Category: Invention

Introduction

Biomimicry is an approach in different branches of science that uses the solutions that nature provides to overcome problems in various scientific and daily challenges of human lives. This approach, although not new, was extensively developed and promoted by Janine Benyus, a writer and co-founder of the Biomimicry Institute. The main idea or aim of biomimicry is that nature is able to provide humanity with brilliant solutions that can and need to be used (Benyus 4). In her book, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, the author explores how humanity can use “simple compounds to produce totally biodegradable fibers, ceramics, plastics, and chemicals” (Benyus 5). As the author argues, nature is able to provide models for various branches, including engineering, computing, medicine, and others. Biomimicry rediscovers the breakthroughs made by nature and how these approaches can be applied to the modern world.

Janine Benyus has earned a bachelor’s degree in forestry; as she states, she enrolled in courses that covered wildlife, tree growth, water, and more. (6). She claims that the human-centered approach is something that needs to be left behind, and nature is able to provide humanity with experience that it has ignored for a long time. The question arises: Does humanity indeed need to pay attention to nature’s tools if it has recourse to modern technology? However, many of the inventions created by humans already have a presence in the world (Lee and Thompson 8). The Earth can be considered as the ultimate lab for a nature that has been conducting experiments for approximately 3.8 billion years, and biomimicry suggests that nature can be used innovatively in human projects in a variety of ways.

As Janine Benyus continued to explore this newly founded science, she was surprised to find no formal movement in place per se that would study how nature’s inventions can help humanity. However, today biomimicry is used in different branches of knowledge and industry, from medicine to architecture. The reason why biomimicry has become so popular and effective is not only that it copies nature but also because it gives its inventions function. Therefore, biomimicry is not the process of copying but rather that of re-inventing.

The Biomimicry Institute

The Biomimicry Institute was founded in 2006 in the United States. Today, it works with museums, educational institutions, universities, and zoos to encourage education about biomimicry and ensure that this science will be used by future generations as well.

Like nature, a free catalog that provides information about nature-inspired designs was launched in 2008. Several for-profit organizations were established by the founders of the Biomimicry Institute as well, namely Biomimicry 3.8. The institute encourages the implementation of biomimicry solutions in business and technology. According to the founders, biomimicry is profitable both to humanity and to the Earth (Benyus 8). The institute also organizes a Biomimicry Global Design Challenge that involves students, professors, and scientists from all over the world who provide solutions to sustainability problems using examples from nature.

Biomimicry and Sustainability

As the human need for change and inventions has grown, so has the harm that humanity has caused to nature. The principle of sustainability not only focuses on the sustainable environment that can be developed but also on the connection between the environment, economics, politics, and culture. The concept of sustainability arose when companies and governments began to evaluate the social and environmental cost that businesses have brought; before that time, only the profitability of the business had mattered (McKinnon and Whiteing 3). It can be said that sustainability is something of an ethical concept; nevertheless, public policies are preferring to focus on it more often as the problem of climate change and its adverse impact on the planet raises even more concerns.

While sustainability seeks for environmentally friendly and lasting projects, biomimicry provides innovation and concepts that can be used as a guide during such a project. One of the most famous and prominent examples of biomimicry and sustainability use is the development of Shinkansen high-speed trains. These trains need to enter tunnels at an extremely high rate of speed and not destroy the homes located nearby with the resulting sonic boom. Due to air compression, it was impossible to avoid disruption. However, one of the engineers provided an idea inspired by a small bird, the kingfisher; this bird can enter the water at high speed in complete silence (Earls 48). The trains’ design was reviewed; their “noses” were enlarged and made to look somewhat similar to the kingfisher’s beak. The trains have become a prominent example of a sustainable project that was inspired by nature: They did not cause any disruption, and their speed has increased due to the new design.

Sustainability tools are classified according to their options, and some authors believe that biomimicry can be considered as one of these tools: First, the tools provide specific ideas or guides about the design; second, they set priorities and focus on objectives of the project; and third, they measure whether the objectives were met (Cohen and Reich 13). Therefore, biomimicry can be seen as a tool from the first category that provides sustainability in design ideas.

Another project that has won attention from scientists and media is the sharkskin-inspired swimsuit used during the 2008 Olympic Games. As friction with water impacts the speed of the swimmers, their swimsuits needed to be redesigned to address the problem. The texture of shark skin is unique in its hydrodynamic features that allow sharks to develop high speed. Scientists have not only designed the suits according to this principle but have also used a 3D printer to make the suits as similar to shark skin as possible. Nevertheless, these suits are nowadays banned from major competitions due to their unique features.

Some models of wetsuits for surfers were inspired by beavers’ fur that is able to keep the animals warm and dry when swimming in icy waters. Nevertheless, not only sports or transport industries use biomimicry for the implementation of successful projects. Architecture has also used some ideas inspired by nature, although many of them are still in progress: Tobias Becker presented a new technology called “breathing skin” that will allow buildings to “breathe” almost as living creatures do. The walls will adjust to conditions, controlling the light, the flow of matter, and the temperature inside and outside (Asknature). One hundred forty air channels on every square meter of walls with this design will allow the building to filter the air inside the building.

Biomimicry has the potential to completely change our future and the buildings that humanity will inhabit because today, more architects are trying to follow the concepts of biomimicry in their projects. Michelle Oyen, a bioengineer, aims to resolve the problem of climate change and the sustainability of cities by copying nature. She is trying to replicate and use the characteristics of bones that, in the future, could be utilized instead of concrete (Asknature). Not only can bones be more sustainable than concrete, but they can also be produced at room temperature, while concrete needs a thousand degrees. The production of concrete also has an adverse impact on the atmosphere, as it is responsible for approximately ten percent of all carbon dioxide emissions (Asknature). Therefore, future skyscrapers and high rises could be made of artificial bones if this project is proven efficient.

Biomimicry and Environment

The connection between biomimicry and environment is evident, as biomimicry suggests using solutions that are environmentally friendly. However, it also stresses that new technologies should not fight against the environment and climate but rather use them as advantages. Thus, the environment of the area will not have to endure the severe impact of human technologies, and the project will cost less due to the fact that it is adjustable to the climate.

What I find most exciting about this approach to the environment is that humanity will still invent fantastic technologies that will boost the development of cities and facilities, but at the same time, nature will remain unharmed. Recent technologies that are used at construction sites and in architecture amaze me, too, but it is not wise to neglect the issues and problems that these technologies cause. At last, nature-inspired technologies look better and more interesting due to their similarity to nature. For example, buildings projected by the Bureau Zaha Hadid Architects look like pictures from science fiction books.

Although some of the major cities are interested in “green architecture” and would like to provide their citizens with environmentally friendly facilities and infrastructure, emulation of ecosystems is still normally avoided by them. However, this is yet another perfect example of a “natural approach” that can help cities efficiently overcome the problems of traffic, pollution, density, and others. Even natural catastrophes and their consequences can be used in such ecosystems, creating energy and supplying a city with water during floods or handling stormwater.

Biomimicry can also help the citizens see their homes or neighborhoods as nested systems, which will encourage teamwork and collaboration. Therefore, the projects will be not only eco-friendly but also human-friendly, allowing us to work on problems and solutions together.

As humanity tries to fight and prepare for natural catastrophes, it would be useful to understand how plants and animals are adapting to survive possible disasters. Biomimicry can provide some ideas about buildings that will be resistant to earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods. Diversity and variation are definitions that allow adjustment, and they could be used in future architectural projects (Asknature).

Biomimicry and the Future

The problem of climate change has been widely addressed by scientists, the media, celebrities, politicians, and intellectuals of late. If we continue to ignore the issues that our technologies have caused, we are in danger of destroying the future and leaving the coming generations without resources and supplies. However, biomimicry can help us create the kind of technologies that will recycle all waste and consume resources wisely. The energy industry needs to be reformed to become more “green” and eco-friendly; here, the solutions provided by the Biomimicry Institute and biomimicry could reduce the impact of generated waste and give humanity an opportunity to explore other ways to create energy. Although industries are not always willing to adapt to changes and become more resilient, the time has come to review the approaches that we have used to gain resources.

