Category: Intersectionality

When not talking about the borders of a page, margins can be described as areas of limitation and oppression. Areas where there is a sense of inferiority; margins can be seen as a place that is set apart from the norm. Margins are an incorporeal idea but have been seen all over the world throughout history. When looking at margins through a perspective of migrations and spaces, one can understand how people from the margins of a society get to experience a life outside of it; even if it is only for a short period of time. Another view could be how people can experience oppression, which can sometimes put them in multiple margins that can even cross over. This idea is called intersectionality. Lastly, one can notice how margins can be seen as a sight of rebellion and resistance. These ideas can be seen in texts written by Bell Hooks, Kimberle Crenshaw, and Toni Cade Bambara.

‘The Lesson’ by Toni Cade Bambara is about a young girl named Sylvia who is exposed to another part of the city in which she lives, and how her point of view of life is changed as a result. Miss Moore, a college educated African-American women, moves into Sylvia’s neighborhood and takes responsibility “for the young ones’ education” (Bambara, 1). She takes a group of children including Sylvia and her friend Sugar to a toy store located in the city. On the way there, Miss Moore talks about money, how much things cost, how much parents are making, and about the overall economic inequality that occurs in the country. Once they arrive to the store and get off the taxi, Sylvia notices a lady wearing a fur coat during the hot summer day and says, “white folks crazy” (Bambara, 2), showing her reaction to seeing different people and her view of different people. Outside the toy store the children peek through the windows to see toys and other items along with their prices which are greatly higher than what they would have ever expected. One of the sailboats costed $1,195 and shocked all the kids, including Sylvia herself, who is shown to be someone who isn’t easily surprised. Miss Moore then tells the kids that they should go inside, but the children seemed reluctant; even Sylvia, who, with her extremely confident and arrogant personality, was feeling “funny and shame” (Bambara, 3). Upon returning home, Miss Moore tells the children to imagine “what kind of society it is in which some people can spend on a toy what it would cost to feed a family of six or seven” (Bambara, 4). Sugar replies by saying that “this ain’t much of a democracy…equal chance to pursue happiness means equal crack at the dough, don’t it?” (Bambara, 4). These two quotes help summarize the text’s argument towards race, inequality, class, and education. The text shows how two areas of a city, that are a short cab ride distance apart, are shown to be two different worlds, in which the people of each ‘world’ don’t go to the other. The children had never gone to this area and everything was so different as were the people. Also, it is shown how there is such a big economic gap between the two areas as the price of a toy in one area is the same as ones rent in the other area. This was shown to be such a surprise to Sylvia on the subway ride home. Also, the theme of race is also implemented in the text, as the poorer area was implied to contain primarily African-Americans, while the richer area was implied to primarily contain Caucasians. This is shown from the fact that the group of children were African-American, and when the group arrived to the richer area, Sylvia saw a white lady and stated how white folks are crazy. Lastly, education is also an important theme that is implemented in the text’s argument, as Miss Moore’s education gave her the ability to recognize this margin between the two areas, and can then educate others about this difference.

In her preface to the first edition of ‘Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center’, Bell Hooks states that “to be in the margins is to be a part of the whole, but outside the main body”. This basically means how the ‘main’ part of society is the part that is considered the norm. This is something that is accepted and is in a sense in a superior state. Anything outside that is then placed in the margins. Continuing with her preface, Hooks talks about a small Kentucky town where black Americans lived on one side of a certain set of railroad tracks. On the other side was a whole other world in which they were only allowed to go for work. They were not accepted in that world if they were not working, as that was the only reason they would go across the tracks. Hooks states that “we always had to return to the margin, to beyond the tracks, to shacks and abandoned houses on the edge of town”. This shows how the side on which the black Americans lived was a side that was poor and inferior to the other side. It goes to show a one part of town that is walking distance away from another part of town are seen as two different worlds that are completely different. There is a lot of inequality and oppression shown in the text as the black Americans were not allowed to stay if they were not working. This shows how the people that were part of the “main body” did not accept the black Americans and that they even created “laws to ensure [their] return” (Hooks). Another point to consider is how the black Americans were able to experience the other world and were able to leave the margins momentarily, but this did not happen the other way around. The people that were outside the margins never went into the margins, or across the railroad tracks to the poorer side of the town. They didn’t get to experience entering a new world, and one can assume that it is because of their sense of pride, as they would not want to go to an inferior part of town. It could also be the fact that they are unable to recognize margins, or at least the problem of margins. Lastly, Hooks goes over the fact that the black Americans were able to create a rebellious mentality. Hooks states that the fact that they were able to see the place outside of the margins and the fact that they were able to recognize their oppressors gave them sustenance and allowed them to transcend poverty and despair. This had the overall effect of strengthening their sense of self and solidarity.

In the second part of Kimberle Crenshaw’s ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color’, Crenshaw talks about intersectionality with immigrants, more specifically with women of color. On page 1252, Crenshaw talks about the political aspect of intersectionality and the failure to address issues. To summarize the beginning part, Crenshaw states how back in the day there would be organizations to fight for rights for certain people. The two main groups that she talks about are the feminist’s group and the anti-racist group. Being a woman of color during that time, one would assume that a woman of color would be able to seek refuge and aid from both of these organizations but that was not the case. Crenshaw explains how even though women of color would seek aid from these organizations to escape the margins, it ended up not failing to address their situations. The anti-racist movement was more directed toward the colored man. Their vision and goals did not include women of color as well. Also, with the feminist group, Crenshaw states how they were led by white women, and when they were fighting to equality, they were doing it for white women in the country. Therefore, being a woman of color meant that one could not seek aid while being in the margins.

