Category: Invention

Essay on Who Discovered Solar Energy

While conducting electrochemical experiments in 1838, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, a French physicist, discovered the photoelectric phenomenon. He monitored the current flowing between two plated platinum electrodes in an electrolyte-filled container. Becquerel discovered that when exposed to light, the current’s strength alerted. The outside effect, in which electrons move out of a stationary substance when exposed to light was involved in this case.

Willough Smith and his assistant Joseph May in 1873 observed that when exposed to light, the semiconductor selenium’s resistance altered. They witnessed for the very first time the internal photo-effect significant to photovoltaics, where light breaks electrons from their bonds in the semiconductor and allows them to be available in the form of free charge carriers in the solid-state body.

After three years, William Adams and Richard Day discovered that when exposed to light, a selenium rod with platinum electrodes may generate electrical energy. This was the first time a solid body had shown the ability to convert light energy into electrical energy directly. In 1883, Charles Fritts, a New York inventor, created a small ‘Module’ with a surface area of 30 cm2 consisting of selenium cells that had nearly 1% efficiency. This was achieved by coating the selenium cells with a thin layer of the gold electrode. Fritts then sent a module to Werner von Siemens, a German inventor, to be evaluated. Siemens acknowledged the significance of the discovery and informed the Royal Academy of Prussia that the conversion of light into electricity had been exhibited.

In the years that followed, the physical background of the effect was better described. This was due to Albert Einstein and his light quantum theory presented in 1905 which received the Nobel Prize. There were also technological advancements occurring in 1916, where the AEG Company’s chemist Jan Czochralski developed the crystal formation process that made it possible to create semiconductor crystals of high quality as single crystals.

William B. Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor and American Nobel laureate, explained the mechanism of operation of the p-n junction in 1950 where he laid the theoretical basis for today’s solar cells. Using that theoretical foundation Bell Lab’s Daryl Chapin, Gerald Pearson, and Calvin Fuller built the first silicon solar cell that has an efficiency of up to 6% which was displayed to the public in 1954.

The photovoltaic research expanded rapidly in the late 1980s, specifically in Germany, Japan, and the USA. Moreover, studies have been conducted regarding the possibility of installing grid-coupled photovoltaic plants on single-family dwellings. From 1990 to 1995, Germany executed the ‘1000 Roof Program’ which provided with vital expertise on module reliability (Mertens, 2018).

Solar Cell Operating Principle

The structure of a solar cell typically consists of a semiconductor known as a p-n junction where the positively charged p-type layer is located at the bottom and the negatively charged n-type layer at the top. The n-type accepts electrons while the p-type gives away electrons and gains holes as a result. When light enters the cell, it forms an electron-hole pair. There is an existing internal electric field where it forces these holes to separate. As a result, the electrons are transferred to the negative electrode and the hole to the positive creating an electrical current. A conducting strip known as a busbar typically made out of copper or aluminum, conducts the electric current generated by the cell. This process is known as the photovoltaic effect. (CITE)

Modeling of PV Cell

To produce the required energy, solar cells are assembled in a series-parallel arrangement to size a PV array. Operational conditions and field factors such as irradiation levels, ambient temperature, and the sun’s geometric location all affect the amount of electric power generated by the PV array (Soto, 2006). An example of a current source model for a solar cell is illustrated below in Figure 3, where Iph known as photocurrent, is the produced current as a result of sunlight irradiation, Id is the diode reverse saturation current, Rsh is the intrinsic shunt of the cell and is usually a very large value, Rs is the series resistance of the cell and tends to have a much smaller value. Hence, the intrinsic shunt and the series resistance may be overlooked to simplify the analysis.

The I-V characteristic curve depicts a PV cell, module, or array’s voltage and current characteristics. It gives a detailed description of the solar energy conversion capacity and efficiency. Knowing these I-V characteristics is crucial as it determines the solar efficiency and output performance of the PV module. The following equation shows the typical I-V characteristic of a PV array (Singh, 2013):

I= NpIph-NpIdexpqVkTANs-1 #(1)Where the reverse saturation current is Id, the photocurrent is Iph, the PV output voltage is V, the electron charge is q, the Boltzmann constant is k, the PV output current is I, the cell temperature is T, the total number of cells in a series is Ns, the number of modules that are connected in parallel is Np, and the p-n junction ideality factor is A. The cell deviation from the typical p-n junction characteristic is governed by the factor A, which ranges from 1 to 5, where 1 is the ideal value.

