Category: Interpretation

Introduction

This paper is aimed at presenting an exploration of the elements of an archeological site (re)interpretation. More specifically the write-up presents the reenactment of and reinterpretations of the stylistics period of the Ancient Greek epitomized in the architecture of ancient Greece. The paper presents aspects of site interpretation in archeological endeavors in the thrust that will also trace the relationship between the chosen site and other related archeological site enactments in other places.

In contextualizing the essence of the chosen site the paper will also take a significant thrust in analyzing particular architectural designs of ancient Greek as a way of establishing the influence of ancient architecture in a contemporary building. This will be incorporated into the scope and dynamics of the far-reaching impact of the chosen reinterpretation beyond the site’s historical and archeological significance.

Archeological site layout

For the scope and objectives of this paper, the selected site that will be explored in the premise of on-ground archeological site interpretation is the Stoa of Attalos.

The chosen site is one of the highly esteemed relics of Greek History, the artifacts of the ‘Stoa of Attalos’. The Greek term ‘Stoa’ was used in ancient Greek architecture to refer to elements like walkways (known in Greek as porticos) which were made for the public. The Stoa of Attalos is held as one of the outstanding structures of the Athenian Agora. The structure was built under the rule of King Attalos and hence the naming after him.

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This image above shows the inner part of the restored Stoa of Attalos.

The site draws overwhelming pools of visitors with profiles ranging from historians, Christians, architects, ordinary tourists, etc. The site is remarkable for its reinterpretations of Greece archeological architecture. The site enactment has incorporated provisions for public access around the entirety of the structure which has inlets to the interiors arenas maintained for public viewing. Below is a collage of visitor areas of the archeological site.

Francis D.K. Ching et al (2007) present a timeline-based exploration of global archeological and architectural history spanning from 3,500 B.C.E to date. The scholars have underscored the significance of “links, influences, and contrasts of the archeological progressions in history”. Francis D.K. Ching et al (2007). Any attempts at interpreting global archeological architecture will not be complete without the consideration of the significantly influential Greek architecture on modern building designs. Visitors at the Stoa of Attalos Archeological Site are furnished with existent knowledge of Ancient Greek and how archeological architecture has been obtained during the period of 550-500BC as well as what is known as the Periclean era-spanning 450-430 BC. Many architectural tourists are furnished with a significant part of the knowledge of ancient Greek building designs and models that has also been obtained from the Classical period of 430 – 400 BC. Francis D.K. Ching et al (2007) note, “Some archeological nuances on the characteristics of ancient Greek have been obtained from the Roman archeological architectural artifacts which are largely known to have drawn significant influence from Greek architecture”.

Site Enactment, Reinterpretation, and Management

The state-funded, owned and the managed site pulls site seers and tourists for its significance as the epitome of Greece architecture. The site is pelted particularly by the kind of visitors who seek to familiarize themselves with Greece architectural culture. The site has also been adopted by the state as Greek heritage. Part of the site management thrust entails the enactment of the site in close resemblance to the original masterpiece. Wood was the common material used in Greek building constructions. Wood was used for construction structures such as roof beams. Other forms of matter such as plaster were also used in the making of components like sinks as well as bathtubs. For wall structures, builders used unbaked brick and for exquisite designs, builders used limestone and marble. Limestone and marble were also used in palatial temple designs as well as in public buildings. William Rostoker et al (1981) outline, “The Greek is known to be something of the very architecturally aesthetic community hence the heavy reliance on materials like bronze and ornaments and other metals for decorative building detailing” Building forms of the Classical period era can be classified into five types of structure which are funerary, recreational, civic, domestic and religious.

Architectural archeologists have preserved something of image and drawings artifacts of various ancient Greek architectural designs viewed as yardsticks for particular ancient Greek architectural categories and such have been used in the management and maintenance of the Stoa of Attalos.

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The Temple of Hephaestus in Athens is one of the archeological preserves held together with the Stoa of Attalos as the standard designs of Greek public buildings. The Temple of Hephaestus is categorized together with other ‘rented structures such as the temple complex at Selinunte, the Parthenon as well as the sanctuaries at Agrigentum. These buildings are held as the Greece archeological heritage.

The Greek temples are said to have been the paragons of the Greek aesthetic endowments as the Greeks were a religious community. Greek temples were designed in immaculate magnificence which has earned them recognition as the most outstanding designs of their time. Orjan Wikander (1990) notes, “The endurance of temple designs and their relative harmony have made the designs a de facto crafting influence for the last two millenniums in the archeological architectural tradition of the west”.

The reinterpretation of these entails the furnishing of the visitors to the sites with historical information on the significance and uses of these sites in their actual contexts. The reinterpretation processes articulate that the Greek theater designs were also exceptional in ancient Greek. These were used for public entertainment were people would come to watch tragedy and comedy performances. The theatres were also used for poetry and musical events. Theaters were usually built on hillsides in the peri-urban settings. Theaters constituted rows of tired seats structured around the central performance arena known as the orchestra. The ‘skene’ in Greek theater design refers to the low building behind the performance area which was used as the store-room while also serving as utility enclose for backstage activity. The “Epidaurus” is one of the most recognised theaters of ancient Greek.

On Ground Site Reinterpretation, significance and Influence in modern society

Francis D.K (2007) presents that interpretation is driven and based on the philosophy that moves interpreters to assist audiences unearth and decipher the meanings and significance attached to the archeological sites. Part of this drive for the Stoa of Attalos site together with many associated with the archeological and cultural significance of the Stoa of Attalos, has been to educate the audiences on how the archeology of the Greek architectural and archeological artifact have influenced modern day architecture.

Interpreters at the Stoa of Attalos are governed by the core values of on ground site interpretations and definitions that of as well as the professional standards of archeological site interpretation. This is ensure and leverage don the means through the interpretation can be measured and on the matter of how successful interpretation ha functioned to give the audience a sense of the significance of the archeological sites to the understanding of the historical culture of the Greek in as encapsulated in the archeological sites.

On of the top mainstream archeological sites in Greece which belongs to the same category as the Stoas of Attalos is the Stadia. In ancient Greek architecture the stadia also had a central part in cultural relics of ancient Greek architecture. The modern day Olympic Games were born in the Greek competitions. Orjan Wikander (1990) adds, “The Minoan Crete, the Mycenaean palaces of Peloponnese as well as Macedonian Palaces of northern Greece are some of the most recognised palaces of the ancient Greek to date.” It must be noted that in Classical era Greece transformed inline with the ideals of democracy hence there were no palaces built for leaders in that period.

Part of the reinterpretation process for the site audience is education on the significance of these sites as well the influence of these sites in modern society. The site interpretation has been embedded with such attachment of the architecture archeological heritage to modern-day society as follows.

Visitors Experiences and Sites’ attachment to modern society

Visitors who inundate the Stoa of Attalos especially in prime holiday seasons are overwhelmed by the influence that Ancient Greek archeology has had in contemporary architecture. Various modern structural designs have been evidently modeled under the influence of ancient Greek designs. The attachment of the significance of the site in relation to features in modern society is done cross-reference to other sites such as Alex Theatre in Los Angeles to broaden the site visitors’ (audiences) perspectives on appreciating the essence and the significance of this archeological heritage.

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The design of the Alex Theater formerly known as The Alexander entails outstanding elements relatable to Classical Greek as well as Egyptian architectural histories. The massive Doric columns as well as the frieze of Egyptian dances are undeniable resemblances of the elements of the Ancient Greek and Egyptian theater designs. See J. D et al (1965) notes, “The unique and exceptional interior has remarkable neo-classic Greek and Egyptian architectural adaptations, related to the Greco-Egyptian period of Ptolemaic Egypt.”. The scholars also outline that, “The protracted walkway and courtyard distinguishing the ticket enclosure from the lobby was adapted from the famous Grauman’s Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood”

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This building was built for pioneering woman film director Dorothy Arzner. Eclectic residence feature includes a second-floor Doric-colonnaded loggia. The pervading rectangular shape of the building resembles the ancient Greek temple designs. One striking aspect on the Arzner/ Morgan Residence related to the typical Greek architectural colonnaded portico of columns which surrounds the building. Arzner/ Morgan Residence structure thus closely resembles the structures of the Temple of Athena Nike and the famous Parthenon. William Rostoker, (1981) notes, “In Ancient Greek building designs some designs constituted projecting head of columns making up the entrance ( known as the prostyle) while others were complement by what called the ‘pronaos’ façade of columns protracting to the ‘cella”.

Many site visitors have indicated that they are overwhelmed by the striking similarities in the column structures of the two building designs, the Arzner/ Morgan Residence and the famous Parthenon (Which is reinterpreted similarly to the Stoa of Attalos) displayed below.

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The picture above shows the façade of the famous Parthenon. The façade is made of the projecting colonnaded portico of columns which surround the building.

The Parthenon foundation was made of limestone while on the hallmark columns were made of marble. Architects of the famous structure are known to be Iktinos and Kallikrates, Vitruvius and Karpion. The Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess again demonstrating the acute religious inclination of the Greece.

Francis D.K. Ching et al (2007) note, “The Temple was modeled in resemblance of the ‘Doric order’ marked by the hallmark eight columns at the front as well as seventeen other columns on the sides in tandem with designated ratio of 9.4.” According to the insights of the scholars, “This ratio was a salient design framework for the vertical and horizontal structuring of the building as well as other proportionalities of the design which included the spacing of the columns and the establishment of their height”

It is notable that the design of the Arzner/ Morgan Residence has overwhelming features of resemblance to the Parthenon design. The architects of the modern structure must have relied closely of the ancient architectural models to erect the residence and tailor it in profound reminiscence of the famous Parthenon temple.

One such structure relatable to Ancient Greek architecture is the legendary Greek Theater. The Greek Theater which was erected in 1929 is modeled is unmistakable resemblance of the ancient Greek theater which in the olden Greek times were normally built on hillsides of the urban territory thresholds. Remarkable aspects of the Theater built on 1929 include the lack of a facade and seating arenas design which is closely related to the interior designs of the ancient Greek theater.

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The Greek Theater built in 1929, rightfully named after its typical ancient Greek architectural model, is an over 5000-seat amphitheater situated at the Griffith park in Los Angeles California. One of the theater’s design elements that resemble ancient Greet building structures is the amphitheater stage which closely typifies the ancient Greek temple. The Theatre is structured as a serene outdoor theatre in the scenic nature-environment setting. The striking feature about that location of the theater is that it is nestled within the environs of typically hilltop setting which unmistakably resembles ancient Greek theaters which were normally located around urban area hillsides. Like the olden times’ Greek theater the Legendary Los Angeles Theater is used as a venue for all kinds and creeds while playing venue to numerous big names in the entrainment circles.