The three texts previously mentioned really show the ideas of margins and intersectionality. According to Bell Hooks, “To be in the margins is to be a part of the whole, but outside the main body”. When looking at ‘The Lesson’, it is clear to see that Sylvia and her friends are living in the margins. They live in New York City and therefore are part of the whole, but they also live in an area which is seen to be on the outside of an area which is economically and socially higher. This area is therefore seen to be as the ‘main body’. The idea of intersectionality comes in when the group of children that are from a margin that is economically disadvantaged and primarily contains a certain race, are exposed to an area that is the opposite. They are exposed to something they have never seen before. This was also shown in Bell Hooks’ foreword to the first edition of ‘Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center’, where black Americans in a small Kentucky town would live on one side of a set of rail-road tracks. On the other side was an area in which they worked. This was an area in which there was another world, a world where these black-Americans were allowed to work and do nothing else. This was an area that was also economically and socially superior to the side in which the black Americans lived. This idea of intersectionality and exposure can be seen to give light to the idea of seeing margins as a sight of resistance and resilience. In ‘The Lesson’, after seeing the toy store, Sylvia is seen to be angry and ashamed. It bothered her that there was this other world in which things were so expensive, and how the social classes were playing such a big role. In Bell Hooks’ foreword, the black Americans used knowledge of having a different view of life to “strengthen [their] sense of self and [their] solidarity”. Lastly, it was shown in Crenshaw’s text how intersectionality played a negative role politically in women of color’s lives as they could not seek aid. This is a problem that has happened throughout history and occurs even today. Many people live in the margins and try to escape it, but are unable to because people that are on the outside of the margins fails to help or even recognize people in the margins. Recognizing these situations is very important as the problems of having such margins still exist today, and looking at these examples, people should take into consideration ways to get rid of such margins, as they create imbalances in a world in which there is only one race of humans, and not certain groups or classes.

Race is defined as a group or section of people in society with similar social or physical qualities, which society uses to classify them as distinct. On the other hand, class refers to a group or section of people in society with the same economic status and occupies a similar position in the socioeconomic system of production(Thomas & Hughes, 1986). In recent times, race has been more important than class in determining one’s life chances since social stratification is based on race, in most cases (Thomas & Hughes, 1986). The extent to which individuals within a certain category of stratification can access such resources and services as education, healthcare, clothing, employment, and shelter is dependent on race. According to Thomas and Hughes (1986) resources, in turn, determine a person’s life chances in the long run. In most cases, whites are considered a superior race to people of color, which makes them considered a lower class and, hence have fewer life chances. In addition, ethnic minorities such as African Americans and Hispanics face considerable disparities in life experiences and outcomes when compared with their white counterparts (Thomas & Hughes, 1986). These disparities significantly adversely affect their life chances.

Race is more important than class in determining one’s life chances. However, in the past two decades, minority groups in the US have experienced substantial changes in their position in the socioeconomic system (Thomas & Hughes, 1986). In recent times, racial segregation has been discouraged, which has made opportunities open up for African Americans. However, although these legal changes have been instituted, African Americans remain a disadvantaged group when compared to whites in the US. Moreover, African Americans are not equal to whites in terms of such key social indicators as education, income, health, and housing (Thomas & Hughes, 1986). For this reason, an African American is more likely to be: in poverty, have a higher mortality rate, be unemployed, be less educated, and live in substandard housing than a white. Thus, the race of an African American adversely affects his or her life chances. According to Thomas and Hughes (1986), there is little upward mobility in African Americans, which has created a black underclass. This phenomenon is a result of the factors mainly associated with the lower-class status of African Americans. Furthermore, less than 65% of people from ethnic minorities, consisting of African Americans, are in formal employment but whites, over 75% are employed (Thomas & Hughes, 1986). Therefore, race is an important factor that determines one’s life chances.

Intersectionality and the Criminal Justice System

Intersectionality refers to the interconnected way in which the various forms of discrimination intersect or combine to determine the experiences of minority groups, such as people of color. These forms of discrimination may be based on racism, sexism, or classism in which groups of people with a common identity, for instance: race, religion, gender, sexuality, intergroup their differences that exist within those groups (Paik, 2017). For this reason, intersectional identities are responsible for the disparities each experience’s within the social structures. Further, these intergroup differences within social structures are based on the intersectionality of overlapping oppressions. Therefore, people in the same social group may not experience the same form of marginalization because of these sweeping generalizations regarding a certain social structure (Paik, 2017). Regrettably, the presence of other marginalized identities within the group institutions tends to be ignored by social movements, which focus more on the whole group with a commonly shared identity.

There are complex social hierarchies, that can only be viewed through the lens of intersectionality. Intersectionality is a useful concept in understanding the relationship between minority groups and the criminal justice system. According to Paik (2017), the differences in case processing, offending, victimization, and case outcomes are a result of such factors as race, gender, and class. These factors significantly influence the criminal justice system when dealing with these groups of people. For instance, minority groups, such as African Americans, experience disparities in various phases of the judicial process, such as arrest and sentencing (Paik, 2017). For this reason, intersectionality helps to explain the relationship between these minority groups and the criminal justice system. The concept of intersectionality is applied problematically in the criminal justice system, yet it acknowledges the subjective nature of identity. The criminal justice system exhibits the social exclusion of these minority groups in numerous ways. Moreover, racial disparities in minority groups have been deepened by high incarceration rates, which have made these groups more disadvantaged in the hands of the criminal justice system (Paik, 2017). Nonetheless, intersectionality is a useful concept for understanding the relationships between minority groups and the criminal justice system.

Quantitative Research Methodology and Critical Race Theory

Scholars are seen to prefer a quantitative research methodology when studying an individual’s experience due to the reason that such methodology involves the collection of data regarding a large number of individuals from a population. This data is analyzed and provides an overview of the intended target of information such as the rate of crime on African Americans. One’s experience is a collection of events that are gathered by the individual and seen to improve their knowledge and skill thus, influencing future events in their lives. The Critical Race Theory (CRT) displays racial inequalities which is seen to be developed throughout society such as in politics and is intended to diminish and harm the minority race and community. A case that makes CRT useful is the college admission scandal depicted throughout the media today. Such scandal allows white students to feel privileged due to the money and fame provided to them. While students of the minority race may have the same or even more advanced qualifications, such socially driven acceptance of money buying people’s way through life has presented that whites are more likely to get accepted into a good school versus someone from the minority race thus displaying racial inequalities driven by society.