According to the following equation, the reverse saturation current is Id fluctuates with temperature (Singh, 2013):

Id=Ic[TTc]3expqEgKA1Tc-1T (2)

Where Tc is the cell’s temperature of reference, the reverse saturation current at Tc is Ic, and the band gap energy of the semiconductor is Eg. Similarly, the photocurrent Iph is governed by the cell temperature and radiation from the sun, this can be expressed in the following equation (Singh, 2013):

Iph=Iscr KiT-TcS100#(3)Where at reference temperature and radiation Iscr is the cell short circuit current, the current temperature coefficient in a short circuit is Ki, and S is the sun radiation measured in milliwatts per square meter (mWcm2). Moreover, the power of a PV array can be estimated using the following (Singh,2013):

P=I-VP=NPIphV-NpIdVexpqVKTANs-1#(4)Setting (dPdV) = 0 yields the maximum power point voltage Vmax at the maximum power operating point (MPOP) as shown in equation 5:

expqVmaxKTANsqVmaxKTANs 1=Iph IdId #(5)The photocurrent acts as a function of the PV cell output voltage and is influenced by the load current concerning the levels of solar irradiation during operating conditions, this can be expressed in the following equation:

V=AKTqlnIph Id-IId-RsI (6)

The PV array’s I-V characteristics can be simulated by varying the solar radiation S and cell temperature T in equations 1 to 5. A PV panel ideally would usually operate at a voltage that maximizes the power output. This operation has been made possible through the usage of a maximum power point tracker (MPPT). Kuo et al. (2001) elaborate on the development of a novel MPPT controller for PV energy conversion systems. Additionally, Hua et al. (1998), presented a simple way of tracking these maximum power points where the systems are forced to operate near these points. The large and small signal models as well as the transfer function, are obtained through the energy conversion concept; the authors have validated the simulation results. In the absence of an MPPT, the PV panel runs at a position on the cell I-V curve that also corresponds to the load’s I-V characteristic. Five independent pieces of data are required to evaluate the variables in the previous equations. These variables are known to be the functions of the solar energy impinging on the cell and its temperature. For a given set of operating and field conditions, reference values of these variables are determined. The short circuit current, the open circuit voltage, and the voltage and current at maximum power point are three current voltage pairs that are typically available from the manufacturer’s standard rating conditions (SRC). The derivative of the power at the maximum power point can be set to zero to yield a fourth piece of data (Soto, 2006):

dIVdV=Imp-VmpdIdV=0 #(7)Where, dIdV is:

dIdV=-IdAeVmp ImpRsA-1Rsh1 IdRsAeVmp ImpRsA RsRsh #(8)Additionally, the open circuit voltage temperature coefficient is as follows:

μVoc=dIdV=Voc,ref-Voc, TTc-T#(9)It is required to know Voc, T which is the open circuit voltage near the reference temperature at some cell temperature, to evaluate μVoc numerically. For this purpose, the cell temperature is not of significance because T values between 1 and 10 K higher or lower than Tc produce essentially the same outcome (Soto, 2006).

