moses (Torah) that are authoritative and give direction on living a holy life (Brumfield 5).

As such, Mosaic laws have been carried across several generations into the modern world. According to the laws and teachings of Moses, Jews were required to keep clean, pray, and conduct rituals. Jews were connected to God and their forefathers like Abraham, Isaac and Jacob by observing the laws. In the modern setting, Jews are connected to the sacred life though various ways such as adhering observing the Sabbath, practicing birth rituals and observing strict dietary laws established by Moses (Brumfield 5).

For example, Jews never take unclean meat such as pork; however, all meat taken must be drained of blood. Additionally, birth initiation rituals like child naming and circumcision rites creates a connection to the sacred lives. The laws and practices initiated by Moses are still practiced; hence, confirms the strong impact left by Moses on Judaism.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Islam and Judaism imposed absolute faith on followers through the connection their respective prophets. As such, the impact established several centuries ago still remains vivid in the lives of their succeeding generations.

Works Cited

Brumfield, Barry. “Religion: Judaism.” Israelsmessiah.com. Israelsmessiah.com, 2011. Web.

Zarabozo, Jamaal al-Din. “Declaration of Faith: Shahadah.” Quranandscience.com. Quranandscience.com, 2010. Web.

Islamicity. “Understanding Islam and Muslims.” Islamicity.com. Islamicity.com, 2011. Web.

Islam is arguably one of the dominant religions in the world and has significantly influenced the political and social situations in most countries either directly or indirectly. This religion started in the early 7^th century CE after other major religions; Judaism and Christianity (Black 2).

It is a purely monotheistic religion which is characterized by the acceptance of the theological doctrine of total submission to God and adherence to the teachings and prophecies of Muhammad as the chief and the last prophet to be sent by God (Cohn-Sherbok 137). The people who subscribe to and practice the teachings of Islam are referred to as Muslims and the nations where Islam is practiced constitute what is generally referred to as the Muslim world, especially in the Middle East.

From a different perspective, Islam may refer to the notable civilizations brought about by the Muslim world during different times of its existence (Lapidus 3). This research paper seeks to explore the influences that Islam has on both the political and social aspects of the world community. It will adopt a chronological approach from the emergence of Islam in the seventh century to the present.

Brief History of Islam

During the sixth and the seventh centuries, the Arabs of Arabian Peninsula were mainly polytheists; those who worship many Gods. It was at the dawn of the seventh century that Muhammad, a caravan merchant from the city if Mecca, denounced such paganism as being a total perversion of the will of God.

He was 40 years of age when he claimed that the true God had revealed to him a doctrine of divine reward of obedience and consequences of failing to heed His teachings. Muhammad started preaching by emphasizing that earlier prophets like Abraham and Moses had been sent by God because humankind was lost in idolatry (Cohn-Sherbok 137). He had learnt these teachings from the Jews and Christians who lived in Mecca at the time.

He acknowledged that these two religions had received the revelation through the Torah and the Gospels. Mohammed, however, claimed that the new revelation to him by God surpassed earlier revelations and that he was the last prophet in God’s divine plan for humankind.

From the onset, Muhammad embarked on a mission to win follows especially from the Jewish community but he was faced with stiff resistance since he was not recognized as God’s prophet in the first place (Cohn-Sherbok 137).

Consequently, he denounced the Jewish people and regarded them as nonbelievers who deserved to be cursed by Allah, the one true God. Though he believed in the earlier prophecies, Muhammad was convinced that the Jews had altered God’s authentic message by scrapping the parts that had predicted that he would be the last messenger from God.

He said that Qur’an was God’s message communicated directly to him by Angel Gabriel. This firm stand by Muhammad marked the beginning of the seemingly unending conflict between Judaism and Islam. This confrontation saw the expulsion of two Jewish tribes from Medina and the extermination of another. Women and children of the exterminated tribe were enslaved instead.

Two years later, Muslims took over the Jewish oasis of Khaybar to the north and those who gave half of what they had produced as tribute to Islam were allowed to remain there (Cohn-Sherbok 137). The constitution of Medina and various treaties signed between Muslims and Jews outlined the rights of all partners aimed at enhancing coexistence. The death of Muhammad in 632 C.E. sparked internal wrangles within the Muslim world on who was to succeed the prophet and give guidance to the then rapidly growing number of followers.

By the year 644, Muslim soldiers were spread across Israel, Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Iraq. Sixteen years later and the Islam Empire had expanded to a large part of Asia aided by the Muslim armies. Islam crossed into the continent of Europe after the armies conquered the Iberian Peninsula at the start of the eighth century (Cohn-Sherbok 137).

However, Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Europe during this period and most countries were still under the rule of Christians (Cohn-Sherbok 154). Towards the end of the eighth century, widespread conversion to Islam was discouraged and the Jews were assured of their religious freedom or tolerance as long as they recognized the supremacy of the Islamic state under Muhammad.

The treaties signed at the beginning of the ninth century saw the emergence of a political and economic arrangement that resulted in the Jews moving out of their land to diaspora. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates which had ruled during the two centuries of Islamic domination of the Jewish community had greatly influenced the political and social situations at the time (Cohn-Sherbok 138).

Theological and Social tenets of Islam

Islam as a religion has five major pillars upon which all political, religious, social, economic, and cultural concepts are hinged. There is the belief in the one true God and Muhammad, his Prophet, obligations of prayer, exercising charity, going on pilgrimage (Hajj) to the holiest city, Mecca, at least once in a lifetime, and fasting during the month of Ramadan (Lapidus 5).

The Shari’ah or Law is the essential concept in Islam which guides all Muslims on how to live a life willed by God. All Muslims are encouraged to defend Islam at all costs especially those do not believe through the holy known as Jihad. It is also important to note that after the death of Muhammad, issues have arose over who was to succeed Prophet Muhammad leading to major split.

Two separate groups were formed in mid-seventh century, the Sunni and the Shi’ites (Wouk 176). The majority are the Sunnis who constitute about 90% of the entire Muslim population. Shi’ites, on the other hand, continued to be divided into smaller sects like the Isma’ilis. These tensions and conflicts have existed to the present day.

Sufism is a mystical movement in Islam that seeks to ensure every Muslim finds a definitive knowledge by encountering God through real life experiences. This movement emerged after the death of Muhammad by some Muslims who thought that traditional Islam was spiritually oppressive (Lapidus 12).

Although Sufi adherents have always clashed with mainstream Muslims on the grounds of Islamic Law and theology, this practice has had significant influence on the religion especially through its rich literature (Wouk 201). This has great influence on social situations even in the modern Islam.

Fundamentalism is a social tenet in Islam that has inspired the Muslim world to rise against the influence of Western dominion since the start of the nineteenth century. Towards the end of the twentieth century, several secular governments in the Middle East region were shaken or even overthrown by fundamentalist movements. These movements were mainly made up of conservative Muslims who advocated for the need to embrace traditional Islamic values and the rule of law as provided for in the Sharia.

Fundamentalist values are totally against Western modernization which is depicted and believed to be corrupt and meant for nonbelievers. These strong Islamic believes have shaped perceptions that the West have towards the Middle East. They regard them as terrorists yet very few of them are actually terrorists, and all terrorists in the region are not fundamentalists (Lapidus 24).

It is evident that this kind of Islamic movement has had significant influence on the political and social situations in most Middle East countries. In 1979, there was a revolution in Iran which has ever since led to the establishment of a purely fundamentalist state (Kertzer 113).

In Afghanistan, the Taliban has been struggling to ensure that the country remains a fundamentalist one. This element has gone a long way in influencing the politics of affected countries. These movements have also penetrated to some parts of North Africa, the Islamic states in South East Asia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh though they remain a minority (Lapidus 17).