The influence that Greek Architectural archeology has had is far-reaching and can be traced in various building and architectural models the world over. In the US alone evidence of the influence is overwhelming. The Pediments, Doric, and Iconic column elements used in the Capitol Building and the White House in washing D.C are some of the numerous exhibits of the influence of Greek archeology in modern architecture. The remarkable and hallmark Greek architectural Corinthian style of column construction is evident in numerous church and state buildings across the world. The dentils pediments as well as friezes with the associative aspect of proportionality and symmetry are unmistakable relics of the substantial influence of Greek architecture in modern building designs.

Future Plans for Stoa of Attalos

The plans for the Stoa of Attalos archeological site entail the decentralization of the archeological site. The decentralization thrust by the Greek State entails the setting up of specialist affiliations that will encompass the core archival and archeological units. These future developments will be matched with the remodeling of the archeological site’s museum art gallery. The plans also hold that more important and historic conventions particularly those with the direct link to the Greek heritage, history, and culture will be held at the site as a way of promoting the archeological site. As such the plans entail the erection of conference accommodation for such gatherings. These developments are expected to surmount the threats of site deterioration which is exacerbated by protracted negligence by governing authorities. The decentralization thrust is perceived to assist in allocating some archeological site maintenance and management to relevant academic bodies such as the state institutes of the country’s cultural heritage and archeology.

References

1. Francis D.K. Ching, Mardk M. Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakas. A Global History of Architecture, Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Son, 2007
2. G. M. A. Richter, Handbook of Greek Art, Millennium Press, 1967.
3. Marilyn Y. Goldberg, “Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 3. 1983
4. Orjan Wikander, “Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations,” Hesperia, Vol. 59, No. 1. 1990
5. Quenell, Marjorie and C.H.B., Everyday Things in Ancient Greece. New York, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1954.
6. Scranton, Robert L., Greek Architecture. New York, George Braziller, 1985.
7. See J. D. and A. B. Beazley, Greek Sculpture and Painting, Oak Books, 1965
8. William Rostoker; Elizabeth Gebhard, “The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece,” Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 8, No. 2. 1981

Introduction

A psychosocial formulation has come to be related to interpretation (Hollway and Jefferson, 2000); possibly because in interpreting we see shared aims between the functions of sociologists and therapists. On the other hand, we can see an explanation as positive, as a means of connecting, or an outline of the play.

Conservative psychoanalytic writing describes interpretation as a way of giving perception, the aim of which is ‘to allow the patient to look what she (or he) actually feels’ (Malan, 1979: 3). On the other hand, under the manipulation of humanistic attitudes, there is a rising faith in the significance of narrative conceptualization to treatment (McLeod, 1997) and the status of spiritual health with the ability to relate one’s experience logically. In modern-day psychosocial criminology, Hollway and Jefferson (2000) draw on both psychoanalytic and narrative formulation to connect the techniques of qualitative investigation and therapy. This explains how reminiscence of events is interceded by memoirs and by the association to the listener. awareness to ‘the emotional logic’ of relations helps make sense of someone’s connection to crime; ‘how disagreement, pain and intimidation to self operate on the mind in ways that it influence people’s positioning and speculation in certain discourses’ Jefferson (2000: 19). Hollway and Jefferson intend to widen interpretation further than the internal world to communal structure such as ‘respectability’. The authors’ psychosocial concept to meeting and examination of the data recognizes the continuation of incognizant forces and the personal participation of the researcher. Areas of thoughts, disagreement or evasion in narrative can be perceived as protections next to painful experiences. ‘Neither person nor accounts are transparent’ Jefferson (2000: 3) they challenge; research is at all times interpretation, and may assign a reason other than those acknowledged to by research subjects themselves. A standpoint of significant realism allows one to judge the reality and implication of the facts, and to protect interpretations that are both stand on proof and open to dissimilar interpretations. Eventually, ‘the argument of the information produced using interpretation is in the concept of facts’ Jefferson (2000: 80). Dependability can be confirmed if interpretations are ‘“recognized”; that is, the logic that is made out of them can be shared throughout the prejudice of others’ Jefferson (2000: 80). For Hollway and Jefferson, the major disparity amid psychoanalysis and research is that ‘practitioners interpret into the convergence, while researchers will save their understanding for outside it’ Jefferson (2000: 77).

Researchers’ interpretations are set aside from the members, as ‘an action linked with data analysis opposite to data creation’ Jefferson (2000: 78); while in the scientific meeting, interpretation creates information. On the other hand, seeing the difference between study and treatment as one of interpreting inside or outside the encounter may ignore the spatial relation of interpretation as a course in an association.

A conventional vision of psychoanalysis, and consequently of a psychosocial viewpoint, takes a fairly preventive outlook of interpretation that underplays the association between interpreter and interpreted. An optional approach is that explanation is not a procedure in which the psychoanalyst points out ‘unreasonable’ or ‘illogical’ feelings, nor characteristic reason that the client is unsuccessful to ‘admit’. It is as well development of instinct. It takes place not when the client is not capable to see something, but when that comprehension is previously at the client’s ‘edge of awareness’. In addition, inside the post-Kleinian concepts, while the centrality of unaware messages is upholding, interpretation is possibly no longer vital to the psychotherapeutic method but has been replaced by the condition of adjustment, repression or facilitating environment (Bollas, 1999). The vital implication for treatment is that understanding is not sufficient: it needs the centrality of association to break into, for instance, a schizoid closed scheme of self-destructiveness. Given the most apprehension of depersonalization, the association to terrible objects cannot be given up without the replacement of a good object association (Fairbairn, 1994). The interpretation could still be critical, but the center is on the development rather than the result. To ‘destroy’ through interpretation a patient’s pathological description consistency may be beneficial, but an analyst’s explanation is equally associative and interpretive. Both the constitutive and destructive procedures of treatment are therefore significant (Bollas, 1999).

In the relational approach, still, the rest of interpretation surrounded by other behavior of being is joined with other sights of what interpretation is and does. Interpretation is a course in connection. It is not the substance of the interpretation that affects but the use the patient builds of it for growth (Winnicott, 1974). In therapy, the difference over ‘interpretations’ can be a necessary element of the work; the ‘accuracy’ of interpretation may be less vital than the capability of the client to oppose with—or—hate the psychoanalyst (Suttie, 1963). Also, the significance lies in the patient being able to correct the understanding that is somewhat incorrect, to convene interpretation as devastation with the devastation of the interpretation: ‘the request to examine and to correct, and thus destroy, the analyst’s wording’ (Bollas, 1999: 31).

A feature of interpretation as a method of connecting in which the need to ‘know’ is balanced to interpretation as play. It is during play rather than the insight that the child develops; so too in treatment. Playing is necessary to a sense of personality: being in indistinct performance, an unintegrated state, ‘if return back, develop into part of the prearranged individual character, and finally, this outline makes the person to be, to be set up; and ultimately allows himself or herself to assume the continuation of the self’ (Winnicott, 1974: 75). Verbal interpretation cannot achieve the pre-verbal element of our familiarity where play is learned. Struggle in treatment ‘take place out of interpretation given that the outside part of the overlap of the patient’s and the analyst’s playing together’ Winnicott (1974: 59). Interpretation is play and a chance to acquire how to play. Fairly than the first and foremost interpretive in the wisdom of ‘insight’, treatment can be the condition of a facilitating environment: a situation in which the patient does not experience reliable conversion, but is allowed by the analyst to disclose him or her self to him or herself (Phillips, 1988). Therapy is not just about philosophy (interpretation) but also amplification of the self, making all basics of one’s character obtainable (Bollas, 1999). This characteristic of therapy is about ruling the impulsive, another phrase for which could be ‘play’. This neither guides us to the end that, if we do take in interpretation as part of our range, an interpretation is an in-between entity, neither part of me nor separate from me: it cannot be known, it can only be established. ‘A good interpretation in the examination cannot be known to a patient: it can only be established by him to be so (“meaning”, not like information, cannot be forced, but only establish during personal gratitude)’ (Phillips, 1988: 115).

Interpreter

As the U.S. population develops in ethnic and linguistic variety, the call for interpreters has improved considerably. More than 300 languages are voiced in the United States (Avery, 2001); providing interpreters for a number of diverse languages in numerous situations frequently is challenging. Conventionally, specialized interpreters were engaged for political interpretation or translation (interpreting written work), global righteousness, and/or worldwide conferencing. At present, though, interpreters are looked for in medical, educational, and community situations. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) will for the most part frequently work together with interpreters in a hospital or school settings, but a small number of them have been given any preparation in operating with interpreters.

Education and Training

Interpreters are working in a selection of organizations to perform as communication peacekeepers among individuals who do not share a common language. Interpretation composes of two kinds: simultaneous and consecutive. Simultaneous interpretation, which is used at the United Nations, is a technique in which interpreters decode while the lecturer is discussing. Health-care and educational interpreters, on the other hand, characteristically use a consecutive interpretation conceptualization in which the speaker pauses and waits for the meaning to be interpreted (Ohtake et al, 2000).

Health-Care Interpreters

According to the NCIHC, the medical interpreter ought to be a skilled expert who gives semantically precise messages changed from one language into another. As a specialized, the interpreter is projected to remain neutral throughout the interpretive procedure and to uphold patient confidentiality (NCIHC, 2001).

Educational Interpreters

Different ability is required for interpreting in an educational situation. Cheng (1991) listed five skills:

1. Information of the principle, measures, and objective of the gathering, examination, and management;
2. An understanding of the requirements for privacy;
3. Understanding of school rules and regulations;
4. Appropriate dress;
5. Understanding the subject and requirements of the participants.

Cheng stressed the need to have sufficient understanding and communicative skill in both languages in order to be able to precisely correspond to the semantic content of the communication.

Conference interpreters

As the name proposes, these interpreters work at meetings that comprise non-English-speaking participants. This work is consisting of worldwide commerce and international relations, though meeting interpreters also may interpret for any association that works with a foreign language orator. Companies favor high-level interpreters who have at least two language mixtures – for instance, the aptitude to interpret from English to French and English to Spanish. For some points, such as those with the UN, this requirement is compulsory. A great deal of the interpreting carry out at meetings is concurrent; though, at some gatherings with a small number of attendees, successive interpreting also can be used. Typically, interpreters sit in soundproof cubicles, paying attention to the lecturer through earphones and interpreting into a microphone what is said. The interpreted language is then passing on to the listener through headphones. When interpreting is required for just one or two people, the chuchotage, or whispering, technique may be used. The interpreter sits at the back or next to the attendee and murmurs a conversion of the events.

Guide or escort interpreters go along with either U.S. guests abroad or foreign companies in the U.S. to make sure that they are able to converse throughout their stay. These experts interpret a selection of topics, both on a casual basis and on a specialized level. The majority of their explanation is consecutive, and work is normally shared by two interpreters when the project necessitates more than an 8-hour day. Regular tour, frequently for days or weeks at a time, is regular, an issue that some find above all appealing.

Judiciary interpreters and translators

The job of courts interpreters and translators is to assist people who come out in court who are not capable or reluctant to converse in English. Court interpreters work in a diversity of lawful settings, such as attorney-client assemblies, beginning hearings, depositions, tests, and arraignments. Legal translators should have a methodical knowledge of the verbal communication and purpose of the U.S. legal system.