I also believe that another view of resources would possibly help to reduce the number of armed conflicts that often begin because of human greed. We have already destroyed many rainforests and animal species; even the Great Barrier Reef is in danger. However, nature rarely overuses some of its sources and normally does not exhaust the resources that are available. Therefore, humanity needs to learn how to use nature without killing it. Furthermore, strategies that will help us avoid the extermination of species do not need to be invented, as they are often already present; we just need to reframe them. Although some of the strategies that major industries use are considered to be rational, they can also be dangerous and unprofitable in their long-term consequences. The problem of waste has been partially solved as some industries turn it into input for other industries. This does not mean, however, that all industry professionals have agreed to follow the concepts that biomimicry is able to provide. That is why we need to redefine both technological strategies and humanity’s view of nature as a horn of plenty.

Conclusion

Biomimicry is a science that can help humanity find nature-inspired solutions and rebuild cities as ecosystems. It is linked both to the concept of sustainability and to the environment; this collaboration helps create new technologies that adjust to existing conditions and bring less harm to the environment of an area. Architecture often uses biomimicry to present innovative designs and implement the concepts of diversity and variety.

Works Cited

Asknature. Biological Strategies, 2016, Web.

Benyus, Janine M. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. Harper Collins, 2009.

Cohen, Yael Helfman, and Yoram Reich. Biomimetic Design Method for Innovation and Sustainability. Springer, 2016.

Earls, Mark. Copy, Copy, Copy: How to Do Smarter Marketing by Using Other People’s Ideas. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.

Lee, Dora, and Margot Thompson. Biomimicry: Inventions Inspired by Nature. Kids Can Press Ltd, 2011.

McKinnon, Alan, and Anthony Whiteing. Green Logistics: Improving the Environmental Sustainability of Logistics. Kogan Page Publishers, 2015.

Invention is one of the prewriting techniques used in writing essays. It refers to the creation of new ideas in relation to the question given or the use of old ideas to come up with new ideas in writing. This is a very important strategy as it encourages critical thinking and creativity in essay writing. Many students, who write compositions, prefer this prewriting technique because apart from encouraging critical thinking, it also enables them to write about subjects that are unique and intriguing.

Hence, the participation of old ideas in prewriting entails the consideration of other writers’ ideas towards the subject to be written. The writer formulates new ideas, by taking the old ideas and using them together with his own ideas, creating an entirely new idea. As much as some might consider this as plagiarism, it is not, because the writer does not copyright other people’s ideas but rather use them to formulate his own ideas.

In writing, there are several stages that are involved in order to come up with a well written essay. These stages make up the writing process and provide a framework for writing an essay. The stages include; prewriting, writing, revising, editing and publishing. Under each stage, there are several sub stages and they all ensure the essay written is perfect. In this case, the prewriting stage is the first stage in the writing process.

Therefore, it refers to the process of coming up with an idea/ideas in writing through a variety of methods such as invention, brainstorming and free writing. These methods of prewriting provide a ground for the writer to know what idea/ideas to explore in his writing. Depending on one’s choice, any of the methods mentioned above would do well in the deciding of the appropriate idea to include in writing.

Brainstorming involves the exploration of ideas that come up in relation to one’s initial idea. In this case, the writer writes down a sentence, or a phrase then constructs other sentences that would help in the building of the initial and main idea.

Thus, the writer would use a variety of sentences then counter check the sentences to select the ideas that are in line with what he wants to write by leaving out those that are irrelevant. Under free writing, the writer writes down sentences in an open or focused manner. That is the writer does not decide on one idea from the word go but in a piece of paper, writes down many ideas then later on decides on one idea that suits his content.

Therefore, when inventing an idea, there are a few strategies that should be put in place. A brief invention involves a quick thought of an idea, written down then the writer comes up with other ideas that would support it. This can be made possible by involving prior ideas of other writers and the use of the computer can act as a good way of getting information.

Using this form of an invention is particularly helpful, as the writer finds it easy to come up with other ideas that would assist in building up the main idea. Pre-writing technique under the writing process is a skill that every writer should employ in writing and the invention strategy works well especially in terms of originality.

Introduction

Blackberry is an electronic two-way pager wireless device that is handheld and has existed since 1999. Its introduction in the market by research in motion industry based in Canada was mainly focused on e-mail so as to deliver data to other wireless information networks of phone companies and therefore offering convergent services for the other devices. It was also meant to supports messaging through texts, faxing through internets as well as web browsing. Today, a software known as ‘blackberry connect’ enables non-blackberry devices like pal Treo to have e-mail services. (Simmons, 2004)

Cause/Origin

Blackberry device which acts both as a telephone and also as a device to organize, browse e-mails as well as receiving instant messages was initially introduced by RIM based in Canada. It was introduced as a solution to business people as well as consumers in the whole world who needed to stay connected throughout their travels no matter the locations in which they are in. Before the introduction of the blackberry device, consumers had to acquire both a wireless mail box and a corporate mail box but blackberry resolved the problem by allowing consumers to use a single mailbox. The device was used together with a network operation center based in Canada which enabled retrieval of e-mail by triple DES encryption and then forwarding to the blackberry device. (Maxim, 2002)

Effect for the blackberry

The introduction of the blackberry device has enabled business men as well as employees to keep in touch with each other regularly regardless of their location in the world. Today it is not just for business alone but also for family members and friends because it can too be a fun where individuals can always communicate and operate chat software in a better way compared with other wireless and handheld devices. Although majority of handheld devices connects to e-mail, blackberry stands out than all of them because it is not proprietary and therefore it is cheaper to operate. (Maxim, 2002)

Apart from the device being cheap to operate it has a series of other advantages over other wireless handheld devices such as longer battery life where one can run massager software for more than 90 hours consecutively while the device is not tethered and its screen on but its backlight turned off. It also has the ability to store all the data for more than a week even if its battery is yanked. All its data is recorded in the flash ROM and therefore the user does not require making backups as it is normally the case with palm.

The security details are high for the blackberry because its connection uses a 128-bit encryption which requires an application to be signed by the user before being accessed. The user can also deactivate the device incase it is stolen because it has capability of being remote controlled. With the introduction of the blackberry, preventing viruses/ spyware has become easier because it requires signing RIM ahead of the application and accessing the database. It is always connected and unlike most wireless devices that have to be connected manually especially if it has been on standby for long or if it had been turned off. (Simmons, 2004)

Conclusion

The introduction of the blackberry devices has provided a major breakthrough in the communication industry making it cheaper and faster to consumers. All the blackberry devices are equipped with all the features to connect consumers on a regular basis.

Simmons C. (2004): How to do everything with your blackberry: Ventura publishers.

Maxim M. (2002): wireless security: RSA press.

Introduction

Lego is a prolific and exemplary toy company, operating in the last couple of decades, managing to become a household name, an innovation giant, and a profitable business. As a result of smart marketing and innovation decisions, the organization was able to effectively utilize its existing assets in order to stay competitive in a globalized environment. While the Lego success story is not without its problems, there are significant business lessons that can be derived from understanding its corporate innovation. This work will examine Lego’s innovation efforts of the 2000’s their basic premises and the effect they had on the brand’s future developed. As a result, a comprehensive understanding of Lego’s storied history will be achieved, and prominent examples of product innovation will be discussed.

The Problem in the Early 2000’s

In 2004, the Lego company was faced with a changing global climate. The results of technological innovation and globalization rapidly begun began an important consideration, and leadership understood the need to innovate. Through innovation, the company could attract attention to its products, find lasting customers and differentiate itself from the competition. It was necessary for Lego to pursue change, but the possible options were diverse. The company needed to strike a precise balance between utilizing its strong sides and finding new avenues for profit and product design.