Nguyen and Lehman (2006) focused on studying the influence of non-uniform changing shadows caused by passing clouds. They have suggested a modeling and computing approach (algorithm) to simulate that scenario and see its effects on the power output of a PV array. They found that the model they have developed can predict the power losses in individual solar cells, detect hotspots in shaded PV modules, and the power output. Their model is also capable of simulating solar PV arrays in a variety of topologies, including or excluding bypass diodes which function as a hotspot eliminator. Using the circuit equations of PV cells and effects of temperature variations and solar irradiation as a basis, Atlas and Ashraf (2007) designed a PV array simulation model to be utilized in MATLAB Simulink GUI environment. Gonzalez (2005) was interested in examining the behavior of PV cells at different temperatures and irradiance levels. He developed a circuit-based simulation and compared his results to that of the manufacturer’s published curve. Chowdhury et al. (2008) published a MATLAB Simulink model of a polycrystalline PV array with a DC voltage source. They discussed the model’s performance under different loads and weather circumstances, as well as how they used it to build a load-shedding strategy for a standalone PV system. The authors have also stated that the laboratory-based cell characterization work can be used to construct simpler low-burden mathematical models for numerous types of PV arrays. This will be extremely useful when simulating and studying distributed power systems and microgrids in the future. Chang et al. (2010) introduced a performance monitoring system of a model-based PV in LabVIEW with an online diagnosis capability. The data obtained was compared to estimated values derived from a single-diode practical PV system. Jiang et al. (2010) developed a better MATLAB Simulink simulation model for PV cells. The results of this newly developed model have been compared to that of current models. Additionally, the authors have also proved the model’s capacity to precisely simulate the I-V characteristics of an actual PV module. This newly suggested model can be used to build and simulate solar PV systems with various MPPT control approaches and power circuit topologies.

There have been some notable conclusions and trends based on the several studies mentioned previously on PV system modeling and analysis:

• The accuracy of the PV cell mathematical model and analysis can be enhanced by integrating diode saturation current, temperature dependency of photocurrent, and series and shunt resistance
• The model and analysis can be made more accurate by adding two parallel diodes with different saturation currents or by making the diode quality factor a configurable parameter
• The relationship between the photocurrent and temperature is linear
• In cases of high daily irradiation variability, energy output vs irradiation might help compare different modules
• The maximum power falls as the diode quality factor increases
• With an increase in atmospheric height, the direct normal irradiance’s absolute value rises
• As the temperature of the cell rises, the open circuit voltage decreases linearly, resulting in a loss in cell efficiency
• The value of series resistance should be kept as low as possible to extract the maximum power from the solar cell
• With increasing the environmental irradiation, the open circuit voltage rises logarithmically
• The power output of solar cells is determined by the irradiance distribution and temperature

How Science Has Contributed To The Film And Television Industry And Its Impact On Society

INTRODUCTION

For decades’ people have been influenced by the entertainment industry. Movies and television has shaped millions of lives across the world. The entertainment industry is worth nearly $2 trillion. This figure demonstrates the influence of the industry. Computer science applies to almost all forms of the entertainment industry. You may not realize that the movies and television shows you watch are substantially reliant on science.

In my project I have researched, the scientific aspects of film production, computer science in the movie and television industry and its impact on society.

Main research

This application of computer science in film has many purposes, creating fight scenes, explosions, even people. The computer-generated special effects bring alive films such as Pirates of the Caribbean and Star Wars. Ron Fedkiw, an associate professor of computer science uses computation to make solids and fluids more realistic in films. Physically based simulation has become popular in the special effects industry. These technological tools can be used for sinking a ship in movies.

Fedkiw created special effects incomparable in their realism. He designs new algorithms that can rotate objects, create textures, create reflections or mimic collisions. Here, I used an article from the official Stanford news journal written by Dawn Levy A science writer for Stanford University. Levy graduated from Columbia University and has a degree in biology from UCLA and worked in the biotech industry. The article is also courtesy of Ron Fedkiw a professor in the Stanford University department of computer science and a researcher in computer graphics. (see reference A)

In summary, computer generated imagery uses computers to place creatures, backgrounds and more into movies. CGI ( Computer Generated Imagery) has even been used in multiple occasions to insert actors in film ,posthumous. examples of these actors are Audrey Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe, and Paul Walker who were artificially added to advertisements and films through CGI.

More uses of science in film

The soundtrack of a movie is significant in its story line and reception, creating suspense, energy and tension during key points. The music in films is often, played in a studio by musicians. It’s then recorded by computers so it can be modified using computer programming. This way the music fits the scene properly.

Every film requires a screenplay; it is the basis of every film. Screenwriters use many different computer programs that can format text into a screenplay.

Before computers, editors would spend hours looking through frames of film and cutting the film to edit it. Now editors use a computer to go through a movie frame by frame and can cut very precisely. Computer science has enhanced the quality of movies drastically.

I used reference B to find out about the additional uses of science in the film industry. The author Brock Cooper attended Illinois Wesleyan University. He was a reporter for seven years before working in marketing and media relations.