The extremists in Islam have not only raised anger from non-Muslims but also among the Muslims themselves because they abuse religion and its teachings. Since the start of the year 2011, several national revolutions have been witnessed in the Muslim world; Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and other countries in the Middle Eastern region. These uprisings have been associated with Islam in one way or another especially some of its oppressive leadership.

Islam’s teachings on the concept of Jihad have influenced political and social relations with other states. The Qur’an teaches that for one to a Muslim, he or she must struggle or strive in the fight of a holly war, a spiritual warfare (Black 26). This is with an aim of living a good life as required of any Muslim.

However, this teaching has been interpreted differently by the radical Muslims especially during the second half of the 20^th century and the dawn of the twenty first century. They believe that the Qur’an calls for a real warfare against the atheists, especially those from the Western world who have been fighting against the establishment of Islamic states in the oil-rich region.

The radical Muslims will go to any length to defend what they believe in even if it means dying for the sake of faith. Individuals strap explosives to their chests and blow themselves up, together with their supposed targets as well as innocent ones and they regarded as heroes, especially in the territories of Palestine that has witnessed one of the longest conflicts. The increased cases of suicide bombers and related heinous acts of terrorism can be attributed to such believes and teachings (Black 19).

The consequences have been far-reaching, most especially in the West and other countries that demonstrate cooperation with Western and European agenda. The worst tragedy linked directly to radical Islamism was witnessed in September 11, 2001 in America, a bloody attack masterminded by the former leader of Al Qaeda, the late Osama Bin Laden.

The adherents of radical Islam are not the majority but the impacts of their actions are enormous. In pluralistic societies where Muslims are the minority, political and social relations have been strained because the dominant groups view them from a general perspective as terrorists. This has resulted in some forms of discrimination when it comes to basic human rights; freedom of speech, association, right to hold public office, among others (Black 25).

Islam in the Western World

Currently, Islam is regarded as one of the fastest growing religions in the world. In the United States, Muslims are estimated to be six million and are spread across the states (Black 7). About 2000 Islamic institutions existed in North America by the year 1992 (Smith 12).

These include community centers, media houses, schools, publishing houses, and mosques. This notable growth is attributed to the conferences organized by Muslims shortly after the end of World War II. Most successful conferences were organized by Muslim students in American universities in 1963.

By 1993, the Muslim community was represented in the U.S. armed forces by the first ever Muslim chaplain (Melton 253). By the end of the first decade of the 21^st century, the number has grown to thousands. This systematic infiltration of Islam into the developed democracies of the West has significantly changed the general political orientation and social situations (Haddad 24).

Most of these influences have been facilitated by constitutional provisions which seek to uphold the respect for all mankind. Some researchers predicted that by 2015, the size of the Muslim community in America will be the largest religion, overtaking other non-Christian religions (Melton 273).

It is not surprising that political/presidential candidates in the U.S. have to choose their words properly so as not to be seen as being anti-Islam and at the same time they are expected to assure the citizens that they will be secure. Clearly, Islam has by large influenced politics and social situations in both developed as well as developing democracies.

Conclusion

The research paper has broadly discussed the topic of Islam and how it has influenced political and social situations over the past centuries to the present. In the introduction, an attempt has been made to explain what Islam is since it is a term that is used repeatedly throughout the paper. In the next section, the history of Islam and its notable influences since it came into existence in 613 C.E has been briefly covered.

It is crucial to note that Islam was started by Muhammad after claiming that the one and true God had revealed to him important information which he was to communicate to the entire humankind. This, according to Muhammad, was after the people refused to take heed of God’s will revealed through earlier prophets like Abraham, Moses, Jesus, among others. That he was going to be the last prophet to be send by God.

The political aspect of Islam, as brought out in the discussion, was started by Muhammad himself after he became the ruler of Medina. Here, he developed the first ever written law that governed all within the territories of Medina. Since then, Islam has influenced Jewish, Christian, and other religions as well as atheists alike. As a religion, Islam rests on five pillars; belief in God and Muhammad, his last messenger, charity/almsgiving, prayer, pilgrimage (Hajj), and fasting.

The paper has elaborated on these pillars and other social tenets that are believed to have influenced politics and social situations in different parts of the world. The research paper also focuses on the growth of Islam especially in the Western world. It has emerged that Islam is rapidly spreading and leaving a trail of notable influences on its path.

Works Cited

Black, Andrew . The history of Islamic political thought: from the prophet to the present. New York: Routledge, 2001, pp. 23-47

Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. Judaism: history, belief, and practice. New York: Routledge Press, 2003, pp. 137- 139, 154

Haddad, Yvonne, and John, Esposito (eds). Muslims on the Americanization Path? Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998, 9-75

Kertzer, Morris M. What is Jew? New York: Touchstone, 1993, pp. 113-134

Lapidus, Innocent M. State and religion in Islamic societies. Past and Present, 151, 1996:3-27.

Melton, J. Gordon. Encyclopedia of American Religions (6^th ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Gale, 1999, 227-275

Smith, Jane I. Islam in America. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, 1-25

Wouk, Herman. This is my God. New York: Back Bay/ Little, Brown & Co., 1992, pp. 176-221

Islamic faith has evolved in history from the times of Muhammad to present times. The term Islam denotes submission to God’s will. Every object must conform to the will of God/Allah or nature’s law. Reasonable creatures like a human being are free to choose whether to conform or not. The faith teaches that God’s power came to humanity through Quran to Muhammad. Muslims believe that God is all-powerful and all-knowing.

God has no equals, peers, beginning or end. The faith declares Muhammad as the only messenger of God. God uses angels to do his works on earth. Quran reveals that God used Angel Gabriel to reveal himself to Muhammad. Muhammad learnt how to pray through angels. Islamic faith notes that the Quran came through messenger or prophet, and Muhammad was the last of such messengers.

However, it recognizes other prophets like Noah, Adam, and Moses among others. Strangely, Muslim believes that Jesus was a messenger too. All prophets were equal, and none was above others, and no more prophets will come before the judgment day. The basic tenet of the Islamic faith as stressed by Muhammad is the judgment day, which no one can escape. Muslims believe that everyone will face judgment before the heavenly throne (Goldschmidt, 2002).

The principles of Quran and five pillars

Muhammad and teachings in Quran have the basic rules guiding Muslims. The religion observes right actions, rules and laws. There are five vital pillars of Islamic faith guiding believers (Goldschmidt, 2002).

The first pillar is witness (Shuhuduh). This rule stresses that there is only one God and Muhammad is God’s messenger. Believers must mean this pillar. A Muslim who denies God, or has more than one God and does not recognize Muhammad as the prophet is an apostate. Apostasy is punishable by death. The second pillar is the worship (salat) or ritual prayer.

These involve sets of motions and prostrations believers do while facing in the direction of the Kabah in Mecca with a short recitation of Quran. Salat reminds believers of their relationship to God and take off their minds from worldly affairs. Believers perform salat five times a day. They can choose any suitable place for worshipping. Before any worship occurs, Muslims perform cleanliness rituals on their faces, feet, hands and arms.

Fasting (Saturn) is the third pillar of Islamic faith done during the month of Ramadan. Devotees refrain from drinking, eating, smoking and sexual intercourse. Refraining from the above acts teaches the rich of what it means to be poor. Fasting trains Muslims to master their appetites, and create a common bond among them. Children, pregnant women, nursing mothers, elderly and chronically ill Muslims do not fast.

However, Muslims who are travelling can perform partial fasting. The fourth pillar talks about giving of tithe (zakat) or alms. Muslims may contribute a certain share of their income to help the needy. The fundamental goal of this pillar is to ensure sharing among the Muslims. Most of social amenities in Muslim communities derive their funding from awaquf (forms of endowment).