Pursuit of Change

Among the possible options, the prospect of branching out was prominent. Much like other toy brands around the world, i.e. Hasbro and Barbie, the Lego company has the capacity to widen its range of products and diversify. In the early 2000’s, the company leadership decided to do exactly that, hiring new talent, increasing building block numbers and introducing many Lego-centered experiences. Amusement parks, consumer electronics, video games, fashion and lifestyle products – Lego has attempted to infiltrate many diverse markets in order to establish itself as a prominent player. However, this strategy proved to be extremely ineffective. Audience engagement was low, and most of the products introduced during this era turned out to be failures. In addition, the use of more materials and a larger workforce increased the financial strain of Lego production, bringing with it financial losses. As a result of the initial pursuit of diversification, the Lego Company has almost fully went bankrupt (Knowledge@Wharton). A different approach towards staying relevant was needed urgently, and a hope for a better future came with the new company leadership.

Commitment to Change and Brand Reimagining

Jørgen Vig Knudstorp, as the new CEO of Lego in 2004 begun the initiative towards proper brand development. Change was badly needed in order to match the existing and evolving competition, as well as save the company from financial ruin (Davis, 2017). Instead of spreading out into different segments of the market, the company decided to turn to a more focused effort, utilizing its strengths to its advantage (Davis, 2017). The decision helped mitigate costs, promote innovation and root any potential change in company’s core competencies.

What Was Accomplished

The size of company staff was drastically reduced, cutting costs on wages and getting rid of the bloated management system. In addition, the Lego brand has decided to shift back towards focusing on its building block brand, making improvements to the already existing formulas and basing their advancement off them. As a result of sweeping changes in management, direction and production, Lego was able to gain back its popularity and amass profits like never before. The company’s success can be attributed to several key factors, each of which should be discussed separately.

Key Factors of Success

1. Fostering a customer-focused creative process. The Lego company realized the importance of its community, and effectively used it in order to improve its standing. Listening to children and watching them play became an irreplaceable part of the product design process, where Lego experts analyze consumer’s behavioral patterns (Knowledge@Wharton). Seeing which products children enjoy, how they play with them, and which aspects require improvement becomes vital towards mediating change. Furthermore, other fan communities, such as competitions and conventions became a source of corporate benefit (Knowledge@Wharton). Engaging with their customers, the Lego company was able to foster a sense of connection and better understand the needs of their buyers
2. Sticking to the basics, and improving upon them. Instead of working to expand their brand name into various fields, the Lego company stayed dedicated to its work of manufacturing Lego building blocks, which were and remain a central recognizable product for the brand. Taking advantage of the most prevalent aspect of their corporate persona, Lego improved upon older techniques and refined their products. From the better and more sustainable plastic use to a more connective design, almost every subsequent design decision was focused on improving Lego’s strong foundation
3. Keeping the number of suppliers small while using large distribution channels. The organizational decisions of the Lego company helped it to avoid unnecessary costs and maximize profits (Greenblatt, 2015). A small set of material suppliers stabilizes pricing, while a well-established net of distributors guarantees the intended audience reach. Being smart with their resources gave Lego an opportunity to grow.

The Results

Overall, it can be said that the Lego Company is among one of the most profitable, popular and well-known brands today. Owing to their distinctive presentation and a prolific toy line, the organization managed to become successful and introduce change that was needed to stay relevant. A use of a strong foundation, coupled with the desire for excellence gave Lego the golden opportunity for professional greatness.

Reference List

Davis, J., 2017. How Lego clicked: The brand that reinvented itself | Johnny Davis. The Guardian.

Greenblatt, S., 2015. The Lego Success Story: Getting everything to awesome!Technology and Operations Management.

Knowledge@Wharton, Innovation almost bankrupted Lego – until it rebuilt with a better blueprint.Knowledge@Wharton.

Scientists have made great inventions in various fields of human life, such as industry, agriculture, or medicine. Each of them has undoubtedly made some impact, to a greater or lesser extent, on human generation. One of the inventions that have brought profound changes to the world of photography was the invention of daguerreotype camera. A camera refers to a piece of equipment, which records, stores and can transmit pictures to a given setting. The images can be either static or mobile. Over the years, scientists created cameras that are more sophisticated in order to satisfy the need for better images. Photographic cameras evolved during the primordial Chinese and Greek civilizations. They used a pinhole to cast pictures on a screening surface. Prior to the discovery of photographic procedures, there was lack of viable mechanisms to store or make pictures durable. The initial cameras were huge and could cover an entire room; however, technological advancements have led to significant reduction of the size and shape of cameras. Zhan was probably the first individual to create a compact and portable camera in 1685. In the following paper, the invention of daguerreotypes or the old camera will be discussed. Overall, the work on the daguerreotypes began in 1727, when Schulze introduced his important innovations into photography; it continued in the beginning of the 1800s, when the rudimentary camera obscura was created and actively used; its triumph occurred in 1837, when Daguerre managed to create a camera that became the main prototype of the daguerreotypes, and in 1839, when Daguerre officially demonstrated his achievements to members of the French Academy of Science; it continued after 1839 until 1850, when numerous corrections and improvements were introduced to advance its characteristics; and it ended in the 1850, when inventors developed versions of the daguerreotypes, still known nowadays and stopped there because they found a number of downsides of the daguerreotypes.

(The argument begins; this section discusses the first steps, leading to creating the daguerreotype) Speaking about the invention of the daguerreotype camera, it is important to note that modern picture making activities started in 1727 because of Johann Heinrich Schulze innovations in photography. Schulze noticed that silver nitrate was sensitive to light. In around 1813, Nicephore who attempted to create a camera photograph, made another remarkable development. He made this discovery in response to the surging demand for reliable and economical ways of creating pictures. Nicephore used a sliding box camera made of wood in 1826. Nonetheless, it was not until 1826, when Nicephore developed a durable camera photograph. He used bitumen to cover a pewter plate and exposed it to the camera. The bitumen solidified the sections of the plate, which light struck. This picture has remained intact until present. During the same period, the camera obscura was in common usage before the daguerreotype model. Camera obscura is a visual machine, which projects pictures close to it on a screen. It mainly assisted in leisure activities. The inventor of this device mounted it inside a box with a sizeable opening on one surface. “Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside where it is produced onto paper, and can then be traced to produce a highly accurate representation” (Bates & Barrett, 1998, pp. 160-178). The picture is casted on a piece of paper and drawn to give a representation of the picture. A different moveable type is a container with a slanting mirror projected onto a tracing material mounted on a glass surface, the picture appears vertical from the rear view. Although the obscura camera became popular in the 1800s, the ancient scholars like Aristotle and Mozi discovered the pinhole principle, which later aided the creation of the obscuras. Aristotle demonstrated a proper understanding of the principles behind the functioning of the pinhole camera. For instance, he observed the falcate figure of the moderately eclipsed sun reflected on the earth surface through the openings in a strainer. Another famous scholar known as Theon also did a similar study on the functions of the pinhole. Theon found that a light from a candle creates illuminated spots on a screen, situated directly in relation to the centre of the candle and directly in sequence to the aperture, in case it passes through a the aperture. These two studies suggest that the camera technology had its origins in the ancient world.