References

1. Paik, L. (2017). Critical Perspectives on Intersectionality and Criminology: Introduction.
2. Theoretical Criminology, 21(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480616677495
3. Thomas, M. E., & Hughes, M. (1986). The Continuing Significance of Race: A Study of Race,
4. Class, and Quality of Life in America, 1972-1985. American Sociological Review, 51(6), 830. doi: 10.2307/2095370. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=shib&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.2095370&site=eds-live&scope=site

People experience identity and struggle with the concept of identity in many different ways. The intersectionality theory is tied to the concept of identity but before delving into it, it’s important to define the theory of intersectionality as well as understand the argument that it presents.

The theory of intersectionality was coined by a social activist and feminist named Kimberle Crenshaw in a 1989 paper dealing with race and sex (Marecek, 2016). Before the coining of the term ‘intersectionality’ though, a feminist movement in the United States during the nineteenth century saw African American female writers speak about how the mainstream white, middle-class feminist movement did not mirror their experiences and challenged the concept that all women come into contact with discrimination in an identical way (Gouws, 2017). It was not only used in the writings of African-American women but it was also used as a means for justice for economic and gender issues (Symington, 2004).

Intersectionality can be understood and defined as a theory that demonstrates how multiple identities for instance race, class, gender, and sexuality, to name a few, are interconnected and cannot exist on their own thus creating a converging system of oppression (Gouws, 2017). Samuels and Ross-Sheriff (2008, p. 8) put it beautifully by saying, “Theories of intersectionality challenge us all to see beyond an over-simplistic and monolithic sisterhood.”

Now that the concept of intersectionality has been explained it’s important to look at it from the South African perspective as well as how I feel towards my identity and how I make sense of this theory.

With South Africa having one of the highest occurrences of rape and gender-based violence in the world, many campaigns/protests have taken place over the years (Naidoo, 2013). Protests such as #EndRapeCulture and the #MeToo movement made race, sexuality, and gender the focal point and how fluid and active the relations amongst these three concepts are (Gouws, 2017). The #EndRapeCulture saw women, especially African women, displaying their naked bodies in protest of gender-based violence and rape (Gouws, 2017). It is also important to note that African women undressing in protest is not something “that is taken lightly” as throughout history it has drawn “on women’s anger at being voiceless” (Gouws, 2017, p. 24). I believe that these movements did indeed give women a voice to express their anger and to highlight the fact that when rape occurs not only is it a violation of the body but it causes a diminishing sense of identity.

Samuels and Ross-Sheriff (2008, p. 6) explain the theory of intersectionality by saying that it “calls on us to consider women as whole beings; to recognize that not all women experience their womanhood in the same ways; many women face multiple forms of oppression, and not all women are rendered powerless”, which is paramount because my own experience with being a white, upper-middle-class woman is very different to that of a woman of color although we are both vulnerable to toxic masculinity and violence. Women of color, although this is changing slowly, will always be seen as less than me and I will always be seen as less than a man. My experiences and the experiences of a woman of color are therefore very different even though we both experience the feeling of being less than others.

Most women feel unsafe walking alone on the side of the road but I, a white, upper-middle-class woman, have the luxury of having a car and a safe place to call home whereas many other women do not have that privilege. I believe that although we women are essentially fighting for a common goal, we share very different experiences.

I would like to end off on something that Samuels and Ross-Sheriff (2008) touched on in their ‘Identity, Oppression, and Power’ paper whereby they speak about the fact that there are women who work for other women, who care for other women babies, woman who oppress other woman thus creating very different and unique experiences of being a woman. Claiming that there is only one experience for all women is not honoring or acknowledging the realities of this woman. Samuels and Ross-Sheriff (2008, p. 9) suggest that we “attend with the greatest care to the lenses through which we view the complexity of the lived experiences of those we would call sister and of all we would embrace within the family of humanity.”

References

1. Gouws, A. (2017). Feminist intersectionality and the matrix of domination in South Africa, Agenda, 31:1, 19-27
2. Marecek, J. (2016). Invited Reflection. Psychology Of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 177-181. doi: 10.1177/0361684316641090
3. Naidoo, K. (2013). Rape in South Africa-a call to action. SAMJ: South African Medical Journal, 103(4), 210-211.
4. Samuels, G. M., & Ross-Sheriff, F. (2008). Identity, Oppression, and Power. Affilia, 23(1), 5–9. doi: 10.1177/0886109907310475
5. Symington, A. (2004, August). Women’s rights and economic change: Intersectionality: A tool for gender and economic justice (No. 9). Retrieved from http://www.awid.org/publications/primers/intersectionality_en.pdf.

Humans have been plagued by privilege and oppression throughout history. People have been oppressed by a multitude of factors: sexuality, gender, ethnicity, class, etc. These same elements are responsible for how people experience privilege. While some people are more privileged or more oppressed than others, that does not necessarily mean that someone only has privilege or oppression. Privilege and oppression coexist within one person’s identity. Today, we call this intersectionality.

Privilege can be thought of as an advantage available only to a particular person or group. Often, privilege is invisible to those who have it. We see privilege occurring every day. People’s identities shape their lives. If people are born with different privileges, they can also be discriminated against for the ones they are not.

Oppression is the state of being subject to unjust treatment or control. People are subjected to this maltreatment for no reason other than being different. Oppression has a real and disabling impact on our lives. It affects how we interact with others, our job performance, and how we learn. Oppression affects how society functions as a whole.

The coexistence of privilege of oppression is called intersectionality. Defined as the overlap of various social identities, intersectionality contributes to the systemic oppression and discrimination experienced by an individual. Just because a person has a type of privilege, this does not mean they are only privileged. Individually, our experiences with social structure differ slightly because of the intersection of our identities. For example, a heterosexual, caucasian man may have sexual privilege, race privilege, and gender privilege. However, if he is not Christian or able-bodied, then the man may be oppressed for not being Christian or able-bodied. This is where the concept of intersectionality comes into play.