The final pillar talks about pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. All adults should perform a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during their lives i.e. if they can afford it. The purpose of the pilgrimage is to give the faithful an opportunity to observe elaborate rites hallowed by Prophet Muhammad. The pilgrimage rites serve to bring Muslims from all over the world together, and break any barriers among them.

Other Duties and Prohibitions

The five pillars do not effectively cover all the Muslims duties. There is another pillar in regard to wars. Muslims believe that jihad is a struggle in the way of God. People misconceive jihad to means Islamic war against other religions. Muslims believe in fighting against those who do not believe in God or the judgment day.

They also fight those who forbid God or his messengers, and those who reject allegiance to the true faith until they pay tribute to the faith. This phrase has various meaning depending on situations and contexts. It can mean fighting Jews or Christians or pagans, altogether. A section of modern Muslims believes that jihad is defending Islam against attack from external aggressors, either verbal or military attack.

Muslims must first cleanse their souls of fear, pride and forgetfulness so as to protect their territory. Muslims consider each other a brother or a sister. Therefore, if any of them err or forget their duties to God or fellow Muslims, fellow Muslims must correct them like a brother and a sister.

The faith prohibits all forms intoxicating liquors, mind-influencing drugs, usury and gambling to Muslims. Muslims may also not eat the flesh of pigs or any other animal not slaughtered in the name of God. Further, Islamic faith prohibits men from wearing silk clothes or jewelry. The Quran has harsh penalties for those who commit murder, theft and other crimes. Still, Muslims who make or worship idols also have their share of punishments. However, people exempt artistic representation of living creatures.

Muslims believe that the purpose of sexual relations is to beget children. Therefore, it should never take place before or outside marriage. Parents often arranged marriages between their children. Therefore, consummate of marriage only took place, for the first time, on a wedding day. Strict rules separated sexes to avoid inappropriate affairs. The faith prohibits controversial acts of masturbation and homosexuality among its followers.

The rules excluded women from mainstream participation in politics and social life. The prohibitions further subjected women to the command of their husbands, brothers and fathers. Quran teachings require women to wear veils. Therefore, most Muslim women veil their faces in public places. However, nowadays some show less interest in wearing veils. The faith requires adults to dress modestly and avoid nudity.

Muslims must wash themselves after performing any act of nature. The use themselves when they wake up, before meals, and after handling certain objects, which are unclean to them. Total submergence into water is a must after sexual intercourse, menstruation and childbirth. Men shave or crop their heads and body hair but let their beards grow. Women shave all their body hair. Privately, Muslims may flout these rules. However, they must observe them in public places.

Religious and ethnic divisions

The religious and ethnic separations among Muslims started after the death of the Prophet, the caliphate and religious authority belonging to Ali (shi’ah-i ’Ali – the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself). Followers considered Ali’s position and station in regard to the Prophet, companions and relations to Muslim in general and realized there was a division among their views (Muhammad, 1975).

People identify Muslims as Sunni, Shi’i or Kharijite. These divisions emerged because of the power struggle during periods of Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. These were the four leading sects of Islam. Sunni sect acknowledged the Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs as legitimate leader of the entire ummah, Sunni sect appears more political than theological.

A Shi’i Muslim is a follower of Ali as Muhammad’s true successor as the spiritual guides of ummah put it. Shi’i group rejects all other caliphs and all of Ali’s successors not conforming to the “correct line” i.e. those inherited a perfect knowledge and inner teachings of Quran from Muhammad. Muslims continued to experience divisions due to the genealogical differences. A close look at the history of Islam reveals that divisions further emerged. Some sects split and die especially in the Shi’i.

The Muslims relations with others from different Arab nations occurred in early periods of history. Revolutionary movements led to the emergence of other sects such the Qarmatians in Arabia and Bahrain, the Fatimids in Tunisia, and later the Assassins in Syria and Persia, and the Agha Khan in India. Further, contacts with others led to the rise of Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols.

The rise of the Mamluks destroyed the caliphates. Mamluks controlled Egypt by establishing centers of power, wealth, and learning for two centuries. Muslim world survived the Mongol ordeal to become a religion of today.

In short, Muslims relations to each other consist of invasions, conquests and destructions. Power house rose and fell. Some of these thrones did more harm than good to the Middle East region. Despite all these chronicles of war after another, Islam survived and grew to become among the leading world religions today.

References

Goldschmidt, A. J. (2002). A Concise History of the Middle East, 7th Edition. Colorado: Westview Press.

Muhammad, A. (1975). Shi’ite Islam. New York: State University of New York Press.

Religious Encounter Issue

The issue examined in this case study analysis will be the Muslim response to Islamophobia and negative stereotypes associated with the religion due to high-profile media coverage of Islamic radicalism and terrorism. The case study along with other sources examined the attempt to provide a perspective, both academic and personal on the reality of the Islamic faith, how it is an inherently peaceful religion, and the internal struggle it faces to distance itself and combat the fundamentalists which misrepresent all Muslims in Western society (Clarke 2016). Anti-immigration and anti-Muslim nationalist attitudes have replaced the fear of communism in the post-Soviet collapse era. The image of exclusionist and violent Muslim societies was created in Western society in the late 1990s and especially post 9/11 as the primary fundamentalist cause of political, economic, and social problems. This discourse inherently defines Islamophobia and is being taken advantage of by right-wing extremists which erode values of human rights, multiculturalism, and democracy that the West strongly values (Kedikli and Akça 2018) Therefore, it is important for those with Muslim heritage living in Western societies to speak up and change the Islamophobic narrative.

First Voice

The first voice is an interview with Dr. Lynda Clarke regarding Islamic stereotypes and Islamophobia (Clarke 2016). Islamophobia is an irrational and uninformed fear and hatred of the Islamic religion. It is fueled by popular culture stereotypes. Islamophobia is often a controversial topic of discussion as the extent of disinformation may differ. The media is not completely at fault for promoting Islamophobia but makes a critical mistake of identifying one type of Muslim as a representative of the whole religious group, lacking diversity. For example, the common stereotypes of Muslims are emphasized as men or women who dress in traditional clothing and coverings, being very religious to point of militant hostility. However, on some occasions, the media does conduct competent journalism to represent the true diversity of Islam. In the conversation of Islamophobia, it is important to accept that there are fundamentalists and radical extremists. Nevertheless, a range of Muslim voices attempting to combat Islamophobia and irrational fear is much more extensive and worthwhile (Clarke 2016).

Muslims have a great diversity which is based on both personal history and preferences as well as societal aspects. For example, someone in a religious minority may arrive at the faith and therefore, be more emphatic and understanding of the perceptions around them. Meanwhile, someone who is born into the faith and contributes significant time to pray without giving much thought about the basis of such actions may offer a completely different belief. Muslims, such as those living in France where society is secular, may choose to lead a more private form of worship rather than attending mosques. Therefore, prayer, which is an essential foundation of being a member of Islam, is practiced and viewed very differently, representing the great diversity of the religion. In a consciously multicultural society, Islamophobia and negative public discourse should not prosper due to the tolerance of the population, openness of media, and a public dialogue led between the government and Islamic communities (Clarke 2016). Many Muslim organizations such as the Ismaili are actively attempting to build an understanding and a pluralistic society as it inherently helps for the acceptance of the religion and reducing Islamophobia.

Second Voice

The second voice is a TED Talk presentation given by an Islamic speaker and activist Dalia Mogahed (TED 2016). Muslims are often viewed as someone who is brainwashed and symbols of oppression. Many people believe that Muslims follow their faith blindly, thus resulting in concepts such as terrorism. However, many of them, similar to other faiths, question their beliefs and wrestle with many aspects. Muslim-Americans are just as afraid, uncertain, and condemning of terrorism. Despite the irrational and intolerant claims that Muslims should be removed from the United States, or at least, strictly monitored and restricted, Muslim-Americans are an essential component of American society, including from spiritual, social, and economic perspectives (TED 2016).