This kind of work can be demanding because of the emotional or explicit scenery of some cases. Court interpreters feature the complicated tasks of remaining disconnected from the contents and not changing or adapting the sense or quality of what is said. Success as a court interpreter needs an understanding of both lawful terms and informal language. In addition to interpreting what is said, courtyard interpreters as well may be necessary to interpret printed documents and read them about.

Literary translators

These translators get used to written text from one word into another. They may interpret any number of documents, together with periodical pieces, books, verses, and short stories. The fictional translation is connected to inspire writing: literary translators have to make a new text with the aim of verbal communication that copies the content and method of the original. At any time possible, fictional translators work intimately with writers in order to best capture their future meanings and mythical uniqueness.

This kind of work frequently is complete as a sideline by university professors; on the other hand, opportunities exist for well-established fictional translators. As is the case with writers, finding a publisher is a serious piece of the profession. Nearly all aspiring fictional translators start on by presenting a short example of their job with the expectation that it will be written and give them credit.

Localization

Translators who work in a particular locality are part of a comparatively new and fast-expanding area of expertise. Localization engages the total version of manufactured goods for use in a diverse words and civilization. At its previous stages, this work contracted above all with software localization, but the area of expertise has long-drawn-out to take in the adaptation of Web sites and goods in manufacturing and other trade sectors. Translators functioning in localization require a solid grasp of the words to be interpreted, a careful understanding of scientific ideas and language, and a high degree of information about the future target viewers or consumers of the product.

Proficiency in precise conversion is not enough, however. Cheng (1991) also suggested that interpreters have socio-cultural information of both cultures to avoid misinterpretation in cross-cultural relations. For instance, during a parent-teacher meeting, the teacher explains the naughtiness of two Asian boys to their mother, who started to laugh. The teacher understands the mother’s laughter as a rude act, but the interpreter clarifies that the mother’s actions were owing to humiliation over the boys’ manners. In this case, the interpreter was able to pass up disagreement and uphold communication between the family and the teacher.

Training Programs and Certification

Even though a number of educational training curriculums for expert interpreters are on hand, these agendas are not accessible in each state, and there are no reliable requirements. At present, there is no central or nationwide organization or association that confirms interpreters to serve in healthcare or educational settings. Examples of formal interpreter certification programs are the Federal Court Interpreter Certification (National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, 2002), the registry of interpreters of the deaf (2002), state court certification (accessible in 25 states as of April 2001; Avery, 2001), and Washington State health-care and social service interpreter certification (Washington Courts, 2002).

A preparation course for interpreters for the hard of hearing at first was formed to provide interpreters to work with adults who were hearing damage or unable to hear. Though 69% of deaf and hard-of-hearing children are to be found in public schools (Shildroth & Hutto, 1993), preparation plans for interpreters for the deaf do not center on organizing the interpreters for instructive surroundings (Dahl & Wilcox, 1990).In addition, these interpreters might not have the proper qualifications or ability for precise and absolute interpretation. In a current review, 63% of the instructive interpreters for the hard of hearing reported they had no official recognition, and the majority had been employ without an assessment of their specialized capability (Jones, 1997).

Programs or organizations to make sure preservation of proficiency, sustained learning/preparation in interpretation, and the formation of post-certification procedures of capability for interpreters for the deaf are missing (Schick, 1999). For instance, Schick et al. used the Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment (1994) to assess 59 interpreters for the deaf who were functioning in educational locations. They establish that 56% of these interpreters are unsuccessful to convene minimum point of capabilities, yet they were working in educational settings. This circumstance is not strange, bearing in mind that many interpreters in educational settings who are employed do not have any type of qualifications, nor is an assessment of interpreting talent carried out (Jones et al., 1997).

Related problems exist for interpreters of other languages. There is no nationwide standard for qualifications in interpreting other languages, and there is an incomplete chance to collect suitable preparation for either medical or educational settings. The Massachusetts Medical Interpreters Association, the California Health Interpreters Association, and the NCIHC are in the course of developing state qualifications curriculum (NCIHC, 2001). Though some medical interpreters are given the education to meet minimal skill levels of performance, all of them do not accomplish the level of qualification of capability, and several of those do not have a chance to take guaranteed preparation (Diversity Rx: Models and Practices,2001; NCIHC, 2001). Information concerning qualifications for the education of interpreters could not be established. In adding up to the training/certification dilemma, institutions have complexities filling the positions for interpreters. Hospitals and medical personnel have reported a need for available interpreters, and only 30% of the patients requiring interpreter services in fact received them (Diversity Rx, 2001).In educational settings, it is hard to find bilingual speakers to take steps as interpreters and even more complicated to get bilingual personnel to hire (Cheng,1991).

Concept of Interpreter Perspective

Interpreter viewpoint may be observed along with a range from neutral to active (Cheng 1991; NCIHC,2001). The “neutral interpreter” simply passes messages back and forth from one person to another; he or she is inactive and nonobtrusive and does not build up a connection with the participant. In contrast, the “active interpreter” does more than a word-by-word conversion of letters back and forth (NCIHC,2001,p.4). Active interpreters can discuss between two cultures and set up a bond of confidence and admiration.

Several issues, including gender, age, experience, and social status, affect the outlook of an active interpreter, which in turn influence interpreting connections. Interpreters and service providers have to change their performance to keep away from the problems with cultural standards and prospects that might in turn unenthusiastically have an effect on communication. For instance, a young female interpreter may call for an older service provider to help her during gathering with older parents or grandparents for the reason that in some society different genders or age levels carry more superiority and admiration.

These two ideas of neutral and active interpreting outline conflicting ends of an interpreter viewpoint of succession from “conduit” to community entrenched. Interpreters helping as channels are neutral interpreters; they have no individual participation in the procedure. In contrast, interpreters who are entrenched inside the community frequently are individually concerned in the procedure, actively controlling its course. The continuum portrays the variety from an uncomplicated person to one who is greatly mixed up. At one last part of the continuum, the interpreter serves as the passive message source, conveying a precise communication of idea (Cheng, 1991, 1998). This means the interpreter focuses on the linguistic conversion of the communication; thus, the accountability for efficiency rests with the service provider rather than the interpreter. This theoretical model limits the use of the interpreter as a “cultural broker” (someone who can converse the entrenched socio-cultural sense of the communication) and is greatest used by a service provider who is ethnically knowledgeable.

A somewhat more concerned interpreter viewpoint is “the interpreter as manager of a cross-cultural/cross-language mediated clinical encounter” (NCIHC, 2001, p.7). This communicative interface engages more than linguistic conversion of an oral meaning; it also engaged in working within the educational message structure that is linked with the communication and the speaker. In this case, the interpreter thinks of any other probable obstruction to the communicative communication, such as gender, class, religion, and/or social dissimilarity (Cheng, 1998; NCIHC, 2001). For instance, an Asian interpreter may utilize a more deferential approach when talking to an older Asian man or a highly knowledgeable individual but utilize a more equal-power communication method with somebody who is of the same gender, age, and/or education level. These interpreters focus on the message between the concerned parties, bearing in mind conversational course and tempo to promote communication and understanding. It does not signify the interpreter turns out to be a supporter for both parties. This role representation works best when service providers have established preparation on working with an interpreter and see interpreters as elements of their group.

Interpreters using an incremental intervention perspective expect even more participation in the procedure. In incremental intervention, the interpreter makes it possible that understanding and communication among members who are talking in diverse languages. The focal point is communication clearness. In addition to using communication methods suitable to the circumstances and speakers, interpreters using a cross-cultural manager outlook are getting involved when a misinterpretation takes place. The interpreter may presume special roles, such as sharing individual judgment, asking for an explanation, inspection for understanding, sharing educational information, and make certain that each member is conscious of what has been said to the other member. Like the interpreter-as-a-manager conceptual model, the incremental intervention model works best when the service provider views the interpreter as an essential part of the group.

The outlook on behalf of the uppermost degree of participation by the interpreter is “the interpreter embedded in her cultural-linguistic community” (NCIHC, 2001, p.10).

Entrenched interpreters not merely converse in communally proper ways and interfere through moments of misinterpretation and disagreement; they also are viewed as associates of a cultural-linguistic society who is likely to be put up with by confident roles and public systems. This position and system may influence interpretive connections.

When interpreters come across communicative circumstances that are forbidden in their civilization, they have to be able to convey these concerns and uncover suitable understanding techniques so that they do not put at risk the association with the people for whom they understand. Member in the interface must be adjustable and allow for different interpreters to give services fitting to cultural principles. To function proficiently further than the level of a channel, all participants in interpreting communication must be skilled in how interpreters’ viewpoints may manipulate connections and how to work with varied interpreter viewpoints.

Interpreter Roles

The interpreter may presume many positions, including listener, lecturer, gatekeeper, interviewer, social mediator, and communicator. When interpreters presume one or more of this function, they progress from acting as a neutral medium to becoming more concerned, which may or may not necessitate them to support the individuals for whom they are interpreting. An interpreter may describe his or her function in a different way than the other concerned personnel. Some members in the communication may anticipate the interpreter to be a medium. Other participants may look forward to the interpreter being an entrenched society member, while the interpreter may view him- or herself as a medium, a director, or a domineering. In addition, interpreters may adjust responsibility several times throughout an interaction.

Interpreters are visage with the profession of translating communication and being a fine interpreter, which may signify acting as an unaware gatekeeper of information to steer clear of disagreement or presenting a monocultural perspective (Davidson,2000). Interpreters may modify the message in an insensible effort to converse more evidently, avoid disagreement, or present a cultural perspective different from what is given in the intended message. Divergence from the unique message could turn into “coordinating or gate-keeping” measures (Wadensjö, 1993, p.115).

The interpreter can settle on whether or not each participant’s note is incompletely or completely repeated. This interpretation wholeness, or need thereof, is partly determined by how the interpreter pays attention to what is said and how sound he or she transmits the verbal message.

Therefore, the interpreter has two responsibilities, how to understand and how to pay attention. He or she has had power over information transmission and turns out to be a gatekeeper of information when he or she intentionally converse fractional or entire messages.

Interpreters have to stand for the people concerned in the understanding and the organization who hired them. Therefore, they are likely to mirror the institution’s objective, attitude, and message style. If interpreters’ message method is in position with that of the organization, they are unable to find the wisdom of impartiality and presume positions of authority and power as informational gatekeepers.

In summary, interpreters and managers of interpreters call for widespread preparation concerning interpreter position so that the particular preferred function for an interpreter is definite and he or she can decide to function within it or discuss a different responsibility. Both the manager and interpreter must understand that (a) interpreters are frequently influenced by their individual educational principles and attitude and (b) their responsibility regularly change throughout the way of communication as well as between different members. Apparent consideration of member responsibility will develop the interpreting practice for all concerned. In addition, an interpreter needs the support and acceptance of service contributors and managers to be successful in the job. When small or no support is given, miscommunication, disagreement, or poor service frequently is the consequence.