Daguerre’s work and its results

The next, and the most important step in creating daguerreotypes, was made by Daguerre and his mates, who believed in the future of the use of the paper, sensitive to silver chloride (Dinius, 2012; Zault, 2008). Daguerre was an ingenious master of art, known for a variety of great works in different fields including the creation of incredible romantic paintings, mind-boggling printmaking, and the participation in the Diorama spectacle, very popular those days. However, the name of this inimitable master of art was imprinted in history due to the creation of images of vividness, unprecedented for the first half of the XX century. In 1833, there was a little setback in the development of cameras following the death of Niepces, one of the most successful Daguerre’s collaborators. Nonetheless, Daguerre remained focused on studying the techniques and the chemistry of making pictures by lining copper plates using various materials such as iodized silver. Daguerre’s initial experiments on producing camera images took several hours and demanded many resources. In 1837, Daguerre came up with the first practical daguerreotype portrait after effectively accomplishing his experiment. Until 1838, Daguerre proceeded with his experiments to the moment, when he began to feel ready to show the results of his work to the wide public including members of the National Academy of Science and potential investors (Wickliff, 2006). As a result of his first presentations of the new invention, Daguerre managed to find support that became crucial for the future success of the whole project. This support was from François Arago, one of the most influential members of the French Academy of Science and the National legislature. Due to Arago’s help and his gigantic efforts to find more supporters for Daguerre, the triumph of the whole project did not take long to wait. On January 7, 1839, Daguerre officially presented the results of his findings to members of The French Academy of Sciences at the specially organized assembly. Prominent French scientists were astonished with what they saw – the image was remarkably precise and clear-cut. This date in the history of humanity was officially acknowledged as the date of creation of the first real photography, the amazing fruitage of close cooperation between art and science (Wickliff, 2006). Thus, the daguerreotype process was announced by The French Academy of Sciences in 1839 after the official explanation of its stages, the significance of each of its stages, and its chemical and physical background. The same year, the other famous inventor, William Fox Talbot announced the daguerreotype process, which he saw in using paper, sensitive to silver chloride. Daguerre named his invention after himself by simply calling it the daguerreotype. On the other hand, Talbot named his photographic process the calotype. However, the difference between the two devices was in the fact that they worked in a dissimilar way in producing images. The daguerreotype reproduced images from left to right, and calotype did so by reproducing images from positive prints to negative ones on the paper. Whereas Daguerre auctioned his innovations to the government of France, which decided to share it with the rest of the world, Talbot was quite conservative and ‘jealous’ about his discoveries. So, Talbot restricted other scientists from accessing his achivemnts. The introduction of the daguerreotype camera was because of the challenges associated with using the camera obscura. Indeed, the daguerreotype brought profound changes in photography. It marked the onset of modern photographic procedures. Photography refers to both the science and art of making durable pictures. “It involves recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either chemically by means of light-sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of an image sensor” (Colin, 2009, p. 78). Characteristically, a lens assists in centering light reflected from items into actual pictures in the interior section of the camera that is light sensitive. The outcome of this process is a digital picture file for further processing into clear pictures. Further, speaking about the history of the daguerreotype, it is necessary to describe this device and the principles of its work. The daguerreotype is the camera, working on a principle of using a silver copper plate for making direct positives on a special material, known as Sheffield plate (Batchen, 2004). The outside section of the daguerreotype resembles a mirror. The picture is directly prepared on the surface with a silver coating; this section is delicate and can easily be wiped off. The tilted coated surface reflects a dark section to make the image visible. “Depending on the angle viewed, and the color of the surface reflected into it, the image can change from a positive to a negative” (Susan, 1979, p. 189).

The correction of the daguerreotypes

Addressing the corrections that were important for improving the functioning of daguerreotypes, decreasing of exposure duration is to be discussed. The initial daguerreotypes had weak lenses called Chevalier and the silver iodide acted as the light sensitive substance. This implied that the camera consumed much time in taking pictures; hence, it was less viable for commercial use. Moreover, the first daguerreotypes pictures were those of static scenes like streets. The challenge of time wastage that was associated with the use of daguerreotypes reduced significantly as result of two significant modifications on the camera. The first adjustment involved mounting lenses with wider diameters on the daguerreotypes. The second modification involved changing the chemical procedures applied in the creation of the pictures. Making of commercial daguerreotypes started from 1841 after the invention of a better lens, which had a wider and efficient aperture. “An alloy of mercury and silver creates images in a daguerreotype because mercury vapor from a pool of heated mercury develops the plate; but the Becquerel process is an alternative of making daguerreotypes in the absence of mercury” (Beaumount, 1984, p. 298). The daguerreotype pictures were distinct; however, duplication of the pictures was possible through some chemical processes. The other important improvement of daguerreotypes was proliferation. The daguerreotype technology increasingly gained prominence in the early 1800s, and many individuals in other countries in Europe adopted it. Johann Baptist who was a visual artist in Switzerland later became a professional daguerreotypist and he received great acknowledged for having made the initial colored daguerreotype in1840. He mixed and fixed several pigments on the fragile exterior section of the daguerreotype by heating it. The outcome of his experiment was among the first produced hand-colored pictures. In England, Beard who established the first picture-making studio first introduced the daguerreotype technology. Indeed, existing daguerreotypes that he claimed to have produced are largely other people’s creations. Apart from the British, the Americans also embraced the daguerreotype picture making processes. In the USA, Samuel Morse introduced various artists to the art of daguerreotype. In America, daguerreotype gained much prominence and over two million daguerreotypes were made annually. “For the first time in history, people could obtain an exact likeness of themselves or their loved ones for a modest cost, making portrait photographs extremely popular with those of modest means” (Mary, 2010, p. 456). In Europe, some people erroneously thought that the daguerreotype was the overriding pictographic procedure from 1850s. Nonetheless, proof from the era indicates that people used it extensively for about twenty years and then adopted better techniques. For example, in 1841 there was invention of the calotype that involved the use of both negative and positive procedures. Later in 1851, “the collodion wet plate process was introduced, and it involved a negative-positive process and using halide-impregnated collodion poured from a bottle onto a glass plate sensitized by the immersion in a silver nitrate bath” (Naomi, 2008, p. 678). This procedure facilitated the making of ambrotypes.

The reasons of the daguerreotypes downfall

With regards to the reasons of the downfall of daguerreotypes, it is important to note that the complicated, multifaceted, and manual daguerreotype process encouraged various artists to seek alternative techniques of picture making; thus, its weaknesses contributed significantly to the quick shift to better techniques of photography such as ambrotype and later tintype. The ambrotype is a type of camera that makes a positive picture on a glass surface through a collodion procedure, which uses a wet plate. Ambrotypes first gained commercial success in the early 1850s. One primary advantage that ambrotype had over the daguerreotype was its cost effectiveness in the sense that it was economical to produce. Second, it never had the shiny metallic plate, which many daguerreotype users found so unappealing. Towards the end of the 1850, the daguerreotypes lost considerable fame since many camera users switched to the newly created ambrotypes. Nonetheless, the popularity of the ambroytype was short-lived and people started abandoning it just like its precursor and adopted the tintype photographic system. “The tintype is a photograph made by creating a direct positive on a sheet of iron metal that is blackened by painting, lacquering, and is used as a support for collodion photographic emulsion” (Susan, 1979, p. 98). During the Civil War, many individuals in the USA embraced the usage of the tintype because it was affordable to most of them. The tintype is an advanced version of the ambrotype, which uses a slim coating of iron instead of the glass plate. The discovery of the iron coating mitigated the costs of photography and the collodion picture became more durable than before. The difference between the ambrotype and the tintype’s pictures is in the fact that the tintype is a positive due to the use of the black background for it and it can be negative as well, but the ambrotype does not feature such important options (Grushkin, 2012; Daguerreotype Limited, 2012). Unlike the daguerreotypes, the tintype is not cumbersome to develop since a simple technique is required in developing it. Moreover, the tintype does not consume much time like the daguerreotypes. Lastly, it gradually became more compact and portable; hence, it was less cumbersome to use in various settings. Indeed, the bulky nature of the daguerreotype made some people to shy away from using it. The daguerreotypes did not have a negative picture for making numerous positive prints. This was a challenge also witnessed in the tintype model, but it did not necessarily cause the downfall of the daguerreotypes. The wet plate photo making technique is the one that caused the sudden shift from daguerreotypes to other photographic techniques. Lastly, daguerreotype also posed serious health hazards, especially, to its regular users. The initial daguerreotypes as mentioned earlier, extensively used mercury in processing the images; this was particularly dangerous to the daguerreotypists who sometimes inhaled the lethal mercury fumes when they were conducting the heating activities. Many early users collapsed and died due the precarious nature of the daguerreotype technique.

The daguerreotypes as it is known nowadays

Speaking about the contemporary daguerreotypes, it should be stated that many individuals contend that the daguerreotype became extinct after 1850, but documentary evidence suggests that people partially used it until the next one and half centuries (Barger & White, 1992). Some daguerreotypists were not willing to get rid of their old pictures when they begun producing better ones. “Historically minded photographers of subsequent generations, fascinated by daguerreotypes, sometimes experimented with making their own or even revived the process commercially as a “retro” portraiture option for their clients” (Beaumount, 1984, p. 90). The daguerreotype underwent a slight renaissance towards the end of the 20th century and a few of passionate devotees who are arguably less than one hundred globally are still partially applying that technique in making pictures.