Terrorism and stereotypically violent perceptions of Islam are a narrative set by groups such as ISIS which do not represent the beliefs of the whole religion. Many people outside the faith believe that religion radicalizes individuals, particularly easily influence youth. This is supposedly done at Muslim gatherings such as mosques. However, the civic and community engagement which is the Mosque promotes as a place of religious gathering is the opposite of radicalization. Terrorists find and radicalize their followers by cutting them off from their families and local Muslim communities and making individuals believe that the twisted Islamic ideology of terrorists is correct (TED 2016). In a country that is not readily accepting of Muslims or condemns the religion of an individual in places of work or education, this can be a tremendously isolating factor. It can be argued that Islamophobia helps to create terrorists rather than protect them from them. Therefore, it is in the best interests of Muslims to gather in mosques and engage in public religious and civic activism which can be a mechanism to combat Islamophobia and common stereotypes by offering transparency and education about the faith.

Third Voice

The third voice is a scholarly panel conducted by Karima Bennoune, a well-known legal and religious scholar discussing the societal struggle against Jihadist terrorism (Bennoune 2015). She describes Jihadist terrorists as Muslim fundamentalists which do not represent the wholesome concept of the faith. It is inherently the Jihadists who drive the narrative of Islamophobia. Bennoune outlines several strategies of how the Muslim community and overall society can be used to support “opposition to fundamentalism in Muslim majority contexts and diaspora populations” (Bennoune 2015, p. 144). She notes that what the popular media and news often miss during the headline coverage of terrorism is the thousands of Muslims actively defying the violence and contesting the radical ideology behind it, even in regions where such terrorist groups operate freely and directly eliminate opposition.

The primary purpose of this argument is to serve as a reminder to be vigilant about radical Islam terrorism and the unjust discrimination against Muslims and immigrants in Western society. It is unarguably difficult, requiring a major paradigm shift in societal thought. The trend is for policymakers and international law experts to avoid speaking about Muslim fundamentalists. However, Muslim human rights activists and even the general communities are calling on the opposite – to engage in a dialogue that would no longer tie the radicals to political Islam. Those with Muslim heritage should not be afraid but speak out and participate in the debate, especially if they are safely living in Western diasporas. Through this dialogue and collaboration, it is possible that the world will begin to shift its perspective on Islam, and no longer be dictated by the narrative established by radical fundamentalists (Bennoune 2015).

Personal Position

The three voices analyzed for this assignment were similar in their theme of establishing Muslim solidarity, cohesiveness, and interaction with society as a minority as strategies of combatting the radical fundamentalists which only represent a significantly small population, and interpretation of the religion. Due to the violence and anti-Western attitudes of these terrorist organizations, Western society has grown to resent Islam or view it in a negatively stereotypical manner. Unfortunately, that is a narrative-driven by the media, as research demonstrates that the primary and majority of Islam-related topics in the news were regarding terrorism, war, and migration, with Muslims, framed in a dominantly negative and violent manner (Ahmed and Matthes 2016). In the modern information age where media holds such a strong influence over the attitudes of populations, it comes as no surprise that Islamophobia is so prevalent and many lack the understanding of the true nature of the Islamic religion. It is evident in personal interactions with individuals of Muslim heritage that they are kind and open. It is reflected in their worship, culture, and community which pray at Mosques. Islam has many aspects, with some strict rules, but it is a faith of tradition that Muslims attempt to respect and expect others to do so as well (SoulPancake 2013).

However, it is not anyhow associated with radicalism which is portrayed and discussed in the news and popular media on a constant basis. Islam is the second-largest religion in the world, practiced in more than 48 countries but its image has been defined by a small group of fundamentalists for the past decades despite its core beliefs focused on altruism and peace (Esposito n.d.a). In a globalized world, it is inevitable that Western society will encounter Muslims through immigration and other means. However, the fear of Islamophobia must end as it is essentially a never-ending spiral of violence spawned by ignorance. The status quo can change with a competent delivery of information and profound understanding among people (Esposito n.d.b). Meanwhile, mainstream Islam continues to cohesively unite and send a message to groups such as ISIS. That ISIS is a cult that does not represent the values, teachings, ideology, or methods of Islam in any shape (Islamic Media 2017).

Bibliography

Ahmed, Saifuddin, and Jorg Matthes. 2016. “Media Representation of Muslims and Islam from 2000 to 2015: A Meta-Analysis.” International Communication Gazette 79 (3): 219–244. Web.

Bennoune, Karima. 2015. “Acting TOGETHER to Stop Those Who Are Killing Us: International Law and the Civil Society Struggle Against Jihadist Terrorism.” In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting (American Society of International Law), Vol.109, Adapting to a Rapidly Changing World (2015), 143-152. Washington, D.C.: Hyatt Regency Capitol Hill.

Clarke, Lynda. 2016. Interview with Laurie Lamoreux Scholes. Personal interview. Canada, November 9.

Esposito, John L. n.d.a ” Islam: Overview” Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Web.

Esposito, John L. n.d.b “Why Do We Need to Know About Islam?” Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Web.

Kedikli, Umut, and Mehmet Akça. 2018. “Rising Islamophobic Discourses in Europe and Fight Against Islamophobia on the Basis of International Organizations.” Sciendo 9(1): 9-23. Web.

Islamic Media. 2017. “Powerful Message to ISIS | By Sheikh Shady Alsuleiman.” YouTube video, 2:37. Web.

SoulPancake. 2013. “Successful Day at a Mosque | Have a Little Faith with Zach Anner.” YouTube video, 9:57. Web.

TED. 2016. “What It’s Like to Be a Muslim in America | Dalia Mogahed.” YouTube video, 16:16. Web.

Islam is the official religion of the Muslim people but it can be said that there are different types of Muslims. This assertion is easy to understand as there are different sects and denominations within every major religion. Aside from denominational and sectarian differences, the variation can also be explained through differences in the culture of a particular nation, tribe and region. But even with these differences there is one constant factor when it comes to women of Islam. Muslim women in Islamic societies suffer from inequality.

In the aftermath of September 11, the whole world was forced to take a closer look at Islam. The inadvertent discovery as a result of many queries resulted in a more nuanced look at women in Islamic societies. In the course of the investigation and analysis, it was discovered that in most Islamic societies, women are treated as inferior to men. The oftentimes harsh conditions that they are in and the rigid rules that they are forced to obey all stem from a belief system anchored on religious tenets.

The Religion

It is difficult to understand the role of Muslim women in Islamic societies without an overview of Islam. In Islamic societies one can observe that religion is the most important factor that governs their rules. This observation is supported in Islamic societies that are found in the Middle East, Asia and Africa.

A rough translation of Islam means peace. But a follower of this particular religion is called a Muslim. In a nutshell, a Muslim is someone who submits to the will of Allah. It is only through a process of submission that a Muslim can hope to attain perfection and be considered as a worthy follower of Allah. Thus, the more difficult the standard, the greater is the level of satisfaction when it comes to a deep religious experience.

According to one observer “A significant component of worship is the realization that Islam is a way of life and the actions of each person is a tribute to the creation of a God-fearing society.” Another important realization is the fact that a Muslim person cannot exist beyond the confines of a community. Every believer must learn to obey the rules or suffer the consequences.