Implication

As has been renowned, there is a selection of troubles in the preparation, documentation, and accessibility of interpreters. In adding up, the viewpoint of the interpreter and the diverse functions he or she may take part in adds to the difficulty of interpreting communication. The suggestion is many and mixed. Two significant objectives are to set up nationwide preparation programs with qualifications standards and varying obtainable training programs for interpreters, specialized working with interpreters, and managers who employ and oversee interpreters. Company and contemporaries must consider what responsibilities interpreters ought to play for any given communication, what function the interpreters consider they are playing, and the result of the interpretation dealings has for both short- and long-term relationships.

The interpreter acts as the conduit for communication connections between persons from different societies. Therefore, when a communicative contact takes place, it engages complicated interlace of cultural communication methods, principles, attitudes, and approaches. The interpreter has to communicate this multifaceted interlace of messages precisely and impartially. This interaction is above all challenging when the manager anticipates the interpreter to stand for a certain function but the interpreter presumes a different one. There may be a period during any interpreting contact that the interpreter may have to alter position along a continuum of participation. In addition, not any of the needs of any of the members may be met if the interpreter turns into a gatekeeper for information among the concerned parties. Lastly, an interpreter may discover him- or herself caught up in disagreement when placed in interpretive circumstances that may be communally, ethnically, and individually unsuitable.

With the growing diversity of the population in discipline and infirmary, educators, program managers, and other service providers ought to have working information of the efficient policy for working together with interpreters. Tactics for using interpretation throughout evaluation and interference are desirable, as are ones for working with an interpreter as an associate or a member of staff.

References

1. Hollway, W. and T. Jefferson (2000) Doing Qualitative Research Differently: Free Association, Narrative and the Interview Method. London: Sage Publications.
2. Malan, D.H. (1979) Individual Psychotherapy and the Science of Psychodynamics. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
3. McLeod, J. (1997) Narrative and Psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
4. Bollas, C. (1999) The Mystery of Things. London: Routledge.
5. Fairbairn, W.R.D. (1994) Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality. London: Routledge.
6. Winnicott, D.W. (1974) Playing and Reality. London: Penguin.
7. Suttie, I.D. (1963) The Origins of Love and Hate. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
8. Phillips, A. (1988) Winnicott. London: Fontana.
9. Avery, M.B.(2001). The role of the health care interpreter: An evolving dialogue.
10. Ohtake, Y. Santos, R.M. & Fowler, S.A. (2000). It’s a three-way conversation: Families, service providers, and interpreters working together. Young Exceptional Children, 4 (1), 12–18.
11. National Council on Interpretation in Health Care. (2001). Guide to the initial assessment of interpreter qualifications (NCIHC Working Paper Series).
12. Cheng, L.L. (1991). Assessing Asian language performance: Guidelines for evaluating limited-English-proficient students. Rockville, MD: Aspen.
13. National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators. (2002). Federal court interpreter certification.
14. Washington State Courts, Certified Court Interpreters. (2002). Common questions about the court interpreting profession. Web.
15. Shildroth, A.N., & Hutto, S.A. (1993). Annual survey of hearing-impaired children and youth: 1991–1992 school year. American Annals of the Deaf, 138,163–171.
16. Cheng, L.L. (1998). Beyond multiculturalism: Cultural translators make it happen. In V. O. Pang & L. L. Cheng (Eds.), Struggling to be heard: The unmet needs of Asian Pacific American children (pp.105–124). Albany: State University of New York.
17. Dahl, C.,& Wilcox, S.(1990). Preparing the educational interpreter: A survey of sign language interpreter training programs. American Annals of the Deaf, 135,275–279.
18. Jones, B.F., Clark, G.M.,& Soltz, D.F.(1997).Characteristics and practices of sign language interpreters in inclusive education programs. Exceptional Children,63,257–268.
19. Schick, B.,Williams, K.,& Bolster, L.(1999). Skill levels of educational interpreters working in public schools. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,4,144–155.
20. Diversity Rx: Models and Practices. (2001). Overview of role and practice issues.
21. Davidson, B.(2000).The interpreter as institutional gatekeeper: The social-linguistic role of interpreters in Spanish-English medical discourse. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4,379–405.
22. Wadensjö, C. (1993). The double role of a dialogue interpreter. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 1,105–121.

Introduction

Christians should have devotional daily scriptures from the Bible. A perusal of such scriptures that speak on the issues of mind and heart is a great motivation for many Christians. It brings them closer to God through activities such as daily prayers. Attending church services and also being able to take note and appreciate some of the small things that God enables us to do or achieve in life are other ways of getting to know our savior better (Farkasfalvy, 2010).

As an individual Christian, it is of great benefit that you nurture the culture of reading your bible on a daily basis since it helps in spiritual growth. Without that, the inspiration to connect with God Almighty the creator will diminish. Scriptures that speak to heart and mind directly are very powerful in the message they carry. They help Christians not only to be spiritual beings but also to be logical beings who are fooled by the flesh or worldly things. For instance, Philippians 4:7 states “And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus.” (King James Version). Such scriptures are therefore very important to Christians.

The Interpretations

• V1. Our God is amazing. Since creation, he has shown us so much love that it becomes really disturbing when you see some individual disregarding his righteous ways.
• V2. We should have faith in our God who shall never fail us. God cannot fail us whatsoever. In the current times of so many evils, God is the only solution.
• V3. By being true believers, we understand that God is the origin of all things. The human understanding is limited and it can only see the surface of these worldly things.
• V4. By following the way of the Creator, everything that we go through has a greater benefit. Serving the Lord will help us to desist from whining all the time.
• V5. Our God is really generous. Whenever we ask for anything from him, he does not look away but he grants us. This is what makes him a trustworthy father.
• V6. It is true that love chases away any doubt that we have as human beings. By being full of God’s love, we, therefore, avoid many of the worldly worries.
• V7. As Christians, we should not be like those who are non-believers. Our Father is all-knowing and he, therefore, knows all the desires of our hearts.
• V8. Did you know that by believing in our God we become set apart from others? He becomes very happy to relieve us of all the struggles of life.
• V9. We rejoice when we imagine all the mighty things that the Lord has done in our lives. The successes we enjoy in life are all attributed to God.
• V10. The sight of our God is not like that of human beings who look at things that do not matter. The Lord looks at the inside but not the outside.
• V11. Human beings should be full of humility and also ensure that they dedicate their lives to serving the Lord. This brings delight to the Lord.
• V12. Craving for worldly possessions such as a cool car will only lead to a fall from God’s righteousness. We should first seek the face of God and the rest shall come.
• V13. As a believer, you should not waste your time trying to look for ways to revenging others. You should pray to our Lord who will deliver you from your rivals.
• V14. Even in difficult times, the Lord asks us to be strong in our faith since he is in control of our situation. We will never fail us.
• V15. We should not be intimidated by relying on our strong faith. This is what separates us from the others, giving us the ability to follow the way of the Lord.
• V16. Sharing will our fellow believers through prayer and confession of sins helps us to grow in faith. If we are sincere in our communication with God, we will hear us.
• V17. The persecutions Christians go through serves the purpose of advancing the word of God. It builds the assurance that our God is in control thus we should not be afraid.
• V18. Constant worries will not help us. Instead, we should seek the face of God by praying and giving our gratitude to God. This will give us peace.
• V19. When our God gave his only son to die for our sins, we got delivered from all transgressions. This shows how merciful and loving our God is.
• V20. If we choose to let go of all our sinful ways and instead humble ourselves before our God, the Lord shall gladly welcome us to his kingdom.
• V21. When we become calm even in the middle of frustration, we avoid aggravating the situation. Rudeness does the opposite of that since it provokes more fury.
• V22. There are many tests on earth that test different things but in human beings, God tests the heart only. He is interested in the purity of the heart.
• V23. Giving to the needy opens a door of blessings since it is the greatest manifestation of love for one’s neighbors. There is greater joy in giving than in receiving.
• V24. No one is perfect, everybody got some shortcomings for we are all but human beings, descendants of Adam and Eve. Therefore, with original sin at birth.
• V25. Age is just but a number. Integrity, wisdom, knowledge, and intelligence are self-determined and not at all dictated by being young or old. One should be their own role model.
• V26. God says the birth of all humans is planned by Him. His intention for human beings is good, to do them well and prevent them from all catastrophes.
• V27. When a sinful soul repents sincerely and abandons wicked ways to walk in righteousness, the past sins are not reason enough for condemnation. The past never determines the future.
• V28. When the Holy Ghost saves us through His grace, we become cleaned and pure indeed. Our past sins are completely forgiven and forgotten, by faith, we become new creatures.
• V29. Because our God is Almighty and all-powerful, nothing is impossible in His eyes. He gives us the strength to overcome all the challenges that come our way.
• V30. Forgiveness of sins makes us pure, clean, and above all deserving of the throne of our Father in heaven. It gives us the right to be called His Children.
• V31. Those who believe in God will have eternal victory. They will triumph over all the challenges and hardships that come their way and emerge victoriously.

Bibliography

Bell, D. M. (2006). Book Review: Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Moral Courage: Motives and Designs for Ministry in a Troubled World. Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, 60(1), 113-114.

Fabry, C., & Tressel, J. (2013). Life promises for success promises from god on achieving your best (Unabridged. Ed.). Carol Stream, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.

Farkasfalvy, D. M. (2010). Inspiration & Interpretation: A theological Introduction to Sacred Scripture. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.

Morgan, R. J. (2010). 100 Bible Verses everyone should know by Heart. Nashville, Tenn.: B & H Pub. Group.

Osteen, J. (2005). Daily Readings from your best Life now: 90 Devotions for living at your full Potential. New York: Warner Faith.

Pope, J. (2002). His word in my heart: memorizing scripture for a closer walk with God. Chicago: Moody Press.

Tressel, J. (2011). Life promises for success promises from God on achieving your best. Carol Stream, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers.

Ziglar, Z. (2012). Life Promises for Leaders Inspirational Scriptures and Devotional Thoughts. Carol Stream: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.

The Upanishads are considered as part of the Vedas of the Hindu scriptures. The core spiritual essence of Vedantic Hinduism is philosophy, meditation, and the nature of God. They are considered as the mystic or spiritual contemplations of the Vedas, their putative end and essence. Edmunds (1979) suggested that the Upanishads are known as Vedānta or the culmination of the Vedas and focus on belief in a world soul, a universal spirit, Brahman, and an individual soul.

The Vedanta is composed of Āranyakas and Upanishads, of which Aranyakas or ‘of the forest’ provide meditative yogic practices, contemplations of the mystic one, and the manifold manifested principles. The Upanishads, on the other hand, provide a realization of the monist and universal mystical ideas that started in earlier Vedic hymns. These have exerted an influence on the rest of Hindu and Indian philosophy.