Intersectionality is the joint privilege and oppression experienced by an individual. However, when privilege and oppression are experienced as a group, the concept of social stratification is implemented. In simpler terms, intersectionality is when multiple factors are used for the discrimination against a person while social stratification is when a certain group is given preference over others. Social stratification is society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic classes based on their occupation, income, wealth, social status, and power (social and political). It is the social position of people within a group. In our society, we typically think of social stratification as three separate social classes: upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each class can be divided into smaller, subclasses (ex. upper-middle class). In addition, social classes can be based on kinship or caste.

In Matthew Desmond’s work, readers explore various stories of people’s lives when facing eviction (Desmond). Desmond’s narrative allows readers to get the full story of each person’s circumstances. Throughout the study, it is implied that the people whose stories the readers are following are in the lower socioeconomic class. Because of their status, the evictees are oppressed by authority figures. Many of the families are oppressed in more ways than one. The study reflects people of various ethnicities, genders, and religions (Desmond). Ultimately, the evictees’ social class is the root of their oppression.

Philippe Bourgois’ fieldwork focuses on the second-generation Puerto Rican community living in El Barrio at the height of the “crack economy” boom in the late 1980s (Bourgois). His study on the impoverished community located in East Harlem, New York, features the intersectional issues of gender, class, race, immigration, nationality, etc. His work also demonstrates the brutal cycle of cultural and political oppression, an inescapable pattern that deprives the community of any opportunities for better lives. The people Bourgois befriends in El Barrio are not only oppressed by society, but by their community. Facing oppression from outside El Barrio, their secluded neighborhood grows its types of privilege to combat the outside pressures (Bourgois).

Social stratification is a group’s experience with privilege and oppression. In Salvador, Bahia, in northeast Brazil, residents are experiencing race-based mass evictions and forced displacement due to an urban revitalization (Perry). At the forefront of the battle, anthropologist Keisha-Khan Perry introduces readers to a female-led grassroots movement fighting for their town as well as their right to be leaders. The protagonists of Perry’s work are poor, black women. These women are already facing oppression in their everyday lives. Perry goes on to highlight how these black women in poor urban neighborhoods in Salvador have made social and political spaces for themselves while also developing a greater notion of cultural belonging and citizenship rights (Perry 128).

Privilege and oppression have been prevalent in human history for thousands of years. An individual can be privileged and oppressed by sexuality, gender, race, class, etc. With that said, where privilege and oppression collide within a person’s identity is called intersectionality. Anthropologists’ definition of intersectionality as the overlap of privileges and oppressions only applies to individual experiences. When the intersection of privilege and oppression affects a group, this is known as social stratification. While everyone is uniquely affected by privilege and oppression, how we live and are perceived is affected by more than just our identities, but rather where our identities fit within social stratification, too.

Canada is considered a multicultural and pluralistic country. It has become home for many immigrants seeking a quality of life amid social and political instability in their homeland. Every individual brings in different transition experience that gives insight into a diverse cultural and societal norm. To better comprehend these experiences, an intersectional approach is needed to accept the differences between the varied cultures. The intersectional paradigm gives heed to the social, historical, and political context, and distinguishes the unique experience of an individual based on the intersection of all applicable grounds. It considers the interaction between multiple and complex social identities such as gender, race, class, religion, language, education, immigration, or geography status by providing accurate and useful information to make a change and ensure the efforts do not cause any damage to individuals or communities. In the article, ‘Leaving the Philippines: Oral Histories of Nurses Transition to Canadian Nursing Practice’ Ronquillo (2012) examines the transition experience of Filipino immigrant nurses and studies how the cultural, societal, and historical influences play a significant role in deciding on migration. Besides, the case of Gloria Baylis as discussed by Flynn (2018) highlights various complex identity markers shaping and defining the lives of black women within societies. This paper intends to examine the struggles of immigrant nurses in Canada with the concept of intersectionality. It aims to address the importance of the intersectional approach in healthcare and demonstrate its applicability to promote shared partnerships and tactical alliances to work on issues of social injustices, isolation, inequalities, and marginalization.

With the increasing demand for nurses, the mass immigration of nurses from the global south to the north is expected to rise in Canada (Ronquillo, 2012). Nevertheless, the procedure to apply for RN licensure in Canada can be challenging and overwhelming for foreign-trained nurses. Also, at times these nurses, if not meet the required nursing competencies, have to go back to school to acquire additional educational courses despite years of working experience. Ronquillo (2012) discussed the nurse immigration history in Canada has been influenced by race, identity, and gender. Unfolding the migration of black nurses in the time of post-World War II, the Canadian government placed stringent immigration policies and ensured only those nurses with “cases of exceptional merit” (p. 100) were permitted to proceed. It is also important to note that not all members in a group share similar experiences rather these lived experiences may differ based on cultural, location, ethnic, income, health, education, age, or political differences.

According to Ronquillo (2012), 31% of Canadian nurses are from the Philippines. They graduated from an international nursing program and migrated for a better opportunity. To understand the transition of Filipino nurses, it is crucial to be aware of its roots. Nursing as a professional career for Filipinos can be traced back to the 1940s with U.S. efforts to encourage Filipino nurses’ migration as a step towards educational and professional advancement. The training for these nurses included context-based following the Westernized model of medical knowledge with the English language component (Ronquillo, 2012). Regardless of the extensive training and education to ease the transition of immigrating nurses, four primary impediments are identified: the communication challenge, marginalization, cultural differences, and variant nursing practice (Ronquillo, 2012).

Filipino nurses never defined their transition experience as discriminatory and identified themselves as being foreign due to the difference in education, origin, and race (Ronquillo, 2012). Their competencies were challenged and questioned on multiple occasions, regardless of extensive training and practice. One of the experiences of a nurse who stated that “we are hard-working Filipino nurses” (p.106) shows an effort to prove they are equally competent as their Canadian colleagues (Ronquillo, 2012). The main goal of these nurses was to establish and shape their identity by working efficiently and adapting to the nursing culture. The case of Gloria Baylis who was denied work based on race and gender is one such example. She was determined to reveal the discrimination that took place at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel. It highlights the lived realities of African women living under social exclusion and continuous denial of gendered racism. The above two examples highlight that being born in a specific race determines one’s education level, country of origin, religion, or socio-economic status together with the everyday experiences of life that can be stigmatizing. For instance, someone born into a rich family has the privilege of better opportunities and growth in life. There is a need to comprehend that all people in society at large have a shared responsibility to restructure the systemic barriers causing discrimination.