It is an understatement to describe an Islamic society as a conservative one. There is need to conform to the rules. In many instances, especially in the Middle East and Afghanistan, the expression of worship can be considered as fanatical. It is therefore important to find out the extent of the harsh treatment of Muslim women in Islamic societies. It must be pointed out that Muslim women in the United States and Europe are guaranteed the same basic rights. But apparently the same cannot be said of their fellow believers living in the Middle East, Asia and Africa.

The Plight of Muslim Women

This study must be prefaced with a commentary made by an observer who had the chance to study Muslim women up close and he wrote, “In the earliest centuries of Islam, women’s position was not bad at all.

Only over the course of centuries was she increasingly confined to the house and forced to veil herself, that women were studiously kept away from life outside the house often resulted in their being deprived of their rights, and ideas that were basically incompatible with Koranic injunctions.” It is imperative to highlight this insight in order to give the assertion that a modern reinterpretation of the tenets of Islam could help explain the drastic changes in the lives of Muslim women in many parts of the world.

A new perspective when it comes to the expectation of Muslim women in Islamic societies contributed to the establishment of a harsh system that in turn led to the oppression of women. In order to clarify the degree of difficulty faced by Muslim women, consider the following comments:

The system of seclusion, nowadays generally called purdah or parda is reflected in Muslim architecture: the women’s quarters form a separate section or are located in the upper storeys; houses often have an inner courtyard or small backyard where women can walk or sit without being observed by non-family members. Often, a special door allows female visitors to slip into women’s quarters without being seen.

If the commentaries regarding seclusion and inequality occurred a thousand years ago, it may not arouse any interest from the reader. But if Muslim women continue to suffer at the hands of their male relatives then it is time to take a closer look at their religion in order to determine what can be done to change their lives for the better. It is imperative to go beyond mere intellectual pursuits and start the process of emancipation.

In Context

Before going any further it is important to point out that there are other factors that contributed to the oppression of women in Islamic societies. There is no need to elaborate the fact that in Third World countries the rights of women are not yet part of the national consciousness. In other words, the traditional view that men are superior is still considered the basic principle in many Asia and Middle-Eastern societies. The combination of culture and religion has created what many in the Western world consider as abhorrent.

Muslim women in America and Europe enjoy a great degree of freedom. But not Muslim women in conservative societies like Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In these states, the status of Muslim women is closely intertwined with the lives of their male relatives. In the eyes of Muslim men, their women are helpless and desperate for their protection and guidance. In these societies, male relatives like father, husband, brother and cousin have control over the lives of their female relatives.

The Parda and Hijab

Muslim women are expected to follow the basic tenets of Islam like dietary restrictions, prayers, fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. But the belief that women are helpless and useless without their male relatives gave rise to an oppressive system known as Parda. Culture, eastern traditions, and religion created Parda. This belief system was described as follows:

It means hiding ones face, but in practice, it refers to a set of rules and regulation that determines women’s interactions in society. Observing Parda is an integral part of a Muslim woman’s life. Those who do not observe Parda are besharam or shameless. There are different ways of observing Parda, depending on the age and social status of women. Children and elderly women do not observe Parda but women of marriageable age are supposed to observe the practice.

At the heart of this belief system is the paranoid concern that women are prone to sexual promiscuity. Thus, their male relatives took it upon themselves to prevent their female relatives to violate this rule. The Parda was designed in such a way to reduce the chance of sexual intercourse outside the bonds of marriage. In the case of the husbands, they tried to reduce the possibility that their wives will commit adultery. It is a legalistic approach to achieve purity before and after the marriage vows.

In Afghanistan the Parda system has evolved into another level of oppression against women. In a report submitted by a US agency the following statement was made: “if a woman is married she can only leave her house with her husband.” If a female is not yet married then there is only one way to leave the house and it is to ask the permission of a male relative.

After permission has been granted the woman must request a male relative to accompany her outside the home. Apparently the strict adherence to the Parda system did not satisfy the Muslim men of Afghanistan. In addition, they also required their women to wear a burqa.

The burqa is a type of clothing “that serves as a covering material that covers the woman from head to ankle.” The burqa is a form of hijab, the traditional covering used by Muslim women for many centuries. The only difference is that a burqa covers the whole body and therefore an uncomfortable covering in an arid climate such as Afghanistan. The Muslim men in Afghanistan are not yet contented with the use of the burqa. They also added another rule. They do not permit their female relatives to talk to strangers.

Conclusion

Muslim women in the Western world had no idea that their counterparts in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East suffer from inequality. They suffer because of the Parda system. It is a system perpetuated by Muslim men who believed that they can legalize morality. The Muslim men in Islamic societies wanted their women to behave in accordance to the tenets of their religion and the dictates of their culture and traditions.

Bibliography

Cornell, Vincent. Voices of Islam: Voices of Life: Family, Home and Society. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2007.

Dodge, Christine. The Everything under Islam Book. MA: F & W Publications, Inc., 2003.

Gohari, Michael. The Taliban: Ascent to Power. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Neusner, Jacob. World Religions in America: An Introduction. KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2009.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Islam: An Introduction. New York: State University of New York Press, 1992.

Skaine, Rosemarie. The Women of Afghanistan under the Taliban. NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2002.

Stromquist, Nelly. Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power, Technology, and Knowledge. MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002.

Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4

In the first four chapters of the book, Khaled Abou El Fadl, the author, provides a conceptual framework, which can be used to question moral authority issues together with identifying tyrannical tendencies as an abuse of Islamic law. In the first chapter, which is titled “Induction”, the author highlights the central themes coupled with the key assumptions made throughout the book. The author invites readers to become emotionally and intellectually involved as they savour the contents of this captivating read.

Khaled achieves this goal by sharing personal intellectual dilemmas and posing several questions concerning the issue of authority in Islamic law. The second chapter is titled “The Authoritative”, and it is divided into three sections. The author discusses the concept of an authoritative being in Islamic law by examining the idea of the existence of Divine sovereignty, the function of compliance in the creation of authority, and the purpose of judges.

In the third chapter, named “A summary transition”, the author sums up some key concepts to introduce chapter four. Khaled defines and discusses issues surrounding the concepts of competence, determination, and authoritarianism within the context of Islamic law. Chapter 3 offers an overview of the author’s arguments, and it would be helpful for readers not interested in the finer details of the book. In chapter 4, the author explores the role of a text in determining the meaning.

He discusses the idea of the text in relation to the authority by using the Quran and Sunnah. The issue of unreasonableness when interpreting different texts is discussed in depth to highlight some of the abusive legal practices entrenched in contemporary Islam. When people are unreasonable, they interpret texts erroneously, which may lead to authoritarianism.

Chapter 5

In this chapter, the author explores how the concept of authoritarianism is created. According to the author, authoritarianism can be borne out of different scenarios. For instance, unreasonable or speculative interpretations of texts can be termed epistemological authoritarianism. Besides, in some cases, the source of the meaning of a text is tied to its authorial intent, thus limiting the associated instabilities, especially when interpreting the meaning. Similarly, in other cases, any governed interpretation of a text to derive meaning is rejected to allow self-directed versions, which is autocratic in nature. The author argues that in the Islamic context, authoritarianism has emerged due to the lack of self-restraint, which ultimately usurps the Divine Will through fraudulent claims.

In the process, the ontological reality of the Divine is marginalised, and the interpreter of a given text thus becomes self-referential. In this dynamic of authoritarianism, the line between the Divine and the agent or the interpreter becomes blurred, and thus the two are indistinct. Consequently, the will of the message from the Divine and the agent’s speech becomes the same thing as the latter’s interpretations superimpose the former’s instructions.

Therefore, the agent’s message becomes irrevocable and absolute because he or she presumably represents the Divine through textual or non-textual indicators. The problem with authoritarianism is that it negates the autonomy and integrity of such indicators. Therefore, the voice of the indicators is subject to the agent’s interpretation, and thus meaning cannot evolve within different communities.