It was written in the Taitiriya Upanishad that, “He who knows the Bliss of Brahman, whence words together with the mind turn away, unable to reach It? He is not afraid of anything whatsoever. He does not distress himself with the thought: ‘Why did I not do what is good? Why did I do what is evil?’ Whosoever knows this regards both these as Atman; indeed, he cherishes both these as Atman. Such, indeed, is the Upanishad, the secret knowledge of Brahman.”

Interestingly, the Upanishads do not belong to a particular period of Sanskrit literature. The oldest ones are the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads that date to the Brahmana period, estimated at the 7th century BC before Gita was started. The more recent ones were composed in the medieval or early modern period.

As early as the late nineteenth century, Whitney (1886) has noted that “…the earliest Upanishads, about a dozen in number… are documents of high importance for their bearing on the history both of religion and philosophy in India. Taken together with kindred passages in the Brahmanas, and a few even in the Vedic hymns themselves, they exhibit the beginnings of a new movement in that history, one which is to a certain extent comparable with the prophetic movement among the Hebrews — as being, namely, a revolution against the prevailing bondage to ceremonial observances and belief in their sufficiency to salvation: only, instead of making toward a purer monotheism and loftier private and public morality, it tends to pantheism, mysticism, and metempsychosis. Not an exalted devotion to duty, but the possession of mystic knowledge, leads India to eternal blessedness” (p 2).

Radhakrishnan (1928) have noted that Upanishads “had no set theory of philosophy or dogmatic scheme of theology to propound. They hint at the truth in life but not yet in science and philosophy. So numerous are their suggestions of truth, so various are the guesses at God, that almost anybody may seek in them what he wants and find what he seeks” (p 120).

There have been varying categories of Upanishads. The later additions are highly sectarian and suggested to represent the strategies used by sectarian movements to legitimate their own texts by granting them the nominal status of Śruti (Holdrege, 1995).

Radhakrishnan (1953) suggested that the significance of the Upanishads was that they represent a great chapter in history as well as “disclose the working primal impulses of the human soul which rise above the differences of race and geographical position. To sum up, Upanishads have mystical nature and intense philosophical bent that does away with all rituals and completely embraces principles of One Brahman and the inner Atman or self. They have a universal feel leading to interpretation in various manners that have given birth to the three schools of Vedanta.

It has also been interpreted as “Tat Tvam Asi” or “That thou art” by the Advaita Vedanta. It provides the belief that in the end, the ultimate, formless, inconceivable Brahman is the same as our soul or self and that humans may realize it through discrimination. In addition, it was suggested that the Upanishads contain the first and most definitive “aum” as the divine word, the cosmic vibration of all existence and having multiple beings and principles incorporated into “One Self.”

The philosophy provided for by various literature leads to a belief in the ultimate “self,” the same as Brahman, which could easily be perceived as very appealing. In this way, many seekers of salvation and eternity would be swayed to the Upanishads as, although notably mystical, it provides quite an easy way out. Its malleability of interpretation could adopt many ways to embrace a lot of probable scope in religion and philosophy, thereby providing a real threat to other religious or philosophical beliefs.

Reference

Edmonds, I.G. (1979). Hinduism. New York: Franklin Watts.

Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, Albany: SUNY Press.

Taittiriya Upanishad Chpt 9 (II-9-1).

Radhakrishnan, S. (1928). “Indian Philosophy.” Mind, New Series, Vol. 37, No. 145, pp. 130-131.

Radhakrishnan, S. (1953). The Principal Upanishads. Harper and Brothers.

Whitney, W.D. (1886). “The Upanishads and Their Latest Translation.” The American Journal of Philology 7 (1), pp. 1-26.

The book of revelation is considered as one of the most controversial books in the bible. Whether this statement is true depends on a person’s interpretation of the phrase ‘controversial’. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that the contents of the book are as mystic as the events it foretells.

If there is a section of the bible, and in particular, Revelation, that has elicited a myriad of interpretations, then that section is Revelation 20: 1-6. Concisely, the gist of the section is on the millennium years that Christians are to reign with Christ while the devil is bound. It is interesting how a simple phrase, ‘thousand years’, has led to such varied and opposing views. One wonders what is so special with this catchy phrase.

One of the peculiar feature about the ‘thousand years’ phrase is that it occurs only eight times in the entire bible. Out of these occurrences, six are in Revelation 20: 2-7 while the rest are in 2 Peter 3:8. The debate, however, is not centered on the scarcity of the phrase but rather on what it refers to.

Does the millennium represent a factual period of time or a symbolic period of time? When does this period of time take place? What transpires during this period? Does it have any relation to the second coming of Jesus Christ? Such are the questions that have led theologians to take different perspectives on the subject (Brighton 1999, 533).

This paper presents the different views that exist for the interpretation of Revelation 20: 1-6. These include Historic Premillennialism, Dispensational Premillenniasm, Postmillennialism and Ammillenialism.Though this research ends up supporting one of the views as shall be seen later, it does not overlook the significance of the other interpretations.

The first interpretation of the ‘millennium’ phrase to be discussed here is by the Historic Premillennialsim. This view gets its title from the undeniable fact that there have been theologians through out history who have perceived the ‘millennium’ referred to in Rev. 20 as a factual, one-thousand year, when Christ will rule the earth beginning from His Second Coming.

The later will occur prior to the millennium. As such, the Historic premillenialism chronicles the end-of-time events in the following sequence. According to this interpretation, the first event that will characterize the end-of-time is the ‘binding of Satan’ as well as the ‘first resurrection of believers’. The two will occur at Christ’s visible, glorious descent from heaven to earth, well known as His Second Coming.

The second event that is supposed to take place according to this interpretation is the reign of Christ and His Church over the unbelievers who will still be on earth during the millennium. This reign will be characterized by peace and prosperity due to the limitation, though not entire elimination, of sin and evil.

The Historic premillenialism interpretation also holds that Satan will be released for a ‘little season’ in order to mislead people in a final attack against Christ and His Church, a battle that the latter will win while the former will be cast into the ‘lake of fire’. This view also posits that the second resurrection will take place, and it will involve all dead unbelievers.

Another event that will take place according to this view is the Great White Judgment. In this occasion, all people that ever lived will receive their final judgment. The unbelievers will be cast into the ‘lake of fire’ in order to face eternal penalty (Clouse 1977, 12).

On the other hand, believers will be given access to eternal kingdom to enjoy eternal tranquility, comfort, and glory. Lastly, the ‘new heavens and earth’ will be created. This is the glorious eternal kingdom where believers will live with the Lord in praise.

Many church leaders have held Historic premillenialism as the true interpretation of the ‘millennium’ for a long time. These premillennilists or chiliasts include Papias, Melito Sardis, Iranaeaus, Hippolytus, Justin Martyr, and Tertullian. The fact that such a high number of leaders have supported the view for a long time does not make it the dominant view of the early church.

In deed one of the premillennialists, Justin opposes agrees this as Steve Gregg notes in Revelation: Four views-A Parallel Commentary (1997, 29). It follows suit that one cannot be enticed to follow this interpretation simply because its supporters lived in the first centuries following the ascension of Jesus Christ. Instead, there is a need for careful analysis of their views and conclude whether they are supported by Scripture or not.

One of the main factors that led to the loss of popularity of the Historic Premillennialism interpretation is the ‘apocalyptic fever’, an event that occurred towards the end of the first century A.D. This was an influence of Jewish and Jewish-Christian pseudepigraphical literature that was going round at the time.

A good number of these writings were apocalyptic in nature pointing out to the onset of a Jewish millennial tradition. There is no doubt that the early church leaders’ interpretation of Revelation 20: 1-6 had overtones of this influence. This argument is supported by Brighton when he quotes the church historian Eusebius in the former’s exposition on how Papias adopted his premillennial view.

Brighton notes that when the apocalyptic fever commenced to fade, so did the premillennial interpretation (Brighton 1999, 534-536). A number of church fathers were openly opposed to this view like Origen, Clement of Alexandria, Jerome, Alcuin, and Primasius among others (Gregg 1997, 29-31).

The second interpretation of the millennium is the dispensational premillennialism. Just like the historical premillennialism, dispensationalism, as the interpretation is also called, interprets the millennium literally. However, this agreement stops at that.

This is because dispensationalism is based on a completely system of theology like Millard J. Erickson notes in Contemporary options in eschatology (Erickson 1977, 109). As such, it is very important to note this view is theological. Though an in-depth analysis will be provided later in this paper, it is crucial to point out a few points in which this interpretation is based on.

One of the principles that dispensationalists stand for is the belief that the Scriptures are divided into different periods of time called dispensations. In each dispensation, God deals with humans in different ways and provides different tests for humankind. When humans fail, God brings in a new dispensation with a new test. Going by this principle, human beings are living in the dispensation of grace.

In this dispensation, God is testing the faith of humanity in Jesus. The seven and last dispensation will be the millennium. Scofielld popularized this interpretation in his book Rightly dividing the Word of God, incorporated in his Scofield Reference Bible (1909) (Scofield 1928, 24).

Apart from the above belief, dispensationalists believe in three major theological principles namely; the clear difference between Israel and the church (Ryrie 1995, 63), the factual interpretation of the bible (Ericson 1977, 109), and the prominence on God’s glory as His fundamental intention in the world (Ryrie, 40).

These are the pillars that make dispensationalism to take a completely different interpretation of the Scriptures. Nevertheless, this paper will confine itself to its subject matter, the interpretation of the millennium as recorded in Rev. 20: 1-6.

Dispensationalism chronicles the end-time events in the following sequence. Going by this view, the rapture will be the first stage of the Second Coming of Christ. This event will surreptitiously take away all Christians from the earth instantaneously. The dead believers will be resurrected while all those who are rapture receive their glorified bodies in the ‘twinkling of an eye’.

This stage is also the first phase of the ‘first judgment’, also called the ‘Believer’s Judgment’. This will see all believers rewarded according to their truthful service during their lifetime on earth. After the church has been raptured, the ‘prophetic clock’ will begin ticking again while God continues with His plan for the Jews.

Immediately after the rapture, the Seven Year Tribulation will begin. This is an event when the Antichrist appears and deceives many within ‘one week’ equated to a prophetic year (LaHaye 1998, 46). This period is the time God will unleash numerous judgments on the earth leading to great pain and suffering.

The Antichrist will bring an era of terror particularly in the last three and half years of the Great Tribulation. In order to counter the Antichrist, God will raise up 144,000 literal Jews to spread the good news of the Kingdom in the entire world. Those who pay attention to the message and fail to worship the Antichrist will be salvaged.

The third occurrence that dispensationalists believe constitute the end-time events is the Glorious appearing of Christ, His saints and angels. This will take place in the second stage of His Second Coming. The second judgment will follow in which Christ will judge those who live in on earth hence distinguishing the ‘sheep’ from the ‘goats’.

Those who are found praiseworthy will enter into the one-thousand years reign with Christ as their Ruler. On the other hand, those who will be unworthy will be slain and their souls thrown into the lake of fire. It is also worthy noting that the second stage of the first resurrection occurs at this time.

This entails the resurrection or transformation of all those who received the Gospel of the Kingdom during the Tribulation and were put to death.