The word intersectionality was coined by Kimberle Crenshaw who defines it as the ‘interplay of multiple identities, such as race and gender about power and subordination’ (Flynn, 2018, p. 281). It can be used as a framework to explore the power dynamics of social institutions and organizational structure. The significance of intersectionality among Canadian nurses cannot be underestimated. Intersectionality incorporates various structured components, such as ethnicity, race, socioeconomic, culture, and abilities, to identify how these components shape different individuals and their numerous selves. Several studies have been done to overcome and address issues of cultural diversities within the nursing system. Such methods include retraining nurses with standard practices and acquiring the necessary skills, attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors to provide ‘culturally sensitive’ care. The integration of intersectionality signifies that every individual simultaneously occupies a different position within the socio-cultural-political framework of society. It challenges the concept of culture as static and counteracts the idea of social characteristics as operating in isolation. Intersecting within the healthcare society can influence people’s expectations, capacities, quality of life, and even their decisions.

An intersectional approach allows health organizations to assess multiple personalities and contemplate how social understandings can impact individual perceptions. In addition, it can release the healthcare provider from an expert to a learner mode. The provider in learning mode feels to acquire more knowledge about the cultural differences than the feeling of maintaining power and control. It may help to respond to the differences between men and women i.e. a difference in health and disease. The incorporation of intersectional understanding in healthcare must be focused on the analysis of an individual as a whole, with importance to power and privilege disparities in associations.

According to the article by Ronquillo (2012) and the case of Gloria Baylis, the intersectional approach can guide to analysis of the diverse influences that affect the health of an individual. For example, according to Ronquillo (2012), the expectations and experience of practicing autonomy in nursing varied for those who migrated from other countries. The nurses who immigrated to Canada felt a need to adjust to new expectations from their environment with additional decision-making obligations (Ronquillo 2012). Some of these changes were welcomed such as freely highlighting the concerns about their patients to the physician, while others were challenging during the transition period. In one of these cases, the nurses felt a sense of isolation and depression due to feeling foreign and constantly had to prove themselves to meet the expectations (Ronquillo 2012). Similarly, Gloria Baylis had in some way undergone psychological trauma as a result of structural inequalities despite having the discrimination act. The intersectionality approach in this matter can direct the nurses to identify social injustice in everyday practice. The perspective of a person nurses hold in their practice setting can either make them contribute to socially just behaviors or create social injustice.

It is an undeniable fact that over the past few years, Canada has become more tolerant and diverse as a country on the whole. The value of multicultural societies adopted by the government of Canada revolves around immigrants. The nurses being interviewed accepted that, regardless of the discriminatory behavior, they were accepted as fellow RNs and played a significant role in shaping Canadian Nursing Practice. As highlighted in the article, racial, societal, cultural, and historical differences play a significant role in an immigrant`s decision, this concept can be generalized to all immigrating nurses, doctors, or other allied professionals. The intersectional approach can help overcome these barriers and aid overseas nurses in making sound decisions toward their progress. The integration of the intersectionality approach proposes a framework that relates to social injustice and health disparities. Healthcare organizations should focus on the interaction between race, gender, and other categories of differences in individual lives.

To understand the situation of these nurses, the intersectional approach can be utilized. One concept is about oppression and privilege. A newcomer in a given community may experience oppression based on social and historical category, for example, ethnicity, however, may experience privilege based on others, such as gender orientation. It is crucial to discriminate against an individual social category but only to identify an individual and not to assume that all members of the group will share the same perspective. Amidst the oppression and discrimination, it is important to understand how an individual newcomer’s experience is impacted by multiple aspects of their personality. The intersectional approach can help overcome these barriers and aid overseas nurses in making sound decisions toward their progress. Moreover, with the growing demands in the healthcare field, much attention is needed to render culturally competent and evidence-based practice. Intersectional analysis is required to comprehend and integrate these aspects into varied differences and the framework of power and oppression. Moreover, Intersectionality gives voice to those who are directly impacted or excluded from conventional communication. Influenced communities make the most influential leaders and play a crucial role in the movement for social justice. Valuing a voice means allowing those who are affected to change and develop policies through their experiences. It endeavors to cooperate with people from diverse communities or sectors to promote any transformative variation.

The paper discusses the experiences of immigrant nurses and the incorporation of the intersectional approach to address the issues of social and health inequalities among vulnerable and marginalized populations. By utilizing the lens of intersectionality, healthcare professionals can consider varied outcomes and overcome the division between individuals and organizations when delivering quality healthcare and promoting evidence-based practice. It can offer a comprehensive solution to health inequalities through collaboration amongst the healthcare disciples.

References

1. Flynn, K. (2018). ‘Hotel Refuses Negro Nurse’: Gloria Clarke Baylis and the Queen Elizabeth Hotel. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 35(2), 278-308.
2. Ronquillo, C. (2012) Leaving the Philippines: Oral histories of nurses’ transition to Canadian nursing practice. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 44(4), 96-115. 

An inaccurate report of university sexual assault on the bases of racial bias has been created to ignore women of color given by critics of the Office of Civil Rights’ enforcement of Title IX. Keeping women out of the picture, their explanation is focused on the frequent and false accusations of men of color who are punished intensively. Women of color stand between the intersection of gender and race, which means they are prone to both, racism as well as sexism. This increases their chances of being assaulted or harassed and lowers their chances of being heard and believed. As a result, presenting intersectionality as part of the discussion of university sexual assault is extremely important. This workshop highlighted grave issues and the fight for the rights of minority groups, such as men minorities, who are disturbed by the racial bias in university discipline processes and women who look for protection from sexual violence. With a majority of women being the complainants of sexual assault on campus, condemning Title IX can act as a barrier of the hard work already put in place to protect women from these crimes. However, most Title IX responders are men, who because of racial bias, may conclude that the offender was a black male. Title IX policies have prioritized and envisioned middle-class white women, overlooking and dismissing the reality that black women are at a higher risk of being assaulted, in relation to intersectionality.