In conclusion, the above discussion demonstrates that the art of making and using cameras began in the ancient culture, and it has been improving over the years. Although many hurdles characterized the development of the daguerreotype, it eventually transformed photographic processes. The success of the early daguerreotypists was because of their resilience and enthusiasm to make better and more appealing images. The challenges associated with using various models of cameras starting with the obscura and later daguerreotypes created the need for cheap and compact photographic techniques. The second half of the 18^th century witnessed more changes in photographic procedures and this was because of the industrial revolution that made mass production of sophisticated gadgets possible. Today, cameras have become indispensable devices in society because they aid our security systems and they are part of our daily entertainment activities. Indeed, if it were not for the early camera techniques, there would be no television broadcasts today. The modern technological advancements have produced very reliable and user-friendly cameras, which produce sharp images that are more durable (Colin, 2009).

References

Barger, M., & White, W. (1992). The daguerreotype. Nineteenth-century technology and modern science. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 257, 1569-1570. (article – this source is from your list)

Batchen, G. (2004). Light and dark: The daguerreotype and art history. Art Bulletin, 86(4), 764-776. (article)

Bates, I., & Barrett, L. (1998). The silver canvas: Daguerreotype masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum. New York: Wiley. (book)

Beaumount, N. (1984). The history of photography: From 1839 to the present. New York: The Museum of Modern Art. (book)

Colin, H. (2009). Classic cameras. New York: Photographers’ Institute Press. (book)

Daguerreotype Limited, having its registers. (2012). Web.

Dinius, J. (2012). The camera and the press: American visual and print culture in the age of the daguerreotype. The United Sates: University of Pennsylvania Press. (book – this source is from your list)

Grushkin, D. (2012). The Case of the Disappearing Daguerreotypes. Scientific American, 307(6), 70-73. (article)

Mary, M. (2010). Photography: A cultural history. Routledge: Laurence King. (book)

Naomi, R. (2008). World history of photography. New York: Abbeville Press. (book)

Susan, S. (1979). On photography. New York: Penguin. (book)

Wickliff, G. A. (2006). Light Writing: Technology Transfer and Photography to 1845. Technical Communication Quarterly, 15(3), 293-313. (article)

Zault, K. (2008). The Daguerreotype Process. Web.

The concept of capturing images on objects without having to draw them was first introduced to the world by Joseph Nicephore in 1872. This method needed eight hours of exposure for the image to get imprinted. But it was Louis Daguerre who partnered with Nicephore who was credited with having first introduced the concept called photography. The word is derived from Greek, which essentially means writing with light. At that time all images produced were in black and white and eventually all masters of the art came to believe that the only artistic way to record photographic images was in black and white. This paper looks at the introduction and influence of color into the world of photography.

Even during the early stages of black and white photography, efforts to reproduce images in color were already underway. But it was not until 1859 that a color image was projected using a system invented by an English Physicist named James Clerk Maxwell. He had inadvertently led the way to the splitting of the primary colors which is still in use today. What Maxwell did was to shoot the same image using three cameras each using a red, blue and green filter. The resulting three pictures were placed over each other and projected which gave a reasonably accurate color image.

But actual recording of color images on paper or glass had to wait for some more time. In the meantime experiments around the world had found that just like compounds of silver used in black and white photography would react to light, there were other chemicals that would react when exposed to different colored lights. The main problem faced by the inventors were that since more than one chemical was required to capture all the colors, the negative would have to be done in multiple layers. Helmut Kalmus who was the founder of Technicolor Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology first founded a multi layered film that could capture two colors. Kodak introduced a practical positive full color film called Kodachrome in 1935 and a negative color film called Kodacolor in 1941. “In 1935, the first practical full-color film for still photography, a positive transparency film, was developed by Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky and licensed to Kodak.” (History of Color Photography).

In the days of black and white photography, its professional users mainly focused on photographing views of other countries, landscapes and portraits. They became experts at using black and white as a medium of expression of color. It was only natural that such professionals did not welcome the arrival of color photography. Even today there are professionals who swear by black and white images and still do not use or just marginally use color for their work. This sentiment is clearly apparent in the words of Walker Evans. “There are four simple words for the matter, which must be whispered: Color photography is vulgar. When the point of a picture subject is precisely its vulgarity or its color-accident through man’s hand, not God’s, then only color film can be used validly.” (Lesson 3: Chapter 4: Color Photo History: Color Photography is Vulgar). Evans was on of the first modernists in America in the world of photography. By the time Evans was around color photography had reached a stage where it could be taken by ordinary people.

Early color prints had a problem of fading with time, but it had been corrected to a large extent by that time. The fact that color photography was enthusiastically accepted and used by commercial photographers and the common man made the artistic photographers like Walker think that they were a special band of people. They argued that color photography was far too realistic to be called a work of art. This statement was ironical in the sense that during the early days of black and white photography, the same accusations were leveled at pioneers by painters and portrait artists. Another photographer Ted Grant, who shared the same view on color had stated that “When you photograph people in color, you are photographing their clothes. When you photograph them in B&W, you photograph their souls”.

The revolution in color photography came in 1935 by the introduction of the Kodachrome film by Eastman Kodak. It is an interesting fact that the method was not developed by Kodak, but by Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky. The two friends worked in the development of color film and later sold the rights of color processing to Eastman Kodak. They later worked with Kodak in the introduction of the Kodachrome color film. It became so popular among professionals and amateurs alike that the company was prevented from stopping its production even though it was expensive and had environmental concerns. There is still one laboratory in the world that processes Kodachrome film even now. Kodak’s only major competitor of consequence was Agfa. Another landmark event that came in 1946 was Kodacolor. As a marketing gimmick, Kodak supplied an envelop with the print. After the film was exposed, it could be sent by mail to Kodak labs in the US. The company would process it and then send back the color prints to the photographer by post.

As mentioned earlier, color as a medium for photography was eagerly taken up by commercial and amateur photographers especially after the introduction of the Kodachrome. Well known magazines like Vogue and National Geographic began to use color photographs, fist in the insides and later on its covers.

National Geographic was one of the first magazines to put color pictures in its magazine as early as 1914. The magazine used a technique called Autochrome to photograph a garden in Belgium. But another much earlier Autochrome photograph claimed to be taken in 1908 by Edward Steichen can be seen at The George Eastman International Museum of Photography. A reproduction of the same is given below.

Color photography was first used to film underwater life in 1926, this time too by National Geographic. The 1940’s saw color photographs being used to record high speed scenes like a bullet piercing an apple and the stilled images of the hummingbird in flight. Color was used for cover printing as late as 1943.

One of the most well known photographers who were comfortable both with color and black and white techniques was Ansel Adams. Adams was also instrumental in using black and white photography to display dramatic landscape photographs. His views would correctly express the changing perceptions of photographers towards moving to or at least trying out color photography. In his own words “Were I entering photography now as a young man I undoubtedly would deeply concern myself with color. I stayed with black–and–white simply because I enjoyed the controls the process offered. However, I feel strongly that color photography is one of the major expressions of our time.” (Enyeart and Adams).

Like any new methods it was natural for people to resist for different reasons. It was the same with color photography. But it has firmly put the black and white images to a back seat. Black and white images have a beauty of their own, but public tastes and perceptions have seen to it that it appears acceptable to a few discerning photo enthusiasts.

There were a rising number of young photographers of the late 1920’s and early 1930 who were influenced by color. What influenced them was not to produce an exact reproduction. A look at many of the early color photographs of master photographers reveal that color was intentionally used to make the picture stand out. None of the well known works show an exact or natural reproduction of the subject. Two of the well known pioneers of color are featured below.

Madame Yevonde Cumbers (1893 to 1975): Yevonde Cumbers was initiated into the world of color at a very young age by her father who was a well to do manufacturer of printing inks. She got into the world of photography purely by chance since she did not intend to while her young years in partying and socializing. She found work as an assistance to well known portrait photographer of the day Lallie Charles. The ambitious young lady set up her own studio in 1914 with money provided by her father. Her talent and aptitude for the work made her famous and had become a member of the Professional Photographers Association by 1921. The 1930’s saw the popularity of commercial color photography rising and Yevonde became fascinated with the subject. Although much of her earlier works were in black and white, she became familiar with a color printing process called Vivex. The process could reproduce rich reproductions of color especially reds and yellows which she saw as an extension of her vivacious personality. Her works switched on almost entirely to color then on. She became famous in her own right in a male dominated world of photography, both for her portraits and for her expertise in commercial photography. The influence of color can be seen in her work and two samples are given here for reference.