Another event that dispensationalists believe will occur in the end time is the binding of Satan. Just like the premillennialists, the dispensationalists believe that Satan will be bound immediately prior to the millennium. They also view the millennium as a reign characterized by tranquility and prosperity.

According to Bass, though the two views concur in this proposition, the dispensationalists hold that it is Christ and Jews who rule the earth, and not Him and the Church as the premillennialists hold (1979, 43).

The Dispensationalism view also agrees with Premillennialism in other end-time events like the loosing of time, the second resurrection, and the Great White Throne judgment as well as the creation of the new heavens and earth. The preceding discussion on Dispensationalism if carefully examined reveals its underlying misconception that God is working out two different plans, one for the Jews and another for the Church.

This material perspective renders this view unacceptable, at least according to the Lutheran perspective. This is because the dispensationalists do not view all Scripture and all of the history of salvation as a unison based on the person and redemptive work of Jesus Christ. As such, Brighton holds that it extends untrue hopes of other ways of salvation (Brighton 1999, 540).

If dispensationalism is disputable from a Lutheran perspective, what does the Lutheran Church hold as the true interpretation to the Second Advent of Christ? This questions paves way to the third view of the millennium as spelt out by postmillennialism. The Commission on Theology and Church Relations of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (CTCR-LCMS) contradicts the preceding views on the millennium in a number of ways.

To begin with, it holds that the Second Advent of Christ will take place after the millennium. It is only after this event that rapture, the general resurrection, the general judgment and eternal states occur (1989, 6).

Postmillennialism also supports other end-time events such as the binding of Satan by Christ at His first Advent, Satan’s little season at the end of the millennium, Christ’s Second Advent, the bodily resurrection and final judgment as well as the creation of the new heavens and earth.

Though this view is not popular with theologians today, it was prominent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries though it began to diminish in the twentieth century, a phenomenon occasioned by the First World War. Henceforth, theologians commenced to have little hope on the future. As such, this view has stopped being a main eschatological view though some theologians still cling to it (Gregg 1997, 117-141).

It is evident from the above views that most almost all of them are based on either traditions or theological beliefs. None of them allows the scripture script by script. In the last of the four interpretations of Revelation 20: 1-6, this paper examines how amillennialism stands in a class of its own from the rest as it gives room for the scripture to interpret itself instead of assigning human meanings to passages.

Concisely, this view perceives the millemium as symbolic of the whole New Testament epoch. It posits that Christ ushered in the ‘last days’ at His incarnation, and during His ministry on earth. He, therefore, established His Kingdom, the church. He came to save the earth from sin, a mission He accomplished through His total conquest of sin, death, and devil.

This was achieved through His redemptive work, leading to His crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension. Christ is now sits at the right hand of God and all dominion over heaven and earth is His. He rules now and His dominion is shared by all believers throughout the thousand years, which continue until He comes back in glory on the Last Day.

In conclusion, the brevity of this paper does not allow for an in-depth exegetical or verse-by-verse analysis of Revelation 20:1-6 as supported by the amillennial view. However, it is important to note that the cause of disagreement now shifts now to, chronologically, interpret the passage (Beale 199, 874-875). Concisely, the Revelation 19 and 20 do not follow after each other.

This is because they show the same events though through different images, just as the whole book of Revelation does. As such, when one comprehends the cyclic nature of Revelation, it is unproblematic to discern the relationships between the two chapters.

For instance, Rev. 19: 11-21 depicts a picture of the final attack of Satan on the Church, which is equivalent to the activities of Satan, s ‘little season’ shown in 20: 7-10. The same scenario is painted in Rev. 6 where the beast and the false prophet pull together their evil army at Armageddon (16:16).

There is no doubt whether this is the same end time battle shown in various ways throughout Revelation with each time ending with the victory of Christ and His Church at His Second Advent on the Last Day.

The view adopted by this paper for the interpretation of Revelation 20:1-6 is, therefore, the amillennial view as it attempts to let scripture interpret itself instead of relying on half-truths characteristic of the three other views also discussed here.

Bibliography

Bass, C. 1977. Backgrounds to Dispensationalism: Its historical genesis and ecclesiastical implication. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.

Beale, G.K. 1999.The book of Revelation, the New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids; Eerdmans.

Brighton, L. A. 1999. Revelation. Concordia Commentary; St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House.

Clouse, R.G. 1977. (ed), The Meaning of the Millennium: Four views. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.

Commission on Theology and Church Relations (CTCR) of the Lutheran Church- Missouri Synod (CMS). September 1989.The End times: A study on eschatology and millennialism.

Erickson, Milliard, J. 1977.Contemporary options in eschatology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House Company.

Gregg, S. 1997. Revelation: Four views-a parallel commentary. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers.

LaHaye, T. 1998.Understanding the Last days; Keys to unlocking the Bible prophecy. Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers.

Ryrie, C.C. 1995. Dispensationalism, Chicago: Moody Press.

Scofield, C.I. 1928. Rightly dividing the Word of Truth. Philadelphia: Philadelphia School of the Bible.

Following and Preceding Passages

The preceding passages can be considered as part of the introduction. In these passages the author used an illustration to clarify his point and it is revealing that he used the concept of running a race. Interestingly, the race is a marathon and not about sprinting towards a finish line and therefore the fastest person gets the reward. Readers are made aware that the activity described herein is more likely about distance running rather than a 100-meter dash is based on the statement that endurance is the key factor that can win this race.

The preceding passages that have a bearing on Hebrews 12:6-14 is not only about the illustration of a marathon but it can even be argued that the introduction has three parts. The first one is the idea concerning the charge that the followers of Christ must develop endurance to win the race. It also suggests discipline and single-mindedness.

The second part of the introduction talks about an example of endurance and it is not the endurance commonly seen among athletes but the endurance exhibited by a man nailed to a cross. The author brought down the core of the argument by saying that Jesus did not only demand endurance and perseverance but more importantly made an example of his life. He did not only talk about the importance of “running the race” Jesus demonstrated that endurance means to die for the cause if necessary.

Finally, the last part of the introduction provides segue way to the main text and yet it is not less important. In this portion the author said that God disciplines his followers not because they are athletes competing in his honor. God disciplines his followers not because they are soldiers that are supposed to be trained, to hone their skills and to make them an invaluable part of God’s army.

There is only one reason why the LORD subjects His followers to a painful process and it is based on the fact that God does not treat them as royal subjects but treats them as children.

The passages that follow Hebrews 12:6-14 also provides the reader information that can help understand the said pericope. Immediately following the verses are statements regarding: 1) sin; 2) bitterness that defile many; 3) sexual immorality; 4) godlessness; and 5) disinheritance. This serves as some form of a warning as to what awaits those who refuse be purified and even those who chose to go away.

Form Criticism and Structure

The literary form can be generally described as a sermon that contains a warning (Schenck, p.5). This is based on the fact that the author carefully laid down an illustration to illuminate what he was trying to say. There are other passages in the Book of Hebrews that uses the same literary form. For instance the same style can be seen in Hebrews 6:4-6.

The purpose of this style is to warn the believers but at the same time one should see a hint of encouragement. In this case this was achieved by showing the people that there is a precedent. Jesus Christ was the best example and he can be a role model in suffering and going through the process. Secondly, the suffering of the saints produces eternal glory as well as present gains such as a higher level of maturity seen in righteous actions (Andreasen, p.28).

Thus, one can see the rationale for the structure used in this pericope. There is a parallelism used to the suffering endured by Jesus on the cross and the glory that he experienced later on. A parallelism was used in pointing out that the same thing can happen to the believers who will endure and go through the process of purification; they too will receive their reward.

Redaction Criticism

It is difficult to detect any revision or redaction made to the pericope. But there are those who contend that there is something strange with the omission of the concept of repentance. Theodore of Mopsuestia argued as to how can the believers strengthen their feeble knees and lift their drooping hands if they not repent (Heen, Krey, & Oden, p.217). It is possible that this portion has been edited in order to prevent confusion. This because the purpose of the epistle must have been for those who used to practice Judaism and the addition of repentance in the text may send the wrong message.

In Relation to God

The passage speaks volumes about the believers’ relationship with God. The LORD does not see the believer as an ordinary member of the congregation but precious in his sight. The importance of the believer is highlighted in the fact that God is not just fond of him like a person is fond of a collector’s item. There is nothing that God could gain from loving this person. In other words the relationship is not symbiotic such as a farmer taking care of his animals knowing someday he can butcher them and sell them to others.

The importance given to the believer is borne out of love. This is clarified even further by this pericope to mean not just a simple relationship like a love of a friend but in truth it is like the love of a father towards a son or daughter. This is an important insight because it provides the basis for the other aspects of the pericope. It provides a justification for obedience.

An athlete does not train for the sake of training. An athlete trains regularly and increases his workload to the point of mental and physical exhaustion not because he simply loves what he is doing but for a higher purpose (Croy, p.37). He is working hard because he knows of the prize that awaits them at the end of the finish line.

He is not doing anything that goes to waste. There is a rationale to his every step. There is a purpose for everything that he is doing and this is what the author of the passage tries to communicate to the readers of Hebrews.

Endurance has been given a framework to work on. It is difficult to inspire people and to make them to do something if they cannot wrap around their mind on the concept (Rothschild, p.109). The rewards that the author said in the beginning may be easily understandable to a mature person or a veteran.

But for those who are new to the ideas of Christianity the problems can easily overwhelm mind and emotion (Bromiley, p.885). The illustration of the runner battling it out with the elements is a perfect way to provide an anchor for their thoughts.

Although the idea of the runner in the preceding passages serves as added information for the readers to understand the context of the passage it works well to segue way into the main part of the text which is a sermon on discipline (Clayton, p.5). The author said that there should be no problem when it comes to discipline. He went on to say that the reason for this discipline is the love of God.

Thus, it has been said that without the love of God this discipline does not make sense. The love of God is likened to the love of a father. This simply means that the discipline is for an intended purpose. It was not meant to harm and to ridicule.

The Community

The Book of Hebrews is actually an epistle written by an unknown author and addressed to former Jews who converted to Christianity. By the time of writing there are probably two events that has transpired. The first one is the persecution of the Christians in the first century. Secondly, the Roman Empire finally fed up with the unruly subjects in Palestine decided to sack Jerusalem and destroy the Temple that Jews considered as vital part of their lives.

At this point in history a Christian can be weakened by the circumstances, confused by the present and unsure of what the future will bring to him and his family. Their religion, Judaism calls them like a piece of floating debris calls a person floating hopelessly in the ocean after his boat has capsized. But on the other end there is a much better offer for help one that does not promise temporary relief from pain but a hope for eternal life.

The purpose of the letter was to inspire the readers not to lose hope. The main goal of the epistle is for them to understand why these things are happening to them. It was written that all these things did not happen in random but there is someone who allowed these things to happen.