The agent may interpret the instructions of the Divine recklessly, negligently, or dishonestly to assign meaning, which he or she follows religiously regardless of the availability of compelling evidence of a different meaning of the text. Therefore, the agent becomes despotic, hence the birth of authoritarianism.

The author divides this chapter into four sections to explore the issue of authoritarianism. The first section is about the underlying principles that govern authoritarianism. On this issue, the author argues that agents tend to interpret texts from the Principal or the Divine by creating unchangeable and stable determinations. For instance, the author argues that the idea of Muslim women covering their entire bodies except hands and face is a function of an authoritarian interpretation of the Quran.

In the second section, the author argues that Islamic law is a work in the movement. To understand this concept, the author argues that the reader should distance himself or herself from the text in order to understand it without replacing it. The third section discusses the basics of religion and the associated burdens of proof.

The Islamic religion is based on the uṣūl or certain truths. However, the author questions how the uṣūl can be proved as the truth. In the last section, the author introduces the issue of moral objections to authoritarianism in Islam. The author argues that there has been a conflict between faith-based and reason-based arguments, especially when people’s assumptions lie outside the legal framework of Islamic law.

Discussion Questions

1. Should Muslim women wear the hijab if the Quran is interpreted without epistemological bias?
2. How can the authenticity of Islamic law be established from a neutral standpoint using the Quran and Sunnah?
3. How can human knowledge, which is used in interpreting Divine texts, be separated from God’s knowledge?
4. What is the authenticity of the uṣūl?
5. How true is the statement – “every mujtahid is correct?”

Chapter 6

In chapter 6, “The anatomy of authoritarian discourses”, the author discusses the evolution of authoritarianism in Islamic laws. The chapter is divided into four major sections. The first part is on the death of the juristic tradition in Islamic law. The author argues that Islamic law has evolved through investigation, exploration, and adjudication, and thus it had no place for inertia or settlement. The makers of Islamic law used methodological approaches and normative principles to develop it from the Common Law legal system. As such, jurists incorporated adjudications of judges into the normative legal system to develop Islamic law.

The author argues that if Islamic law is subjected to an epistemological process of searching and understanding, then it is dead. However, in modern times, Islamic law is taken to mean a set of settled and closed rules or aḥkām. Therefore, Islamic laws can only exist as aḥkām, but not as fiqh, which is the epistemological process.

The second section of this chapter explores the aspect of consistency by discussing the challenges associated with marital vows, high heels, and bras within Islamic laws. The idea of Muslim women wearing bras is only acceptable within a given context. For instance, if a woman wears a bra for health reasons, the practice is permissible. However, if the same woman wears the same bra to prop her breasts to appear younger, she is condemned.

The author questions the idea of determining the legality of a practice based on context because it introduces the element of inconsistencies when delivering justice. Therefore, the author argues that Islamic law has numerous grey areas that lack specificity on how people should conduct themselves. The author explores issues surrounding the wearing of high heels and marital vows using the same approach.

In the third section, the author talks about the selectivity of evidence. In this context, selectivity is taken to mean using evidence that could potentially desecrate the principles of honesty, comprehensiveness, and diligence. For instance, an agent might be selective in looking for evidence to the extent of ignoring the meaning of the instructions from the Divine. As such, the agent may start looking for evidence from the instructions instead of reading and interpreting them with the intention of understanding. In such a case, the agent violates the principles of comprehensiveness, and the gathered evidence is selective. If the agent makes determinations based on such evidence, he or she is deemed to have used assumptions and a biased line of thought, which entrench the culture of authoritarianism in Islamic law.

The last section of this chapter explores the idea that interests can be balanced using discretion as to the founding principle of legal analysis. The author argues that while the process of determining a given issue is based on a set of rules, discretion is needed in a bid to make the right decision. However, to use discretion appropriately, competence is required. The author argues that the problem of such an approach to making a judgment under Islamic law is the assumption that the determination is God’s unwavering decree. However, this assertion cannot be true because discretion and the judge’s experience are part of the determination process.

Discussion Questions

1. What are some of the similarities between Islamic law and Common Law?
2. What are the major differentiating characteristics of aḥkām and fiqh?
3. In the case of women’s bras, who is prohibiting what? Does the Divine give clear instructions on this issue?
4. Is anyone obligated to accept determinations based on selective evidence?
5. What was the competence of the agents who interpreted the Divine instructions in the making of Islamic laws?
6. Why does Islamic law treat women differently from men?

Chapter 7

The last chapter of this book is divided into five sections discussing some of the faith-based assumptions and determinations that demean women under Islamic law. The majority of juristic determinations made under Islamic law against women are negligent or reckless. In the process of interpreting instructions from the Divine, the agent violates honesty, comprehensiveness, diligence, and self-restraint. As such, the agent makes analytically flawed determinations by failing to distinguish instructions from the Divine and constructs that evolve through the interpretive process of such texts. In other words, the agents are morally incompetent to make just determinations.

In the first section of the chapter, the author talks about the issue of women prostrating before their husbands and licking their ulcers while at the same time struggling with Ḥadīth. In this context, women are expected to obey their husbands without asking questions. It does not matter whether the husbands are wrong, illogical, or unjust, they must be obeyed. However, these assumptions and laws are based on an epistemological error in the interpretation of the Quran. Besides, the Prophet allegedly commanded wives to submit to their husbands to the point of prostrating before them. However, these arguments denigrate the moral status of women in society.

In the second section of this chapter, the author continues to prove the inadequacy of the classical methodology of traditions that were used to make Islamic law. For example, the author questions the premise that for a woman to enter heaven, she has to make her husband happy. The author argues that patriarchal traditions played a major role in creating a system that demeans women. In most cases, jurists made determinations that excluded women and banished them from public places. These laws were made based on the construct of fitnah, which espouses the idea of opening doors for evil to enter.

The author debunks and deconstructs the myths surrounding this concept and concludes that it is flawed and it contradicts the core values of Sharī‘ah. At best, fitnah relies on dubious logic, and it enslaves women in many aspects.

Towards the end of this chapter, the author argues that some traditions desecrate the founding principles and ethical principles of the Islamic message. The author suspects that the principles used to demean women in Islamic law embody some elements of racism and sexism.

Patriarchy has been used to abuse and misuse God’s power by imposing suffocating chauvinistic rules on Muslim women. Besides, authoritarianism has infiltrated Islamic law whereby agents become small gods by making biased and self-serving determinations. The issue of gender-based discrimination in Islamic law is complex, and women have suffered its consequences for a long. Therefore, Muslim legal specialists should come together and think of amicable ways to address some of the issues that have been affecting the Islamic religion since it was founded.

Discussion Questions

1. Why did the Prophet order wives to prostrate before men even after acknowledging that no human being should bow to another? Was this a legal, cultural, or social issue?
2. Did the instructions demeaning women in the Quran come from the Divine, or they are a creation of chauvinistic agents?
3. Why is pleasing her husband part of a woman’s prerequisites to enter heaven?
4. What were some of the social resistance aspects that affected early Islamic reforms concerning women?
5. How can Muslim women be liberated from gender-based discrimination entrenched in Islamic law without destroying their faith in the Prophet and Allah?

The role of religion in politics and public life has been gaining relevance in different contexts in various places around the world in modern times. Specifically, Islam, as a religion, has been shaping politics in the west, where Christianity is dominant, and in Asia where it is a major religion.