(Note: to view picture online, open the website, select gallery, select Goddesses 1935 and select image number 102)

The above photograph was a part of a very popular series titled ‘Goddesses’ which she produced in 1935. With otherwise subtle coloring, the bright yellow colors stand out in the photograph.

(Note: to view picture online, open the website, select gallery, select Advertising and Fashion and select image number 310)

This work shows her expertise in commercial photography. This was done for Enos Smelling Salts in 1939. It can be seen here that color influences Yuvonde deeply and she was able to use it masterfully in her photographs.

Maurice LaClaire: Maurice LaClaire was another pioneering color photographer in the United States. He was a well known and much sought after portrait photographer who switched to color in the 1930’s. He too became a photographer by chance when he got an after school job with a studio in his home town of Big Rapids, Michigan. He was also instrumental in developing a new process 1942 called dye transfer process in association with Kodak Company. Maurice’s works also show the influence of color and its artistic presentation in his portraits.

In the words of his daughter – “Dad always believed it was important to do one thing and do it well. Therefore, in 1948 he gave up his black-and-white business. It took time after this major decision to build a clientele who would support his color work.

More and more people including professionals and amateurs alike are taking to color photography. The pertinent question that could be asked today is whether black white photography is on its way out. If a person went to a store and asked to buy a roll of film, the salesperson would never ask whether the customer wanted a black and while roll of a color roll. May the customer would be asked the speed or make of the film. Indeed it has come to such a stage that even the color negative of today may become obsolete with the advent of digital photography. But a serious student of photography will vehemently say that black and white photography is alive and well. There is still a small breed of photographers who take breathtaking prints in this medium.

Black and white prints have a special quality that cannot be reproduced in color. It requires more imagination to visualize in black and white because certain bright colors like red appear dull in black and white prints. That black and white photography is still popular can be known from the fact that there are international awards that cater to this medium alone. An example is the Spider Awards exclusively for black and white photography. A visit to their site will prove this point. It is easier in this digital age to take and manipulate black and white images to produce imaginative and stunning prints. Let black and white photography along with color exist forever.

Works Cited

Begennings of Photography, The. Robert Leggat. 2000. Web.

History of Color Photography. in-history.com. 2006-2008. Web.

Lesson 3: Chapter 4: Color Photo History: Color Photography is Vulagr. Joe C Angert. 2008. Web.

Enyeart, James L, and Adams, Ansel. Ansel Adams in Color: Quest for Color. Excerpts. 1993. Web.

Hoehn, Thomas. Color Photography – The Earliest Days. A Thousand Words. Kodak. 2007. Web.

The Yevonde Portrait Archive. Welcome to the Colorful World of Madame Yevonde. UK 2.net. 2008. Web.

Forward. 2008. Web.

Introduction

In “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”, Walter Benjamin discusses how the invention of photography and other mechanical reproduction forms has changed how people perceive works of art.

Discussion

Previously, artworks were seen as unique objects symbolizing the “aura of originality”, which refers to the unique, individualized experience of encountering a work of art in person. This experience is lost when the work is reproduced mechanically through technologies like photography or printing. However, with the ability to mass-produce copies of artworks, the aura is lost, and the documents are seen as inferior to the originals. Benjamin argues that this change in perception has political implications, making it easier for people to question and critique the authority of art and its institutions.

Benjamin’s article examines the difference between how people experience art in person and how they experience it through duplicates. He argues that people connect with art more emotionally when they encounter art in person. This is because they can see the work in its entirety and appreciate its beauty. However, experiencing art through copies, people only see a small part of the work, making it difficult for individuals to connect with the art on an emotional level.

Conclusion

The distinction between cult value and exhibition value refers to how a work of art can be experienced. Cult value is the experience of encountering the work as a rare and precious object, while exhibition value is the experience of discovering the work as a commodity. Furthermore, Benjamin was concerned that reproduction technologies could circulate propaganda or politically biased data to a broad audience quickly and easily. This could lead to people being cheaply manipulated and persuaded by these kinds of messages and hence easily manipulated and misled by those in power.

Marcel Duchamp is a French artist born in the Haute-Normandie region of France in the year 1887. He is described as a both revolutionary and avante garde artist because of his invention of readymade art in 1915 and also because his works were often associated with Surrealist movements. Duchamp’s readymade art influenced the art movement during the post World War I period.

He invented challenged the conventional line of thinking that was used during art processes and the creation of art marketing by using subversive actions like when he called a urinal a fountain. In his invention of readymade art, Duchamp based his artwork on the belief that creative art was not made from the perspective of the artist but from the point of view of the spectator who has the ability to provide a link between the work and the external world (Masheck 1).

Duchamp’s early works were mostly focused on post-impressionist styles where he experimented on classical techniques of art work and art processes.

One of his first paintings that included post impressionism was the Coffee Mill painting which he drew in 1911. During the same year he also developed the Portrait of Chess Players which included his two brothers Raymond Duchamp and Jacques Villon where the art style was mostly Cubism because of the multiple perspectives of the two chess players and also because of the overlapping frames of the portrait.

Other works produced by Duchamp that were heavily post impressionist art forms included the Nude Descending Staircase which he did in 1912, the Thicket which he produced in 1911, Young Man and Girl in Spring which he also produced in 1911 and Yvonne and Magdeleine Torn. All these paintings had a heavy influence of both Cubist and Favism styles of painting which were predominantly viewed as post impressionist styles (Masheck 3).

Duchamp created readymade art objects in 1913 with his first invention being the Wheel of a Bicycle which was basically an inverted bicycle that was installed on a stool. The term readymade was not however coined until 1915 and it referred to prefabricated art forms and objects that were isolated from their functional purpose and settings where the objects were instead given an elevated status by the artist.

Duchamp’s readymade art forms became a product of mass production as readymade art presented the message on its own without any form of mediation and assistance. Duchamp got his idea for readymade art from the clothing industry in New York that was mostly focused on the mass production of clothes that were unique and stylish (Gale 1).

Duchamp’s vision for readymade art was mostly focused on producing art forms that had an aesthetic value as well as producing art objects that questioned the meaning of art itself.

According to the Duchamp, the decision made by an artist to make readymade art should be governed by the artist’s indifference to the art form rather than the beauty of the object. The developments in both Futurism and Cubism greatly influenced Duchamp’s readymade works together with the poetry works of the great poet Guillame Apollinaire. His first readymade works included the Bottle Rack which he produced in 1914.

The next readymade art form produced by Duchamp was done in 1915 which was the Prelude to a Broken Arm which was basically a snow shovel. His most recognisable readymade art object was the Fountain which was basically a urinal that had slight physical interventions like the pseudonym R. Mutt. The Fountain was described as the most influential piece of art work in the 20^th century because of its boldness and provocativeness (Gale 2).

The Fountain also revolutionised 20^th century art work more than any other piece of work produced during the same period. Other readymade art forms produced by Duchamp included his 1920 reproduction of the Mona Lisa portrait by Leonardo da Vinci where he included a moustache and a beard in his reproduction.

This led to his coining of the portrait as a rectified readymade piece of art work. In his inventions of readymade art forms, Duchamp continued to emphasize that the selection of readymade art should never be based on the perspective of the artist but on the artist’s reaction to visual indifferences that are presented in the art object (Mattick 124).

Duchamp’s invention of readymade art reduced the dominance of paintings and sculptures during the 20^th century where they became the most autonomous pieces of artistic art forms during the 1960s and 80s. Readymade art later revolutionised to become industrially produced art objects that achieved the status of art as a result of presentation and selection by the artists.

Duchamp’s invention of readymade art was mostly based on designs of pieces of art that he viewed to be art by definition. His readymade art works were therefore based on designs that were made by others which meant that he was not the original designer of the art forms (Elger and Grosenick 80).