Positives and negatives of science in film

Many believe technology’s greatest impact is new cameras that allow cinematographers to record in higher definition, letting viewers take in more of the amazing work in set design. Technology enabling movies that were not possible before.

Digital film means avoiding the huge cost of older film. It means production companies complete their movie keeping the entire project closer to budget. Using science in film is positive because in the end the film looks cleaner, the audience usually can’t tell when CGI has been used, and it’s a powerful tool filmmakers use to set atmosphere.

Science has also contributed to the preservation of film. Film will crumble and damage over time, Digital archives make it easy to backup and restore film. Without technology, it would be almost impossible for the industry to make the amount of films it does. The practicalities of digital film have largely improved the film industry. Resulting in the film industry being largely reliant on science and technology.

Negatively ,Its been found that people that frequently watch television were more likely to lack confidence in the scientific community, believing science is dangerous and that a career in science is undesirable.

Many people also find the excessive use of CGI in film takes away from overall quality, believing CGI defies the laws of physics and some go as far as believing It has gone from helping filmmakers to invading cinema with its implausible imagery.

I used reference C for the positives, this article is written by film director Charles Matthau. However, the Article is partner content so I reevaluated using much information form this source. I used reference D for the negatives this article has many people in agreement in the responses. it is personally biased but since I noted that it was people’s opinions it is a valid source.

Conclusion

Science and film has been intertwined from the beginning of cinema. The concept of Cinema emerged when scientists were looking for technological methods of studying animal movement. Many of the biggest and most financially successful films have science at their core including Spider-Man and Avatar. A Significant number of popular television shows are also immersed in science and technology including CSI, House and The Big Bang Theory.

Entertainment attributes largely to the public’s attitude and understanding of science as well as employing thousands of scientists. According to Alan Irwin the public develops their understanding of science from their everyday lives and experiences. Popular films have influenced people’s lives by shaping and reinforcing their ideas of science. Multiple high profile scientific organizations have embraced movies and television as ‘legitimate vehicles’ for science communication. Science in cinema includes the methods of science, the social interactions among scientists, laboratory equipment, science education, as well as science policy and science communication. Science in film has had a massive societal effect. Changing the public’s perception of science for us to understand its value,to enhance storytelling and educate us about humanity and the challenges we face in a 21st century society.

Essay on Nikola Tesla Car

The United States of America And Tesla. I’ll be explaining the positions that the country is in at this time. also, Tesla’s origin and how they relate to a more evolved America in one of the greatest countries in the world. Companies that reside Within the United States are exceptional pieces of artwork that people have dreamed of before they have made into reality. the companies that are changing the world and making a new way from where we are living today. All these companies Tesla has shown what it takes for us to move forward into the next generation of energy-efficient vehicles.

The United States of America is one of the greatest countries to live in, this country claims freedom and Liberty for all, Founded on July 4th, 1776 by the thirteen colonies land to be known from there on as the United States of America, a people have been through so much through depression, war, and many tragedies. It is in our nature to have struggles and need to have accomplishments we are a very intelligent species trying to find the way while some of us have our way. Like Tesla, we have to think of the Macro side and judge why we are creating a company and why we are choosing where that company is created.

Country report the United States May 2019, advisors trying to check the policies of President Donald Trump’s agenda Trump prioritizes policies that do not need congressional authorization. President Donald Trump is also under investigation and runs the risk of getting impeached. The Economist Intelligence Unit shows a GDP Growth in 2018 was 2.9% however in 2019 the growth seems like it was stabilizing at 2.2%. The growth is expected to slow by 2022 by one point 1.7%. The GDP shows how the economy is performing and expanding in 2018 the real GDP growth was up to 2.9% it is estimated that in 2023 the GDP growth will be down to 1.7. Unemployment rates in 2018 were 3.9% it is also estimated that in 2023 the unemployment rate will be up to 4.8%. The economic growth is slowing down, and tax reductions and public splurging are going to bring weaker revenue growth for many businesses in the future, The exchange rate in 2018 was 1.18% by 2023 it is projected to be 1.24%. There are many incentives in government programs federal and state to help businesses succeed in the United States.