In the US, Islamophobia, or fear and suspicion of Islam, has been rife, especially in the post-9/11 terrorist attacks. This unfounded fear has been entrenched in American society so much that in the 2016 presidential campaigns it was one of the central talking points among Republicans. On the other hand, in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority nation in the world, Islam has infiltrated politics to play a major role in the 2019 re-election of President Jokowi. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the usage of Islam religion as a political tool in the US and Indonesia.

Islam in Indonesian Politics

Islam, as a religion, has emerged as a powerful force playing a central role in Indonesian politics. In the 2009 and 2014 elections, religion did not contribute significantly to determining the presidential winner. In 2014, President Jokowi won the elections on a progressive agenda based on promises of technocracy, economic development, and incremental progress.

These promises formed a winning formula and he became the first president in the history of Indonesia to win elections without an elite or military background. However, the political environment started changing in 2017 when widespread protests led by hard-line Islamists unseated Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, the then Jakarta’s Christian governor popularly known as Ahok, on allegations that he had blasphemed Islam.

This act revolutionized the Indonesian political landscape by emboldening the Muslim majority after realizing that religion could be used as a political ideology to influence policy-making and drive change. Gueorguiev et al. argue that the anti-Ahok protests and his subsequent defeat bolstered confidence among Islamists as their strategy of mobilizing conservative elements of the electorate to vote against the governor based on obscured religious fabrications (243).

This incident was an awakening call for the Muslim-majority Indonesians to leverage religious matters to achieve political milestones. Consequently, “religious appeals aimed at boosting turnout and swaying voters were employed throughout the country in early 2018 regional elections” (Gueorguiev et al. 241). However, the centrality of Islam in Indonesian politics came out clearly in the 2019 general elections.

To understand how Islam shaped this year’s general elections in Indonesia to ensure the re-election of President Jokowi some background information is needed. As mentioned earlier, in 2014, President Jokowi ran on a progressive manifesto promising Indonesians that he would bring radical changes in governance by adopting technocracy to bring economic development. However, the 2017 events surrounding the ouster of Ahok redefined politics in the country.

Therefore, President Jokowi knew that he was unlikely to win re-election without making some significant concessions and appeal to religious conservatives across the country. Consequently, he made a strategic decision to choose Maruf Amin, the country’s top Muslim cleric, as his running mate. Jokowi could not take chances by not appealing to the Muslim-majority populace and conservatives because he had already been branded a crypto-communist and accused of not being a real Muslim in the post-Ahok era.

According to Fossati, “Islamist Indonesians believe that Islam should have a privileged position in public life vis-a-vis all other religions, a principle that may have broad and consequential ramifications in various policy domains” (125). The calculated decision to choose Maruf cemented the role of Islam in Indonesian politics.

To prove this point, Jokowi was re-elected to run the country for another five-year term until 2024. Indonesia is a democratic country, thus the 2019 election results were a confirmation that Islam has become a powerful determinant of who gets to run public offices in the country. In other words, democratic elections are a reflection of popular sentiment, which in Indonesia is supported by Islamists. It suffices to argue that Islamization and democratization are directly related to each other in the country.

Moving forward, it is expected that the events surrounding the 2019 elections will continue shaping Indonesian politics with Islam taking a center stage. However, while supporting Islamic ideologies has played a major role in ensuring politicians win elections in Indonesia, in the US, politicians achieve political milestones by advancing Islamophobia as discussed in the next section.

Islam in American Politics

Since the 9/11/2001 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York, Americans have become highly suspicious of Islam and Muslims in general in what has evolved to become Islamophobia. However, the fear and suspicion of Muslims by Americans is a historical issue.

President Trump has openly vilified Muslims and Islam, especially during the last general election campaigns. In America, Islamophobia is mainly a political tool among the Republicans, and this fear existed long before Trump could become a president. In a bid to understand the role of Islam (Islamophobia) within the context of republicanism and American politics, it is important to discuss how this fear has been constructed, packaged, and sold to the citizens.

In the book, Islamophobia in America: The Anatomy of Intolerance, the editor, Ernst argues that Islamophobia can be defined as a “largely unwarranted social anxiety about Islam and Muslims…a prejudice against Islam that is generally associated with violence in media representations…an ideology related to nationalism and the problems of minority identity” (2). These definitions underscore the complexity of Islamophobia in the US.

However, despite the varying definitions and causes of this unreasonable fear and disdain for this particular religious ideology, Islamophobia continues to shape the American political landscape. Hammer argues Islamophobia is an “ideological construct produced and reproduced at the intersection of imperial ideology, political expediency, and the exploitation of nationalist, racial, and religious insecurities” (29). Therefore, politicians, especially Republicans advance the notion that Islam is a dangerous religion as a strategy to win political support from a terrified American populace.

For instance, in the 2016 general elections campaigns, President Trump extensively leveraged Islamophobia for political gains, and his stand on this issue is one of the reasons he commanded sizeable voter followers. On December 7, 2015, President Trump, the then-Republican presidential frontrunner said, “I call for a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States” (Beydoun 1734). Such rhetoric and open contempt for Islam and Muslims from national leaders convince Americans to vote in a certain way, mostly in support of the candidates advancing such agendas.

The problem with Islamophobia is that the majority of Americans form opinions about Islam and Muslims based on the content they consume from the mainstream media. However, in most cases, the media advances the biased portrayal of Islam as a religion associated with violence and utter dislike of Americans. Therefore, voters are likely to vote against Islam, thus making it an important factor in American politics.

On the other hand, Islamophobia in the US has been having similar effects that Islam has in Indonesia – that of convincing voters to vote in support of it. For instance, the rising tide of Islamophobia stirred by “rhetoric from the 2016presidential campaign trail, drove Muslim Americans to vote in record numbers… 73% of Muslim voters in the US say that they will go to the primary elections and that 67% will vote for Democratic Party candidates” (Beydoun 1771).

Therefore, in a way, Islam influences politics in the US and Indonesia in the same way. While in Indonesia it causes people to elect leaders supporting it, in the US, it moves voters to support competitors of candidates advancing Islamophobia. Either way, Islam plays an important role in both American and Indonesian politics.

Conclusion

This paper has shown the centrality of Islam in Indonesian politics and drawn parallels with its importance in American politics. In Indonesia, the Muslim-majority population has awakened to the realization that they can influence and shape politics in the country. This movement has culminated in Maruf Amin, the country’s top Muslim cleric, becoming the vice president in the Jokowi administration.

On the other hand, in the US, Republicans have been riding on the wave of Islamophobia to win votes from a misinformed populace about Islam and Muslims. Specifically, President Trump has been a major player in the spread of Islamophobia for political expediency. Nevertheless, despite how Islam is used in Indonesia and the US, it is clear that it is applied as a political tool to advance a predetermined agenda.

Works Cited

Beydoun, Khaled. “Muslim Bans’ and the (Re)making of Political Islamophobia.” University of Illinois Law Review, vol. 2017, no. 5, 2017, pp. 1733-1774.

Ernst, Carl, editor. Islamophobia in America: The Anatomy of Intolerance. Palgrave, 2013.

Fossati, Diego. “The Resurgence of Ideology in Indonesia: Political Islam, Aliran, and Political Behavior.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, vol. 38, no. 2, 2019, pp. 119-148.

Gueorguiev, Dimitar, et al. “Rematch: Islamic Politics, Mobilization, and the Indonesian Presidential Election.” Political Science, vol. 70, no, 3, 2018, pp. 240-252.

Hammer, Juliane. “(Muslim) Women’s Bodies, Islamophobia, and American Politics.” Bulletin for the Study of Religion, vol. 42, no. 1, 2013, pp. 29-37.