It is possible that the Jews who converted to Christianity were wondering what they got themselves into. They were living simple lives and to some extent content with their life. But when they decided to follow Jesus they were met with a barrage of testing and trials. Many of them may have been frustrated and many of them question why they were punished.

Thus, the epistle to the Hebrews is an explanation to them that this is not punishment. There is a big difference between punishment and discipline. By pointing to the illustration of the father and child the author hopes that the readers distinguish this relationship from one that they are familiar with, the master and slave relationship.

In this particular relationship the master brings out the whip to punish the slave for many reasons and sometimes his actions need not justified. Most of the time the act of whipping a slave is done to simply appease the raging anger within.

The slave in front of him need not be the culprit of any crime. The slave master can whip anyone he wants. This is done to create fear or simply to demonstrate power. It is possible that the author of this epistle had this relationship in mind and so he used that to show that in the hardships experienced by believers the pain and suffering did not come as a form of mindless punishment but for discipline.

Pain and suffering was not meant to destroy but to build up. Testing and trials is for the building up of endurance. There is an end-goal to the suffering. But there is another important facet to this passage. The author is actually providing a way for the believers to understand their new identity in Christ.

In their former religion there is a Supreme Being and they are nothing but dust in his feet. In this new paradigm presented they are no longer ordinary people and members of a group they have now given the right to become children of God. This is not a new concept among Christian believers but if the Hebrew converts were new to this belief system then this passage provided them a way to know more about who they are and how they must approach God.

The pericope also gave the readers some sort of a road map. There is now a clear direction from God. They must continue to move forward like a marathoner seeking for the finish line and like a soldier going forth to conquer new lands. More importantly the road map given is not just a means to reach the final destination but also a way to achieve the purpose of the discipline which is to develop holiness within the Christian.

Holiness is the end goal. The author said that this is important because holiness is key to a blessed life on earth as well as giving access to an eternal life in heaven. Holiness leads to healing of the physical and spiritual body. If taken literally the verses found at the latter part of the pericope shows that healing of the body is feasible when a person focuses on holiness. At the same time holiness strengthens the inner man and that is why the person is whole and not lame when it comes time to worship God.

Conclusion

The passage found in Hebrews served an important purpose for Hebrews who converted to Christianity. In a time of confusion and inner-turmoil, this epistle gave them hope. It provided an explanation why they are in the midst of terrible testing and trials to the point that many of them consider it as a punishment from God. Thus, they were told that this is not God punishing them but their heavenly Father in heaven disciplining the one he loves.

Works Cited

Andreasen, Milian. The Book of Hebrews. New York: Teach Services, Inc.,2005.

Bromiley, Geoffrey. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing,1988.

Clayton, Croy. Endurance in Suffering. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Heen, Erik, Philip Krey and Thomas Oden. Hebrews. WI: Intervarsity Press, 2005.

Rothschild, Clare. Hebrews as Pseudepigraphon. IL: Chicago University Press, 2009.

Schenck, Kenneth. Cosmology and Eschatology in Hebrews: The Settings of the Sacrifice. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Introduction

The interpretation of the Holy Scripture or biblical hermeneutics as it is also known has always been a subject of heated debate among theologians, scholars, and even literary critics. It is possible for us to single out several methods of analysis, such as for instance, contextual, cultural, lexical-syntactical techniques and so forth. It is necessary to show how various authors interpret biblical texts and how they approach this issue. In particular, we may focus on the Gospel of Mark, which is the shortest and probably the most controversial of the Christian volumes. For example, we may take such works as the article, A Case Study of Resurrection Revised, written by Allen Wesley, additionally, we may consider Johnsons Commentary on Mark 16 and finally, the interpretation of this pericope, presented by James Tracy at the site Anatheist.net. It is of crucial importance to show the perspective, from which they analyze the Gospel according to Mark.

The use of various hermeneutic techniques

Historic and cultural approaches

As far as Allen Wesley is concerned, it is worth mentioning that the scholar gives preference to historical and cultural approaches while interpreting this text. He focuses on the audience of the Gospel and the impact, which it should produce on them. We should probably elaborate this statement: according to the author, Mark appeals mostly to the early Christians, the first followers of Jesus, who should build the new Temple of God or create a new religion, which would be different from Judaism (Wesley, p. 3).

Allen Wesley believes that this is arguably the most important aspect of this text. Yet, we cannot limit his work to only historical and cultural frameworks, because he also examines the symbolism of the Gospel. Namely, he attracts our attention to such concepts as the temple and the empty tomb. In his view, Mark wants to tell Christians that they should seek Jesus (who has already departed the tomb) and follow his teaching in order to resurrect. Allen Wesley attempts to combine both allegorical and historic hermeneutics because such an approach provides room for discussion and enables us to advance various interpretations of this text. At first glance, it may appear that his treatment is the most objective because it incorporates both historical context and allegory, however, one disagrees with it by claiming that the Gospel of Mark and the Bible, in general, should be discussed within the historic framework.

In addition to that, we need to say that the author does not fully adhere to the principle of inerrancy, which means that different parts of the New Testament never contradict one another. On the contrary, Allen Wesley believes that these controversies are primarily caused by various intentions of the disciples.

Logical analysis

In sharp contrast with him, James Tracy in his article The Empty Tomb Two Gospel of Mark discusses this biblical text from a logical standpoint, particularly; the writer argues that there are some inconsistencies within the pericope, which, in fact, cast doubt on its credibility. First and foremost, we need to take it into consideration that logical analysis is not always the best way of interpreting the Bible, because it always seeks a clear and concise explanation, but this book does not always give such an explanation: more likely, it makes us form our own conclusions.

Nonetheless, such an approach to Hermeneutics cannot be entirely rejected. Thus, the main argument, which James Tracy puts forward, is that Mark cannot possibly know about the events, which he so eloquently describes. The main reason for it is that three women who saw the empty tomb were frightened and they did not tell any person about it. It can be observed that his analysis contradicts theological canons. Apart from that, James Tracy suggests that Mark employs Christological interpretation of the Old Testament, for instance, the scholar points out that some lines in the gospel bear striking resemblance to the Book of Daniel (Tracy, p. 1). Thus, we may conclude that the author alternates several methods of hermeneutics: logical analysis and the lexical-syntactic method.

It is rather difficult to assess the strengths and weaknesses of his interpretation. Certainly, such methods are quite applicable if we are speaking about some historical documents or literary works. It has to be admitted, they are probably the most effective, yet, they are inappropriate to religious texts, which convey their message in the form of allegory and various symbols. As regards James Tracy and his work, we need to say that the author explicitly states that this Gospel takes its origins from some other biblical texts. He suggests that the “historicity of this pericope does not close scrutiny” (Tracy, p. 1). The question arises whether we can treat the New Testament as a historic document.

Allegorical Interpretation

If we try to compare the approaches, taken by Allen Wesley and James Tracy we can argue that both scholars pay extra attention to this historic background. The main difference between them is that Allen Wesley does not question the validity of this text, whereas Tracy emphasizes the idea that the historicity of the resurrection is not evidence-based.

The evaluation of various methods

We may compare these interpretations to Johnsons commentary on the Gospel. This article suggests that Mark is not particularly concerned with the image of an angel. In his opinion, the disciple of Jesus Christ wants to convey our attention to the fact; the Savior reveals himself to Mary Magdalene but not to his pupils as one may expect him to do. According to Johnson, this is probably the most crucial moment in the Gospel, because it indicates that Jesus Christ came to save sinners (Johnson p 1). It should be borne in mind that he cast out seven demons out of her. This message can be found throughout the New Testament in which Jesus often says that he came to the aid of those people who are weak, and fragile.

We should mention that Johnson prefers the allegorical interpretation of this pericope; his main purpose is to analyze its main ideas but not the form in which they are presented. It seems that such technique is the most beneficial because it enables the reader to understand the main message, which Mark tries to convey. The only disadvantage is that the allegory often has several layers of meaning and it can be misunderstood.

Conclusion

To conclude, these works illustrate the use of various hermeneutic techniques such as logical, cultural, and allegoric interpretations. The authors prefer to focus on various aspects of the Gospel. James Tracy considers it as a historic document and suggests that it has several logical inconsistencies. Allen Wesley focuses on the cultural impact of this text and its main idea, the quest for Jesus Christ, whereas Johnson places emphasis on the idea that Jesus Christ came to this world to save sinners. It is not permissible to give preference to any of these interpretations, because all of them have some rational points. However, while analyzing any religious text, a person should first identify its major message but not its formal elements.

Bibliography

1. Allen, O Wesley, Jr. “Mark 16:1-8: a case study of resurrection revised.” Homiletic 28.2 (2003): 7-15. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. EBSCO. [EBSCOhost], [Oxford]
2. Johnson, Barton W. “Commentary on Mark 16“. “People’s New Testament”.1891. Web.
3. Tracy James. “AnAtheist.net”.2009.

The Lord sent his Son to save humanity. Jesus became our Savior; He sacrificed his life and accepted tortures and pain to expiate our sins and to give us an opportunity to live. This is definitely the occasion that is one of the most important for humanity. In particular, the annunciation of the Lord’s grace and the future coming of the Savor has been a powerful and impressive event interpreted in human creative work. The angel appeared in front of Mary and said that she “hast found favor with God” (Lk 1:30) and “that holy thing which shall be born … shall be called the Son of God” (Lk 1:35). Thus, the appearance of Gabriel to Mary and the Annunciation is one of the most impressive and powerful biblical themes. The present paper is devoted to the works of art that interpret the Annunciation since art is the purest reflection of human feelings.

The present paper analyzes several classical paintings, Titian’s The Annunciation among them, presents the interpretation of the biblical extract as the frequently used theme of icons, and the analysis of Bach’s The Magnificat as a musical piece interpreting the same topic. A multidimensional approach to the theme of Annunciation in the art will help to create a harmonious understanding of the value of the Annunciation for humanity.

Titian’s The Annunciation in San Salvatore, Venice, was created during the last decades of his life (Ridolfi and Bondanella 9). This fact is important since it signifies that the creation of The Annunciation is a thought-out decision of a mature artist with rich artistic experience and life experience as well. The painting’s technique is perfect, it impresses a viewer with the artist’s application of a “myriad and even smaller brush strokes” (Ridolfi and Bondanella 9). The same authors describe this painting as “smoldering and mysterious”, “tragic and pessimistic in a way … to create images of human suffering and hope” (Ridolfi and Bondanella 9). It is difficult to go all the way with their opinion. In fact, “mysterious” is the perfect epithet for the painting, for Titian has managed to show the mystery of the event perfectly. The prevalence of shadows symbolizes the mystery and, probably, the difficulty of earthly life. The world is wrapped in darkness and the Lord is apt to save it. The dove symbolizes the Holy Spirit that will bring light and salvation to the suffering humanity. The light from the Holy Spirit is spreading all over and it seems that bright colors begin to force the darkness out at once. The angel Gabriel is the prominent element of the picture; it seems that Titian attributes more importance to him. The realism of his posture suggests the impression of movement and positive energy seems to come out of him. Gabriel is the bearer of hope; he is going to instill it in Mary’s life. Humanity will be saved; Jesus will help people to come out of the darkness. This is the main message of Titian’s painting.