Household consumptions from 2017 show that the US is In the lead with $13,000 every month compared to China at $4200 a month and Japan at $2200 a month Germany is at $2000 a month and the UK is at $1900 a month This is the outgoing money for bills, debt and other. The population by age 2017 0-14 60 million, 15-29 68 million 30-49 81 million 50-69 79 million 70-85 28 million 86+ 7 million. These are the target markets for companies to go after and find a bigger consumer. Labor market wages are expected to drop to 1.9% in 2020 and will not return to the highest percentage of 3.0 in 2019 by 2023 we will arrive at 2.2% wages.

high-risk situations that are likely to happen in 2019-2020 are recessions, government shutdowns, Leadership handicaps on policymaking, and civil war breakouts. That is why companies like Tesla have to make a better way for the American people to spend their money and not drain the bank they offer extremely affordable cars for what they are capable of doing. This new generation of car designers is paving the way for a new company and they know the age to take place here in America.

Tesla Motor Corporation was founded in 2003 by two men named, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning in San Carlos, California, and was named after Nikola Tesla who was a Serbian scientist. One hundred years ago, he directed the way to robots, radio, remote control, and wireless transmission of messages and pictures Tesla visualized harnessing the wind and the sun to bring free energy to everybody. Nicholas Tesla had Obsessions and phobias about his ideas which he was widely known and admired.

This new-age Electric revolutionary company is the leading Electric car manufacturer in the United States, Tesla has many facilities and factories all over the United States to help build a better way for the automotive industry, now that we’re coming out of the oil and gas age and seeing what it does to our planet and everything around us, electric is the new way of the future. for a better more successful prosperous world. The great inventors of our time are dedicated to making our world better many smart and interesting people Wish to benefit from free electricity throughout the world we have many continents where people do not live with electricity. Nikola Tesla who is the main idea behind Tesla Motor Corporation his values And his charisma are the leading edge of y Telsa acts and does what it needs to, which shows the Electric benefits of the modern age today.

I would love to get my own opinion about electricity, Nikola Tesla was a great inventor of his time he showed many people from mini lands what could be accomplished through his work, but there was one thing standing in his way the greed of the oil and gas industry they knew that people weren’t ready for this so they discredited Nikola tesla’s inventions and told the population that he was a crock, because of greed and the value of selling gasoline To the public would make them very rich men and this was threatening because Nikola tesla’s inventions were all free there was no way for anyone to make a lot of money off of his inventions, I thought I would give my thoughts to explain why this is so credible.

Tesla, Inc. (Formerly Tesla Motors, Inc.) Has a hierarchical structure that supports nonstop business development. An organization, authoritative or corporate structure is the plan a framework that Characterizes the examples of communications among the organization segments. Tesla has been battling to get into control over mounting misfortunes, with CEO Elon Musk squeezing hard to quicken the creation of its new Model 3 battery car yet at what cost? workers are charging electric vehicle producers during genuine quality issues at its Fremont, CA gathering plant. As Musk predicted a year ago the Model 3 has made fabricating Hellfire since it was authoritatively placed into the generation in July 2016. while Musk initially Valid to fabricate 20,000 of the smaller battery autos a year ago over, generation was running at only a small amount of that. the objective presently is to arrive at a yield of 25,000 vehicles every month before the finish of this quarter and 5000 before the finish of June. One current Tesla engineer evaluated that “40% of the parts made or got at its Fremont processing plant require to adjust,” CNBC detailed Wednesday. now and again, parts should be sent retreat from the plant for revamping. In different cases, it shows Vehicles are being pulled off the line for fixes before being transported for purchases. Tesla offers mini versions of its cars ranging from the Model S, 3, X, and Y, which happens to spell sexy, also its new cyber truck a roadster coming to the market soon. Also, Tesla is going even further and has created energy cells for the roof of your house. Tesla showed up back in 2003 just a little bit before the electric boom when people were finding out that electricity was a reliable source of energy, Tesla was smart enough to witness and act upon this and take advantage of a better more reliable way to travel for everyday life. that was not reliable on the government but was reliable on the people to innovate and drive the company and software to the new age of the electric world.