Any act on the behalf of campus leaders, towards the reformation of racial injustice occurring in college and university discipline systems can be captured within a to-the-letter compliance of Title IX. Excessive targeting of black and other disadvantaged minority groups during college and university disciplinary procedures is widespread. It is imperative for campus leaders to capture this demographic disparity in the punishment meted out by their respective disciplinary systems. The US Department of Education should use the authority accorded to it to make the collection and publishing of this data mandatory and should further establish standards across the nation to facilitate students, administrators, and faculty to compare institutional disciplinary actions. In the meantime, institutions should work internally to identify and eliminate the tendencies that rely implicit biases that result in disparity in impact of disciplinary procedures upon certain classes of students.

The provisional acceptance of my ultimate conclusion – that leaders in higher education recognize and address the issue of racial bias in campus discipline – should not distract from the issues of gender equity. These issues have been the catalyst for many recent campus reforms and have long been ignored.

Forsaking the dispute over modern enforcement of Title IX, this part shines a light on the cause of increased racial disparity, within the functioning of existing university disciplinary structures. Listed are some of the aspects of university discipline that supporters of racial equity should be most concerned about. First of these is the extremely inadequate collection of data pertaining the racial impact of disciplinary system and the subsequent obfuscation of procedures and collection of said data from public availability. Next is the implicit bias that colors the perspective of various parties involved – victims, investigators, witnesses and fact-finders. The vagueness of the definitions and the resulting broad scope contribute as well, as do the informal nature of the procedures and their non-uniform application. Student counsel is shackled in its efficacy due to narrow roles and is prohibitively expensive for many. Administrators and faculty, who otherwise may be forthcoming to voice support for racial justice, often show reticence to undermine the enforcement of Title IX. Last of all, deep-seated American attitudes towards interracial sex and race permeate into investigations of alleged sexual misconduct.

Intersectionality is the concept that in order to understand the amount of oppression one experiences in relation to others, one must first break down the amount of different disadvantage groups the individual is in. The more disadvantaged groups the individual is in, the more oppression they face. Depending on one’s race, sexual orientation, gender, and class, one may encounter far more obstacles and barriers to be successful in America than others. Within media, those who are behind the scenes tend to be of the least disadvantaged group among intersectionality- white, privileged males. Thus, the more memberships one claims in these “oppressed groups”, the less likely they are to be represented in American media.

In an overly connected generation, individuals are constantly getting the latest news updates on what is happening on both local and international levels. What tends to be forgotten, however, is the majority of news is being covered with white, heterosexual ideology in mind. Because of this, those of color and those in the LGBTQ plus community tend to be extremely underreported on- and if they are, they’re often displayed in a light that pursues a white victimization perspective.

The American commercial industry, which is also based on heteronormative, white ideologies, has recently begun to try and diversify the norms they portray in their advertisements. For example, on November 12, 2018, widely recognized corporation Macy’s came out with a Christmas ad that displayed four different families. Two of the families were both white and heteronormative- however the other two families shown were of color. One of the families showed a black, single mother with three children. The other was of a gay, black man married to a white man. While Macy claimed intent to be diversifying and representing more than the “typical norms”, they instead amplified the stereotype that those who are African American cannot achieve what is considered to be socially “normal”. Gender, race, and sexuality are often given empathy on the amount the minority groups are oppressed- however when you combine minority sexuality with a minority race, it becomes a topic few in power want to discuss. Another example of this is in an outdoor campaign called “He Said Yes”, featured in a Lloyds Bank TV ad. (Singh, 2018). In the ad, while a man is shown proposing to another, the two choose to hug after instead of kiss.

References

1. Sun, E. (2018, August 29). The Dangerous Racialization of Crime in U.S. News Media. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/criminal-justice/news/2018/08/29/455313/dangerous-racialization-crime-u-s-news-media/.
2. Singh, S. (n.d.). The ‘coming out’ of advertising: is LGBT representation in ads still falling short? Retrieved from https://www.campaignlive.com/article/coming-out-advertising-lgbt-representation-ads-falling-short/1436860.

If we look at identity politics, a lot has changed since the 1960s. While the American Left rhetoric was all about colorblindness and national unity back then, it’s now changed to a group-based rhetoric.

In current political discourse, intersectionality divides Americans along a sharp line, as it receives many criticism – not only from the conservative side. The idea of interaction effects is nothing new, as it has always been studied in the fields of statistics and psychology, even before Kimberlé Crenchaw first used her version, as a political term. As David French, American constitutional lawyer explains, the foundation of intersectionality lies on the common sense, fundamental truth that people do have personal traits that would place them in one or more minority groups. Interestingly, in intersectional theory the focus tends to primarily be on a few characteristics, such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and disregard others, like age, looks, ability etc… People, however, are at advantage and disadvantage based on all these factors (and more) and essentially, one of the more important criticisms voiced is that intersectionality oversimplifies and undermines the complexity of human experience and issues. In a review on Patricia Hill Collins and Sirma Bilge’s Intersectionality, Christian A. Gonzalez points it out that even though intersectionality aims to explain inequalities and prejudice in society, it seems to ignore non-structural roots to these issues; he says: “[…] intersectionality views inequality in simple-minded terms, invariably attributing all inequality to a conspiracy of systemic oppression. Nowhere in Intersectionality’s 200-plus pages is any mention made of the internal causes of inequality.”

Due to the absence of a clear definition, there is an apparent trend of intersectionality evolving into an ideology that people follow and act upon. Not so much as a theory, but as an ideology it receives much more attention and criticism. Helen Pluckrose states in her essay: “On the level of its ideology […] to be intersectional is to focus on many different categories of marginalized identity at once, be convinced that they are marginalized and be concerned about them all. It is not enough to be a woman or even to be a feminist. One must also subscribe to critical race theory, queer theory, trans equality, and anti-ableism discourses.” Once intersectionality turns into an ideology, it implies that true intersectionalists need to be aware of all marginalized groups, as all of them are linked in some way or another through the intertwining system of oppression. For instance, one cannot fight for social inclusion and equality for the LGBTQ+ community without including and talking about African-American or the disabled minority within the community. As intersectionality fosters inter-group unity, several combination groups are born, such as intersectional feminism, but the Black Lives Matter website also has changed its description to represent a much broader purpose than combating police brutality; “We affirm the lives of Black queer and trans folks, disabled folks, undocumented folks, folks with records, women, and all Black lives along the gender spectrum. Our network centers those who have been marginalized within Black liberation movements.”