A very interesting ground for analysis offers The Annunciation by Paolo de Matteis. The way different artists interpret the same episode from the Holy Bible in their own ways is really fascinating. The center of Matteis’ painting is the figure of the Virgin Mary. He makes use of special colors to portray her; pink and blue are prevalent in her garment only. Mary is less emotional than Titian’s, she seems to be ready for her holy mission, peace of mind and resignation can be observed on her face. Gabriel and other angels are also less emotional than Titian’s. This interpretation of the biblical plot suggests hope, light, and happiness but it is less emotional than the previous one analyzed.

The Annunciation by El Greco is interesting for the present analysis since it incorporates the features of both paintings that are analyzed above. Scholz-Hansen states that in The Annunciation, El Greco abandons “nearly every reference to the objective world” (73). It is really so, for the artist, the most important thing is the symbolism of occasion; he depicts it as a miracle, the unbelievable gesture of the Lord, immense mercy of His. Both characters of the painting seem to be equally important, the messenger and the Holy Virgin. The background of the painting presents an arch that leads to the yard, to open space. This element suggests the openness of the whole action, it is not concealed from people, anyone may see it as God’s blessing is meant for all people.

It is natural that the Annunciation has been among the most frequently used biblical plots that are reflected in icons. Quenot mentions two types of icons relating to the theme of the Annunciation. The first was found in the sixth century (Quenot 118). The main features of these icons are the presence of Gabriel who is announcing the divine motherhood and by the ray of light directed to Virgin Mary (Quenot 120). Thus, the same elements are used as in the paintings. The main distinction is the absence of emotions on the faces of Mary and Gabriel. It can be explained by the purpose of icons: they just state the fact and appeal to emotions, they are meant for awakening the emotions. They are the mediums between the Lord and people. As for the second type of icon devoted to the Annunciation, their distinctive feature is that they contain the image of the Child ahead of an adult that is inscribed within his mother’s womb; he raises his hand for blessing (Quenot 122). Their figurative meaning is that the Savior already exists, even unborn yet, so powerful he is. These icons awaken and strengthen faith.

While the above-analyzed examples belong to a visual type of expression, the theme of the importance of the Virgin Mary has been present in music as well. A good example is The Magnificat by Bach. It was originally composed for Christmas Day and consisted of twelve short sections. The composer did his best using these sections for illustration of the emotions and feelings. Later he revised The Magnificat and made it useful for any religious festival (Boyd 152). This modification of the composition has shown that the divine motherhood of Mary is a central theme of the Holy Bible, the theme that should be always present in every soul of every person.

Drawing a conclusion, it is possible to state that the biblical plot of the Announcement symbolizes the salvation of humanity. This is why it is so important. Everyone is free to interpret it in his/her own way as it is a matter of faith and spiritual ties between a person and the Lord. Still, the analysis of the classical works has shown that the Annunciation is the beginning of alteration of humanity, the start of purification from sin. We should never forget the moment when the Lord decided to open His desire to save people and to give them a chance to start their life once again even if He had to sacrifice the life of His only Son.

References

Boyd, Malcolm. Bach. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Scholz-Hansen, Michael. El Greco: Domenikos Theotokopoulous, 1541-1614. Koln: Taschen, 2004.

Rifoldi, Carlo, and Julia Conaway Bondanella. The Life of Titian. USA: Penn State Press, 1996.

Quenot, Michel. The Resurrection and the Icon. New York: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1997.

Introduction

The Vedic religion is also referred to as the Vedic Brahmanism of Vedism. It is the historical predecessor of Indian religions such as Hinduism. (Franklin, 1972) It’s a religious practice centered mostly on sacrificial rites which were administered by the clergy. This tradition is still widely practiced by a small fraction of the conservative Shrautis today within contemporary Hinduism. The Vedas have recorded liturgy that was connected with the sacrifices and rituals which were performed by the Purohitas. The Rigveda hymns according to traditional views were divinely brought out to the Rishis. These Rishis were considered hearers rather than authors.

As noted by Franklin (1972) Rigvedic hymns spoke clearly about composing new and understandable hymns by individual authors who competed with their colleagues. The worship mode was based on worshiping rivers and fire. It also involved the worship of heroic gods such as Indra which was quite similar to the religion practiced by the Greeks. It also involved the performance of sacrifices and chanting heroic songs.

The common man was helped in performing rituals by the priests. People spent their time praying for an abundance of rain, children and cattle or wealth, long life, and live in the heavenly world of ancestors. These worship practices have been preserved to date in Hinduism. It involves recitations by a Purohit or the priest from the Vedas. The recitation centers on issues such as wealth, prosperity, and also general wellbeing.

The Vedic period

The Vedic period in Indian history is the period during which the Vedas, that is, the oldest texts of Hinduism was composed. This period reaches as far back as the Proto-Indo-Iranian times. This period is predicted to have ended at around 500 B.C. The Vedic religion metamorphosed into the current Indian religions such as Vedanta schools of Buddhism and Hinduism. The latter further grew into Puranic Hinduism. The former diversified into Japanese and Chinese schools. The Vedic religion differs from the Upanishads in that while the religious rituals centered on wealth, rain, children, and other material things the Upanishads primarily discussed mostly meditation, philosophy, and the nature of God. It was considered as spiritual or mystic contemplations of the Vedas. (Walpola, 1974)

Comparison to the Upanishads

While the Vedic religion belonged to a particular period the Upanishads do not have a particular period to which they belong. The Upanishads element of worship holds information on basic Hindu beliefs which includes a universal spirit, Brahman, and individual soul called Atman, and also the belief in a world soul. The Gita which dates back to 150 B.C centered on five main philosophical subject matters or five basic concepts of truths namely, Jiva, Ishvara, Prakrti, Kala, and Karma. Jiva meant living beings, Ishvara meant time and Karma meant action.

The tenet that the soul is immortal and eternal was what Krishna began with. Krishna explained that death on a battleground would only take the body but not the soul because the soul is permanent. These developments spread the Vedic religion in that the Gita also focused on life in the heavenly world of the ancestors similar to the beliefs held by the Vedic religion. (Thomas, 1971)

References

Franklin, E. Bhagavad Gita, London: Harvard University Press, 1972.

Thomas J. The Hindu Religious Tradition, New York: Wadsworth, 1971.

Walpola, R. What the Buddha Taught, New York: Grove Press, 1974.

Facts

The verse explains on what one must do to inherit everlasting life. Eternal life can only be achieved through obeying God’s law which is summarized into two: loving God and the neighbor. The emphasis is on doing not just knowing which has been repeated thrice: verse 25, 28, and 37.

The parable given from verse 30 to 35 emphasis on the act of doing in the definition of a neighbor just the way the Good Samaritan helped a man who had been robbed and bitten then left to death, an act that the Priest and the Levite didn’t yet they knew and taught about God’s law on love (Alexander & Patricia, 1999).

The conversation was between Jesus Christ and a lawyer. The lawyer knew the Jewish custom as he was a professional in their law which is both written and verbal.

The lawyer was testing Jesus on the law where he even calls Him “Teacher.” Jesus having perceived his intention He then answers him with a question concerning what the law says. In the lawyer’s attempt of justifying himself, he therefore wants Jesus to verify who the neighbor is where He answers by giving a parable. There was nothing Christ gave against the law (Yancey & Quinn, 2001).

Jesus was in Jerusalem when He was being tested by the lawyer. He gave a parable of man who was travelling from Jerusalem on his way to Jericho. Jerusalem is about 17 miles far from Jericho. Many people passed through the route but it wasn’t a safe route; there were robbers who attacked people. The victim was then left just by roadside where everybody could see him on his way; three categories of people saw him: the Priest, the Levite, and the Samaritan (Alexander & Patricia, 1999).

The conversation took place when Jesus had already predicted His death. By this time the Jews had sought to kill Him by the argument that He made Himself God when He said that He’s from God who is His father. They were accusing Him of blasphemy in forging of sins.

The Pharisees, the Jews and the lawyers didn’t believe in Him. Actually at this particular time the lawyer wanted to get something that he can accuse Him for. He’s a “Teacher” yet He teaches against their law but he didn’t manage to trap Him. His time to be put to death had not yet come (Yancey & Quinn, 2001).

Interpretation

The conversation took place immediately after the return of the seventy who had been sent out to preach. They had returned with joy because of the great things that had happened but Christ challenged them to be joyous in that their names are known in heaven.

He then rejoices in spirit where He tells His disciples that they are blessed to have experienced the great things of the Lord. He thereafter went with His disciples into one village in Jerusalem called Bethany where Martha and Mary lived: the sisters to Lazarus His friend (Alexander & Patricia, 1999).

The scripture is all about things that one has to do to attain everlasting life which is achieved through loving God and man. It can then be compared with the scripture in Leviticus 18:5 which emphasis on keeping the God’s law by practicing it, just as Luke 10:28, 37, Leviticus 19:18 also emphasis on loving of ones neighbor.

Deuteronomy 6:5 Moses gives the Israelites the Ten Commandments which Christ divided them in to two in Mark12:29-31 loving God with whole self and ones neighbor. Christ refers to this law when He asked in Luke 10:26 “what is written in the law” (Yancey & Quinn, 2001).

The lawyer was in his assignment to test Jesus. He was a specialist in Jewish law which directed on what one had to do, but still he couldn’t be helped by that. The theoretical knowledge couldn’t at all help him in attaining eternal life. He wanted to know the faithfulness of Christ concerning the law where He gives him a parable in His response.

The parable is itself a contradiction “Good Samaritan.” Samaritans were hated by the Jews and not referred as their neighbors but yet he showed mercy to the victim what the Levite and the Priest didn’t do (Alexander & Patricia, 1999).

Christ is the overall Teacher. Even though the lawyer didn’t mean exactly what he said by calling Him “Teacher” by the fact that he was testing Him, at the end of the conversation He proves to be. He didn’t come to break the law which God had given to Israel though Moses but He came to fulfill the same law. Christ could not fall in the trap of the lawyer, having power to perceive his motives He answers the lawyer in the rabbinical set-up by asking him a question (Yancey & Quinn, 2001).

Application

In the day to day life this scripture defines a neighbor as someone who is in need. Showing help without considerations of gender, ethnicity, race or whichever status. The willingness to cross all these barriers is therefore important.

Also ones needs to take risk in that the Samaritan didn’t rely care whether the robbers could have hidden themselves and they could attack him also as he helped the victim. There is need to sacrifice just as the Samaritan paid the cost of treatment and even offered to pay more which would occur. This will help me to improve in my acts in showing compassion to others as a Christian (Alexander & Patricia, 1999).

References

Alexander, D., & Patricia, A. (Eds.). (1999). Zondervan Handbook ti the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.

Yancey, P., & Quinn, B . (2001). Meet the Bible. New York: Zondervan.