His approach to producing readymade art was mostly focused on assuming that any art object can be equipped with physical attributes and characteristics that can be used to elevate the status of the art form. He believed that an art object was defined by its context which was then used to perceive the various environments in which the art object would fit in.

Duchamp’s pioneering work on readymade art helped to shape the work of contemporary artists such as Jeff Koons, Damien Hirst, Joseph Cornell, Tony Cragg and Robert Rauschenberg and Michael Martin. Contemporary artists such as Robert Rauschenberg and Damien Hirst utilised Duchamp’s preference for artistic ideas rather than visual effects in their works during the 1950s.

Rauschenberg went on to produce art work that was focused on non-traditional materials which gave rise to Combines abstract expressionism. Some of his most common art forms included the canyon which he produced in 1959 and the Riding Bikes sculpture which he made in 1998 (Bossy et al 154).

Damien Hirst on the other hand focused on the use of dead animals that were preserved to create artistic sculptures such as the Golden Calf, which was a cow that had its horns and hooves emersed in 18-carat gold and the Physical Impossibility of Death which involved a sculpture of a tiger shark that was preserved in formaldehyde.

During the 1970s and 1980s, readymade art featured heavily in conceptual art works as well as Arte Povera art forms. Contemporary artists who incorporated Duchamp’s readymade art perspective in their work during this time included Tony Cragg and Joseph Cornell. Tony Cragg incorporated the use of discarded construction materials and other siposed materials to create sculptures such as the Britian Seen from the North and Terris Novalis which he created in 1981.

The 1980s marked the emergence of commodity art sculptures where mass produced art forms were placed in galleries and presented as sculptures. One of the artists who created commodity art sculptures during the 80s included Jeff Koons who is an American artist well known for his reproduction of banal objects. Koons produced the Two Ball 50/50 tank commodity sculpture in 1985 also known as the Equilibrium Series.

The sculpture which had an influence from the work of Damien Hirst was made of two basketballs that were floating in a distilled water tank and it demonstrated the readymade aspect of commodity art sculptures. His other sculptured art forms included the Statuary which was composed of a large stainless steel blow-up of various toys and the Banality Series that was made up of a series of three life-size statues of Michael Jackson and his pet chimpanzee, Bubbles that were plated with gold (Bossy et al vi)

Joseph Cornell was another contemporary artist in the 70s who incorporated Duchamp’s readymade art in his art sculptures. Cornell is well known for his artistic forms that incorporated aspects of assemblage and collage where he created art forms from found objects.

These found objects were usually boxes that he used to assemble several collections of photographs in both a surrealist and constructive way. An example of his assembled art work is the Medici Slot Machine that had an interactive design to it which was meant to encourage the audience to handle the sculpture. His other assembled art forms that borrowed from Duchamp’s readymade art included the Soap Bubble Sets, the Space Object Boxes and the Pink Palace Series (Bossy et al vi).

Another contemporary artist who still utilises Marcel Duchamp’s readymade artistic inventions and techniques is Michael Craig-Martin. He involved detached conceptualism in his sculptures that were made of commonly used household objects and other materials to create artistic art structures that were based on multimedia objects. In the year 1970, he came up with one of his most famous works that incorporated the use of four buckets made of metal that had been suspended on a table.

This sculpture demonstrated the effect that conceptualism and minimalism had on Martin which later saw him producing another sculpture in 1973 known as An Oak Tree. This sculpture was made up of an ordinary glass of water that was placed on a plain shelf to demonstrate his superiority over the object in the sculpture itself. This line of thinking led to the development and formation of conceptual art that would revolutionise commodity art sculptures in the 20^th century (Bossy et al vi).

Duchamp’s readymade inventions and art forms paved the way for many of the above mentioned contemporary artists and other modern artists who involved the use of various objects both animate and inanimate. His readymade art has advanced the general view of artistic objects by changing the process of how art forms and objects are created.

Duchamp shaped the creation of artistic forms by exposing the nominalist character of pictorial events that led to Dadaism or Dada works which was a major movement that helped to form the artistic expressions of various contemporary and modern artists. Duchamp’s readymade inventions also helped to shape the avante garde artistic movement in the 19^th century which was mostly concerned with expressing the view of the object rather than the view of the artist.

Works Cited

Bossy, Michael-Andre, Thomas, Brothers and John, McEnroe. Lives and legacies: an encyclopedia of people who changed the world. Westport, Connecticut: The Oryx Press, 2001. Print.

Elger, Dietmar and Grosenick, Uta. Dadaism. Berlin, Germany: Taschen, 2004. Print

Gale, Matthew. Readymade. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Masheck, Joseph. Marcel Duchamp in perspective. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 2002. Print.

Mattick, Paul. Art in its time: theories and practices of modern aesthetics. London: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Introduction

The flute is a musical instrument that has shown notable improvement from its original model. The sound outcome has been improved and has become notable as Phelan (2004) says. This essay identifies flute advancement and will investigate the time and circumstances that led to the invention. The discussion highlights how it affected the field of art at the time of invention and the changes it has caused in the present day as well as the effects later.

Advancement of flute in the Humanities

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The flute is a musical instrument that man has used for a long time. Archeological discoveries reveal that one of the earliest flutes was dated over 35 centuries ago as Toff (1985) points out. The flute had two to three holes on top, with a v-shaped mouth piece. Late discoveries indicated that the instrument had modifications and the holes were variedly increased up to eight and could be on the side.

Flutes that were discovered later on indicated that the musical instrument had more holes and included modified features such as stoppers and holes could be on the sides. They also had different shapes and were made of different materials. The flute had stoppers and was longer. The musical instrument was used by various cultures and was incorporated in people’s daily lives, where both men and women of different ages could play it.

Putnik (1970) observes that the flute is a musical instrument categorized as wood and wind instrument. It produces sound with the flow of air. This happens when the air passes through the holes and vibration of air in the directed holes produces sound. The pitch is modified by closing and opening specific holes to produce desired sounds, as well as regulate the length and frequency.

Air pressure can be used to vary the pitch, without closing or opening the holes. The volume of the flute is dependent on the resonator’s size, the size of the air stream or the velocity of the air stream. For vibration to occur, specific angle of air stream and velocity should be administered.

Boehm (1964) mentions that, with an aim of making and the flute advanced, various cultures tried to modify the musical instrument. In its original form, most flutes were made from bones, bamboo or horn, to be covered with one or more fingers when using. Some of the modification made on the flute involved changing the material that was used to make it.

In the present day, specific alloys of metals have been identified to make the musical instrument. The motive of choosing the specific alloys is to improve the quality of the instrument. It is noted that wood is still being used in the manufacturing of flute to develop a specific tone.

The advancements of the flute in search of a refined instrument led to two families of flute. The first involves the use of air blown from one’s mouth. The second involves the use of blocks, which are situated on the outer side of the flute. The transverse is commonly used by the orchestras (Toff, 1985)..

Another noteworthy advancement is the inclusion of keys in the flute. The motive was to adjust the mechanism and the speed of air passage while causing accurate intonation. One key was developed on the right hand and later adjustments on the other keys were made after conducting tests.

Manufacturers designed modified keys and came up with models that were superiors to the previous ones. Advancements have emerged to make the modern flute superior to previous models that had a few octaves.

Toff (1985) notes that the flute is considered one of the instruments that can be played by both genders. The advancements have come along with civilization and the musical instrument is taught in academic institutions. The flute is versatile and can produce different tones, ranging from high to low registers.

Additional advancement of the flute has caused standardization of the musical instrument in the twenty first century. Some flutes have one open end while others have both ends open. The advancement is to create harmony and clarity of sound for the instrument.

Some of the flutes have one resonator while have others have multiple resonators. The number of resonators determines the strength of the flute. Those with multiple resonators are capable of producing a wide range of sounds (Crane, 1972).

Modification of the flute has enabled the flutist to use different sources of air when playing the instrument. Most cultures use the mouth to blow, while a few cultures have used the nose. Advancement of flute pipes has led to blowing of the flute by use of fans or bellows (Putnik, 1970).