Islam is among the largest of the world’s religions. It has over one billion followers and the growth rate is approximately 20 percent per year (Akbar, 1999 pp 5; World History, 2002). Islam has two main branches; the Sunnis and Shiites. Worldwide, Shiites account for about 10 to 15 percent of the Muslim population but form a majority in Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Bahrain and Azerbaijan (Amin, 2000). They have certain similar beliefs such as, that Allah is one and God is the only god. They also believe that the last prophet was Mohammed and that Allah will resurrect humans and question their actions and beliefs. Further, they believe and agree on the five pillars of Islam and that things like murder, stealing adultery among others are in. However, this is where their similarities and agreements end.

The Sunnis believe that Allah has a body, but it is not quite human. For the Sunnis, Allah can be seen on the earth and in the afterlife while the Shiites believe that Allah does not have a body and cannot and will never be seen. Other theological differences include, that the Shiites believe that Allah does not command bad things; Sunnis believe that an act is made good because Allah has ordered it. For instance, the Shiites do not believe that Allah can order a murder, but for the Sunni if Allah has ordered it, then it is not a sin. Shiites also believe that all the prophets are sinless while the Sunnis do not exactly believe this.

According to Shiites, Allah does not control our will though he knows what our actions will be; Sunnis on the other hand believe that Allah is the creator of all the actions of humans. Sunnis have scholars and jurists who offer opinions and lack a formal clergy. Shiites have a formal clergy and believe in a supreme Imam who is a spiritual guide with some of Mohammed’s inspiration. They believe their Imams are interpreters of the law who cannot err. Martyrdom and suffering are strong features in Shia theology as well as glorification of Ali Shiite martyrdom and suffering focus on Ali’s, Hussein’s deaths and ether figures in the Shia succession. The Sunni have on occasion accused the Shia of moving away from the fundamentals of Islam.

Practical and cultural differences include the different ways in which the Sunnis and Shiite perform prayer. The Shiites perform the wudu and salat in a different way from the Sunni. They place their foreheads on a piece of hardened clay from Karbala, rather than directly on the mat when they are prostrated. The Shia also combines prayers and may pray three times instead of five times. Their ahadith are also different from those of the Sunni.

They have a great preference for those narrated by Ali and Fatima while those narrated by people in opposition to Ali for example Aisha are the least favored. Islamic Shiites accept much-a temporary marriage but this is banned among the Sunnis. At the time of Prophet Mohammed, muttah was permitted and presently it is being supported and promoted in Iran by both conservatives and feminists. The feminists support it because it is a means to reduce the great focus on female virginity present among the Sunnis and Shiites. (Amin, 2001).

The Sunni/Shia split originates from the time of death of Prophet Mohammed in 632. Ali is the main figure around their contention. The debate was whether the prophet’s successor would be a qualified and individual pious or whether it would be someone in the prophet’s bloodline. Community leaders settled this by naming Abu Bakr the first caliph. This was unacceptable to Ali’s followers.

Sunnis view Ali as the last of the caliphs (successors to Mohammed) after Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. (Amin, 2002). Shias feel that Ali was the first caliph and the caliphate ought to be handed down to Mohammed’s direct descendants through Ali and Fatima. When Uthman was murdered while praying, Ali succeeded him as caliph, but Ali was opposed by Aisha, Muhammad’s wife and the daughter of Abu Bakr.

She accused Ali of not bringing Uthman’s killer to justice. Mu’awiya Umayyad, Uthman’s cousin refused to recognize Ali until Uthman’s killer was brought to justice. This led to battle in which Mu’awiya and Ali sought a compromise, but Ali was struck down by one of his supporters who were shocked at his agreement to a compromise. Mu’awiya then declared himself caliph and Hassan, Ali’s son got a pension for not laying claim to the caliphate. It is alleged that he was poisoned, as he died soon after. Ali’s younger son Hussein agreed to put a claim to the caliphate when Mu’awiya’s death but Yazid, Mu’awiya’s son usurped the position, upon his father’s death.

Yazid formed the Umayyad dynasty upon defeating Hussein’s army. Hussein had an infant son Ali who survived enabling the continuation of the line. The division between the Shia and Sunni was thus set (Akbar, pp43-44. 1999). Supporters of Ali’s descendancy became known as Shia (Supporters of Ali) (Akbar, Pp44). The Sunni who respected and accepted his caliphate but opposed the succession based on bloodline formed the majority of the Muslims. Sunni means followers of the prophet’s customs (Blanchard, 2008).

The differences between Sunni and Shiites have often formed the basis for religious intolerance, sectarian violence and political infighting. With time the position of the caliph began to decline and in 1924 Turkey’s first president Mustafa Kemal abolished it. This decline led to the growth of activism for the restoration of the caliphate. Some Sunni activists argue that the Islamic world leaders have undermined the caliphate and abandoned true Islamism. This has contributed to the emergence of figures like Osama Laden who are activists for pure Islamism.

Islamic theology and sectarian differences have often been used to fuel sectarian hatred and violence. In Iraq, years of Sunni dominance ended with the removal of Saddam Hussein’s regime. The shift had led to transformation of local and individual political and economic disputes into sectarian confrontations in some cases. This may be associated with Shiite resentment that lingers on and fears of the Sunni (Blanchard, 2008).

Works cited

Akbar SA. Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World I. B. Tauris; Revised Edition (1999) ISBN-10: 1860642578 pp. 4, pp. 42-44.

Blanchard C, 2008 Islam: Sunnis and Shiites. Web.

World History 2002 Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. Web.

Response

These readings provide information that is very useful to the Muslim faith. One of such topics is the one on exaltation of hunger. I found this topic particularly useful. According to Ghazali, hunger can be a path to the afterlife. This is because hunger has several benefits. Among the listed benefits is the fact that it helps a follower achieve purity of heart. This part is very useful because I finally got to have an in-depth understanding of the connection between hunger and spirituality.

For example, Ghazali writes that through hunger one can be able to punish his ego. When an ego is punished, it in turn becomes humbled. A humbled ego has the ability to be obedient. In another part, Ghazali gives an example of how hunger can lead one to prayer. He says that when one is hungry it is possible for him to wake up and pray. Moreover, through hunger one can be able to show contentment with just a few worldly belongings.

Another interesting part of these readings is the one that addresses the evils of speech. This part starts by quipping that what all the limbs do is connected to the heart and especially the tongue. It goes on to quote a reading that if one can be able to control his tongue; he is guaranteed to make it to heaven.

All these readings indicate the magnitude of the evils of speech. Given that everyone sins with his tongue occasionally, then this part of Ghazali’s readings may be of help to many. Some people have no control of their speech whatsoever. If you do not happen to be one of them, then you definitely know one.

According to these readings, there are twenty evils of the tongue. This is probably why it is so hard to escape evils of the tongue. Ghazali lists lying as the first of these evils something that is easy to agree with. Nevertheless, what I found most interesting is the scenarios in which lying is permitted. According to these readings, one can lie to mend a relationship, when in a war, and when talking with his wife. The last scenario is likely to elicit some controversy.

The part of the readings detailing the fourth evil was however unclear to me. According to this part, a little joking is permitted. This notion may sound possible in theory, but in practice, it might be impossible. This is because when a funny joke is offered, it is natural to want more. In addition, the fact that joking is only recommended for women and children, raises some questions.

The motives for seeking prestige as described in these readings fail to make much sense to me. First, perfectionism is related to prestige. Prestige and perfection are parallel notions that do not seem to be related. This is because someone seeking perfection would most likely shun prestige. This person would be able to know that prestige only leads to destruction.

When Ghazali wrote these readings, he must have been on a very high spiritual level. This is because some of the things he addresses seem out of reach for people whose spiritual level is at its infancy. Many people may find Ghazali’s claims preposterous especially if they are not ready to embrace the highest form of spirituality. This is why for anyone willing to try; I would recommend a systematic adherence to these claims.