Chloe Valdary, writer and political activist and Christian A. Gonzalez both warn about the “dangerous” claims and language employed in intersectionality discussions. Chloe in an interview with Dave Rubin says: “[…] the primary motivator behind all human interaction is power, and by that they (intersectionalists) mean power to oppress.” The core of the framework is indeed the idea of oppression. More specifically, instead of discussing disadvantage, discrimination or inequality, intersectionality addresses all these social phenomena as a form or consequence of oppression. The language used implies that in society there are oppressors and many victim groups (even though oppressors never got specifically named). It may also suggest that there’s a hierarchy among victims of oppression. Those who are part of several minority groups are facing more kinds of oppression, therefore acquiring a victim status ranking higher than those who are in fewer groups. An immediate consequence is how personal achievements are being invalidated according to this ranking.

Andrew Sullivan, conservative author takes the entire controversy one step further, with a bold comparison between intersectionality and religion. After witnessing a video on Middlebury College students protesting a lecture by Dr. Charles Murray by practiced chanting and restraining discussion, he could draw parallels between intersectionality effects and religion. Intersectionality is actually a doctrine which could explain all human experiences. “Its version of original sin is the power of some identity groups over others.” People practicing this religion first “need to check their privileges” (in the ranking mentioned above) and live and act accordingly. Furthermore, as intersectionality flows into the post-modern worldview, it is increasingly difficult to debate over it, as believers tend to reject scientific, empirical reasoning and favor whatever truth aligns with their values.

Introduction

Intersectionality refers to the way race, class, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability, status, and other markers of differences intersect to inform individual realities and lived experiences. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals and groups are shaped by multiple and intersecting identities. These identities often inform an individual’s worldview, perspective, and relationship to others in society. The interdepartmental perspective or framework encourages policymakers and social change leaders to determine how race, class, gender, race, sexual orientation, ability, and status affect public policy outcomes at the national, state, and local levels. This approach can also inform advocacy efforts aimed at increasing equity and equality in society.

Structural intersectionality

Structural intersectionality refers to the creation and operation of certain systems and structures in society that maintain privilege for some groups or individuals while restricting the rights and privileges of others. Structural intersectionality encompasses the political, economic, representational, and institutional forms of discrimination and domination. Structural intersectionality highlights the connectedness of systems and structures in society and helps us understand how each system affects or impacts others. Any particular disadvantage or disability is sometimes compounded by another disadvantage reflecting the dynamics of a separate system or structure of subordination. 

Political intersectionality

Political intersectionality refers to the structures and systems of the laws and policies that govern individuals and groups in societies. It focuses on the impact of laws, the criminal justice system, public policies, and the government in shaping the individual or group’s sense of fairness, equality, and justice in society. Political Intersectionality highlights how laws and public policies are shaped and informed by dominant cultural perspectives of race, class, gender, ethnicity, age, ability, and sexuality.

Institutional intersectionality

Institutional intersectionality focuses on the impact of institutions on the individual and the group. It highlights how institutions present in society restrict, limit, or deny access to resources for marginalized groups or individuals.

Economic intersectionality

Economic intersectionality pays attention to the distribution of wealth and resources in societies; the individual or group’s access to information; and the impact of social class on an individual or group’s access to resources, opportunities, and mobility. 

Representational intersectionality

Representational intersectionality refers to the depiction of individuals and groups in dominant culture and society through media, texts, language, and images. It pays close attention to how both the dominant and marginalized groups are represented in society. It refers to the way race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and ethnic images in society come together to create unique and specific narratives that shape and inform policies, laws, and institutions.

Lisa Kemmerer once said, ‘The reproductive abilities of women and their other female animals are controlled and exploited by those in power (usually men) and both are devalued as they age and wear out when they no longer reproduce. Cows, hens, and women are routinely treated as if they objected to being manipulated in order to satisfy the desires of powerful men, without regard to female’s wishes or feelings.’ Intersectionality is a term that was brought up by the theorist Kimberle Crenshaw. Crenshaw focuses on the term, intersectionality, and how people are often disadvantaged due to their race, class, gender identity, sexual orientation, and other beliefs and labels people stand by. When diving into the term with a specific point of view, most women are scared to leave their abusive husbands’ side for many reasons, and women have to choose this life of abuse as an act of selflessness in hopes to save their future or their children’s future. They stay in these incredibly dangerous relationships for the sake of their freedom, their future, their identity, and their happiness in the long run. Kemmerer’s quote relates to this specific topic of intersectionality when it comes to women becoming submissive in order to feed men’s power and ego in most situations. Intersectionality is shown through Eva Luna by Isabel Allende because it lists the disadvantage of being a female and experiencing abuse brought from a higher power that comes and collides with women’s freedom when in an abusive relationship. For instance, Rolf’s father abuses his mother and held power over her. However, it does not always have to be an abusive relationship where women are terrified to defend themselves to avoid abuse. An African American woman named Anita hill had to face sexual harassment and most Americans did not believe her which led to her becoming a blamed victim. Women’s equality and the stop to violence especially in relationships is an ongoing fight. Most women find it very difficult to reach for help as there is such power in the other partner’s hands that causes intimidation or ultimatums with women who are involved in abusive relationships. In order to do so, there must be more people willing to help women in these tough situations that cannot reach for help and resources themselves.