Circumstances that have led to improvement of the flute include the desire to make accurate sounds, tones, and pitches. Experimentation to attain improved and accurate tones became a success and caused improvement of the instrument. Users wanted to make the use of flute easy and this became a success when modifications resulted in new ways of blowing the air with a fan. The need to create flexibility for the user when presenting and creating harmony stimulated invention.

The advancement of keys was established in the 19^th century, a period that has been considered to be between Theobold and Baroque periods. The advancement of the keys, with the assistance of flutist, helped the manufacturers develop quality models. The twentieth century advancements emphasized the development of different alloys to make the instrument.

The twenty first century has witnessed further advancement in the range of the pitch and the tone that the flute can make. The flexibility of the flute has caused it to use the instrument to make a wide range of sounds with the new models (Maynard 1971).

Eighteenth century flutes had one key, which was used in a complicated way to give the desired tone. Their sounds were not refined and this caused more flutists to investigate on ways of improving the sound. The complicated way of folk fingering was eliminated when more holes were made on the flute and more keys were added.

The need to improve the flute came with modernization. Since some of the users used it when hunting and making magical rituals, the use changed and became leisure oriented. Soldiers no longer use the flute and the need to improvise and make it useful for leisure became imminent. Flutes increasingly became popular and flutists had the desire to make accurate musical sounds that were clear and pleasing to the audience.

Boehm (1964) developed one of the most competent modifications of the flute in the 19^th century. Because developments of the flute had changed from circular to different shapes, he reverted to the circular shape. The modification achieved the desired range sounds, tones, and intonations. This was established by the invention that saw the flute embouchure hole being elongated.

The sizes of the holes were configured differently so that they could be used in pitch modification. The positions were adjusted for easy access by the flutist and to make the desired sounds. The fingering innovations became another advancement that caused success in the musical instrument.

In modifying the flute, one of the materials that were used instead of metal is wood. Wood had been used to make ancient flute and was abandoned in the evolution of a modern flute. Depending on the needs of the flutist, some made flutes from silver and gold, while others used different alloys. Besides making the instrument presentable and colorful, the flutist wanted to experiment if there was an improvement. Some of the flutists believed that flutes made from metal were the best.

In the course of experimentation, some flutists discovered that placing wood in the flute would improve on the sound produced. Consequently, the practice of using wood has been adopted in the modern manufacturing of flutes. Wood is believed to cause an effect that allows the flute to produce specific sounds (Galway, 1982).

The flute is part of the humanity since it has been used in early days as part of people’s culture. Consequently, culture dictates individual’s behavior in a society. Playing of flute is considered in many societies and has been used during various events such as wedding ceremonies and during funerals. Most of the people who played the flute were men (Phelan, 2004).

Advancement in other areas of life also triggered innovativeness with the flute instrument. Recording has become popular, with most of the musicians embracing the new technology. The need to refine and perform harmonized musical sounds inevitably stimulated growth in the music industry.

The flute has been used in late times in recording and performance of orchestra. The musical sounds produced and tones have successfully demonstrated the benefits of the advancements. Although people have not been keenly involved in the development of the flute, loss of attachment to cultural practice can be seen as the major cause. Vey few individuals are involved in playing the flute. In some cultures, the flute is viewed as a sign of culture and identity (Galway, 1982).

Unlike in the past, the flute is now played in a classical and modern setting. Before, flutists played the instrument as part of leisure. Others played while herding, while others played during significant occasions. The instruments enhance social relations and bring people together in cultural events. The lute is a powerful musical instrument that requires skill to play.

In future, the flute is likely to become an outstanding musical instrument. Its transformation in advancement shows that more inventions could be made and the musical instrument can be improved. There are more developed scales in music and notes that have been recorded. This implies that there is room for growth of the flute instrument (Phelan, 2004).

Conclusion

The flute has become a notable advancement from the ancient age to the modern times. Its advancements have led to better sound, tone, and pitch quality. The shapes and designs have changed, with its use becoming easier. The flute is part of humanity, since it has been used in different social settings in the past and the present. Flutists can obtain education on its use and get the best quality flutes for their own benefit.

References

Boehm, T. (1964). The flute and flute-playing in acoustical, technical, and artistic aspects. New York, NY: Dover Publications.

Crane, F. (1972). Extant medieval musical instruments: A provisional catalogue by types. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press.

Galway, J. (1982). Flute, Yehudi Menuhin music guides. London, UK: Macdonald.

Maynard, W. J. (1971). The Dayton C. Miller flute collection. New York,NY: Brookville.

Phelan, J. (2004). The complete guide to the flute and piccolo (2nd ed.). Oberlin, OH: Conservatory Publications.

Putnik, E.V. (1970). The art of flute playing. Los Angeles, CA: Summy-Birchard.

Toff, N. (1985). The flute book: A complete guide for student performers (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Annotated Bibliography

Maynard, W. J. (1971). The Dayton C. Miller flute collection. New York,NY: Brookville.

William Maynard discusses the contribution of a successful career of a renowned scholar in musical instrument Miller. The discussion portrays works of miller, who was keen on the flute purchase, manufacturing date and kept a collection. The works reveal history and effects of advancement and evolution of the flute.

Phelan, J. (2004). The complete guide to the flute and piccolo (2nd ed.). Oberlin, OH: Conservatory Publications.

James Phelan uses his knowledge in mechanical engineering to explain parts of a flute, its maintenance. The book describes developments and differences between different designs. It gives reasons for different actions to be taken in the construction and maintenance of the musical instrument.

Putnik, E.V. (1970). The art of flute playing. Los Angeles, CA: Summy-Birchard.

Edwin Putnik has contributed in writing to education and professional musical performers with knowledge on the musical instrument. His book provides basic and technical skills for new and knowledgeable flute players. Details of various uses of flute in different times have been presented.

Toff, N. (1985). The flute book: A complete guide for student performers (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Nancy Toff is an award winning author of the National Flute Association Service Award (USA) and is also a researcher, writer, lecturer and consultant for different Art Museums in United States. In this book, Toff provides information on manufacturing refinement and technological advancement of flute. She extensively covers the history of flute and best practices in the present day.

The invention of the camera immensely impacted the arts, especially in terms of painting. First, from the beginning, when photography became accessible to ordinary people, including the working and middle classes, this instrument displaced the art of portrait painting almost entirely. On the other hand, the camera’s invention spurred the development of new art directions, namely, Realism and Impressionism. In that period, artists belonging to Realism began shifting their focus from religious and mythological themes to real life and current social matters (“Week 6,” n.d.). Simultaneously, despite abundant criticism and initial rejection, impressionists changed the style and idea of painting by adding novel artistic elements. An illustrative example of such searches is the painting named “Impression” by Claude Monet, one of the impressionism founders. In this regard, Marignier (1990) indicates that this revolution in the art realm occurred primarily due to the camera since artists started seeking new ways of world expression. Therefore, the camera’s invention changed the art by eliminating portrait painting and stimulating artists’ creativity and exploration.

The emergence of the smartphone camera has had a substantial effect on photography, photographers, and the photography industry overall. For example, according to the World Economic Forum, between 2010 and 2018, the global supply of cameras dropped by 84 percent (Richter, 2019). This phenomenon is because average persons have gained excellent and vast opportunities to take and edit quality photos in minutes using various apps, including Adobe Photoshop or Snapseed. Furthermore, sharing photos on social media considerably transforms social dynamics and impairs photography to some extent. Thus, since the smartphone’s invention, it seems that there is no need for professional photographers or digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR). Nevertheless, Myerson (n.d.), a professional photographer, assures that only DSLRs can provide the highest-quality photo in all contexts, especially where any smartphone camera is weak, for example, in dark light.

References

Marignier, J. L. (1990). Historical light on photography. Nature, 346(6280), 115. Web.

Myerson, M. (n.d.). The rise of camera phones and how it affects professional photographers. Contrastly. Web.

Richter, F. (2019). How smartphones devastated the camera industry. The World Economic Forum. Web.

Week 6 Lesson 1: The development of the camera. (n.d.). Instructure, Inc. Web.