In the book, Eva Luna, written by Isabel Allende, Abuse is shown through Eva Luna as Lukas Carle who is the father of the Carle family terrorizes Rolf’s mother. Isabel Allende touches on abuse, power, mistreatment, and inequality toward women in the novel. In the correlation to intersectionality and Eva Luna, customarily women are terrified to leave the oppressive spouse’s side. This is due to the fact that they are often times trapped by a higher power or threatened and cannot leave. For instance, Rolf Carle’s mother does not leave the abusive husband, Lukas Carle, for the sake of the children that they share together. They stay in these incredibly dangerous relationships for the sake of their freedom, their future, their identity, and their happiness in the long run. This correlates specifically to chapter two in Eva Luna as Rolf Carle comes to understand the fact that Lukas is torturing his mother and being forced to do nothing less of his father’s wishes or else he resides to physical abuse. Due to this, unfortunately, most women find it very difficult to reach for help as there is such power in the other partner’s hands that causes intimidation or ultimatums with women who are involved in abusive relationships. There are other instances where women do not leave these types of relationships because they are illegal immigrants and cannot repel for themselves. If these women attempt to speak up or try to reach for help, it may lead to negative results when trying to fend for a future for themselves. Because of this, these types of women are left with no choice but to stay in these oppressed situations. Scientists are dissecting intersectionality and where the foundation of the issue is found when understanding the abuse of women. The article, ‘Intimate Partner Abuse Typology and Intersectionality,’ written by Patricia Raya, opens up a quote made by James Madison that says, ‘The people never give up their freedom, except under some delusion.’ The majority of the abusive partners are manipulating, and the women who are anchored in these relationships become embedded with the manipulation that is fed to them.

An African American woman named Anita Hill was sexually harassed by U.S. Supreme Court nominee who goes by the name of Clarence Thomas in 1991. This became a national epidemic when Anita Hill attempted to desperately stand up for herself by voicing her tragic event that has occurred by the judge, Clarence. In most cases, women may not be engaged with romantic connections, yet at the same time experience maltreatment in which they are too afraid to speak up about or are accused of how and why this came to place. This became a huge epidemic against Anita Hill because many people across the nation, including the supreme court, did not believe or trust Hill and instead turned against her. In the article, ‘We Still Have Not Learned from Anita Hill’s Testimony’, written by Kimberle Crenshaw, Crenshaw unravels the truth and the reality in front of our eyes on women abuse and woman of color. ‘It became clear that our organizing on Anita Hill’s behalf was ineffective in the face of the black community’s outrage over a black woman who had dared to turn on a fellow African-American at the cusp of enormous judicial power.’ (Crenshaw). This article highlights the trauma that Rolf’s mother had to deal with when experiencing such maltreatment and not having access to help as well as Anita Hill’s case. Lisa Kemmerer correlates intersectionality to Anita Hill’s case when she speaks about male privilege and how women are susceptible to the power of men when it comes to women’s voices. When instances happen this way many times, this becomes a gender inequality issue. The article, ‘Sexuality and Male Dominance’ written by Diane Richardson correlates to Anita Hill’s case because Richardson touches on gender inequality and sexual harassment in the workplace. ‘For instance, it is becoming clearer how sexuality affects women’s position in the labor market in numerous ways: from being judged by their looks as right (or wrong) for the job, to sexual harassment in the workplace as a common reason for leaving employment.’ (Richardson 75). To correlate, Anita Hill had to struggle with sexual assault acts and pornography in the workplace done by Clarence Thomas and was afraid to speak up as Thomas had much more power over Hill. Anita Hill’s testimony as well as the Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas case can open one’s eyes and bring awareness to our country as it involves gender politics, inequality, and abuse. ‘Such colorblind feminism did a profound disservice to Ms. Hill. And it marked another key moment of political erasure- in this case, one that effaced modern feminist history.’ (Crenshaw 19). Anita Hill experienced such foul treatment from the institutions and Americans.

In addition, Crenshaw focuses on intersectionality with many aspects such as race, disability, sexual orientation, nationality, and gender identity. In the novel, Eva Luna, the main character Eva has experienced abuse in her life by her godmother Madrina and her employers. Madrina abuses Eva for running away from her job and life. Madrina then takes her back to resume her life as was. Although intersectionality deals with power from men, it may also come in various situations such as abuse from women as well. ‘On that long journey, she wept all the tears stored in her soul, leaving none in reserve for late sorrows.’ (Allende). Regardless of whether Eva Luna has had hardships throughout her life, Isabel Allende enables the reader to identify with her as she is an independent young woman.

At last, although intersectionality is based on multiple dimensions of discrimination that women and women of color face, Crenshaw’s main point when delivering the term ‘intersectionality’ is to correct the understanding of what it truly means. Like Anita Hill, African American women have experienced prejudice as well as they have experienced sexism. In any case, there are numerous levels to this term and isn’t directed toward African American women alone. However, the direction is towards all women who battle in different kinds of circumstances of misuse and segregation such as Rolf Carle’s mother and family. Women’s leap toward freedom occurred in the 1970s which is also known as the Women’s Liberations Movement. This allowed women to grab hold of their voices and not be controlled exclusively by men. Women increased the right to vote and this gave women an unmistakable perspective on the states of their lives and associations with men. Brutality experienced by men isn’t a similar path that is experienced by women. Women are bound to be defrauded by men in their lives and it is dictated by their race, religion, sexual direction, and disability. To begin to stop the inequality that women face in their workplace, their own home, or even by strangers is giving proper value to women’s work when it comes down to their workplace. Another approach to put an end to the imbalance is pushing women towards control for our nation. Male figures have been in control over this nation and women’s decisions and it is essential to comprehend the power that male figures hold over women and continue to hold.

Bibliography

1. Crenshaw, Kimberlé W. ‘We Still Have Not Learned from Anita Hill’s Testimony.’ UCLA Women’s Law Journal, vol. 26, no. 1, Spring 2019, pp. 17–20.
2. Richardson, Diane. ‘Sexuality and Male Dominance.’ SpringerLink, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1 Jan. 1993.
3. India. ‘Sexism, Male Privilege, and Violence in the Animal Liberation Movement.’ Veganrainbowproject, The Vegan Rainbow Project, 21 Apr. 2019, http://www.the-vegan-rainbow-project.org/single-post/2018/12/13/Sexism-Male-Privilege-and-Violence-in-the-Anymal-Liberation-Movement-Interview-with-Dr-Lisa-Kemmerer.