Category: Interpretation

The semantic dichotomy between Carrolls novel and Burton/Woolvertons movie

Nowadays, it became a common trend among Hollywood producers to preoccupy themselves with cinematographic reinterpreting of classical works of European literature that had already been put to films in earlier years. Nevertheless, while pursuing such their agenda, many of these producers often realize a simple fact that, in order for their movies to be able to win favor with viewing audiences, they would have to go as far as representing these literary works in an entirely different light from what it has been originally invented by its authors. The reason for this is simple  the multicultural realities of todays Western living are being quite inconsistent with the metaphysical values, upon which Western civilization remained firmly based, throughout the course of centuries. Whereas; as recent as fifty years ago, it would never occur to an average Westerner to even doubt the validity of rationale-based social and political theories, nowadays, more and more citizens in Western countries strive for nothing less than undermining the validity of very concepts of scientific empiricism and technological progress as being essentially wicked. One would only have to watch James Camerons most recent blockbuster Avatar to realize the full soundness of such our suggestion.

Apparently, the ongoing process of Western societies intellectual marginalization had created objective preconditions for people to be increasingly preoccupied with seeking emotional content in just about anything, as the only legitimate form of entertainment. It is important to understand that; whereas throughout the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Western concept of entertainment was essentially synonymous with the notion of intellectual exaltation, nowadays it is being synonymous with the notion of emotional intensity. This is exactly the reason why, unlike what was the case with Lewis Carrolls original novel, Tim Burton & Linda Woolvertons movie Alice in Wonderland is not being concerned with stimulating viewers brain cells, but rather with allowing audiences to get cheap thrills out of being exposed to 3D graphics, which provide emotional appeal to movies rather banal (good vs. evil) storyline. In our paper, we will aim to substantiate this thesis even to a further extent, by exposing an utter semantic dichotomy between Carrolls novel and Burton/Woolvertons movie as being objectively predetermined by what many todays neo-Conservative political scientists refer to as the decline of the West.

Hidden meanings in the plot of Lewis Carroll

As we have suggested earlier, many people in Western countries have now grown to despise the notion of scientific progress as such that contradicts the notion of political correctness and as such that, during the course of the 19^th and 20^th centuries, has been closely associated with the process of Europes colonial expansion into the Third World. However, it was named the fact that Carrolls original novel did promote rationalistic civilization vs. ritualistic savagery discourse, which made it very popular with contemporaries  by reading Alice in Wonderland, imperialistically minded Europeans were able to confirm the full validity of a notion of so-called white mans burden in their own eyes. As it has been rightly pointed out in Daniel Bivonas article Alice the Child-Imperialist and the Games of Wonderland: Alices imperialism, such as it is, is a semiotic imperialism: she is incapable of constructing, on a model radically different from her own, the system of systems that give meaning to creatures (1986, 150). Apparently, the fact Carrolls Alice was striving to expose Wonderlands creatures as being only formally affiliated with the principles of logical reasoning, had provided readers with the insight into why Europes colonial presence in the Third World was not only economically feasible but also highly moral  without this presence, it was only the matter of time before ritualistically minded savages would turn Western rationalism into the mockery of itself.

Nowadays, many critics point out the fact that in his novel, Carroll actually strived to promote an idea that there was no single reason to think of distorted logic, on the part of Wonderlands creatures, as being inferior to the proper logic of Alice. For example, in his article Dodgsons Dark Conceit: Evoking the Allegorical Lineage of Alice, Andrew Wheat suggest that in Carrolls novel, the character of Alice is being presented as the challenger of undeniable truths, as opposed to such truths enforcer: Innovative, inconclusive allegorical qualities of the Alice books to a large extent overtake the more traditional and affirmative ones, the path to this conclusion lies not in ignoring the traditional, nor in over-stressing the innovative, but in pinpointing exactly where and how Carroll first evokes the generic traditions and conventions of the allegorical quest (2009, 104). Yet, the validity of these types of suggestions appears to be only partial  while probing the legitimacy of conventional categories of logic, Carroll acted like a typical intellectually advanced Westerner.

The close reading of both Carrolls novels reveals that the author was well aware of the fact that the validity of logic-based notions could only be discussed in regards to the system of coordinates, within which these notions exist. Moreover, once a particular system of coordinates loses all links with another system of coordinates, the flow of time in both systems ceases to remain interconnected (after having woken up, Alice realized that her trip to Wonderland lasted only for a few seconds). What it means is that in Alice in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll had foreseen the foremost theoretical tenets, upon which Einsteins Theory of Relativity is being based. In its turn, this explains why Carrolls novel can only be formally referred to as such that belongs to childrens literature, in the contemporary sense of this word.

The validity of this thesis is being particularly self-evident in regards to Carrolls second novel about Alices adventures in Wonderland Through the Looking-glass, which many literary critics refer to as being nothing short of a highly philosophical treatise on logic. In his article Looking Glass: A Treatise on Logic, William Sacksteder had made a perfectly good point while emphasizing this novels non-engagement with the issues of morality as thing in itself: Alice experiences no incongruities of size, but rather intellectual and verbal incongruities. Her encounters do not issue moral instruction, but rather an explanation and debate& The prevailing disproportion and occasion for humor are between verbalization and reality (1967, 340). In order for people to enjoy reading Carrolls novels, they must be endowed with a certain degree of intellectual sophistication, regardless of what these readers age might be. The fact that, during the course of the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-glass has gained almost immediate popularity with adolescent readers simply indicates that, despite these readers young age, they were fully capable of operating with rather abstract categories.

And, even a brief inquiry into the subject matter, provides us with insight into this phenomenon  in the first part of the 20^th century, childrens (boys) hobbies were primarily concerned with a variety of technical pursuits (model plane building, radios assembling, motorcycles maintaining, etc.). By indulging in these activities, children were developing their ability to operate with highly abstract categories of formal logic, which is why they were able to derive an intellectual pleasure out of reading Carrolls novels. Nowadays, due to the fact that enforcers of political correctness have largely succeeded in taking over the domain of public education, and due to the fact that multiculturalization (barbarization) of Western societies continues to gain an exponential momentum, which results in a continuous lowering of educational standards (affirmative action), children as well as adults, are no longer being encouraged to expand their intellectual horizons, but to be solely preoccupied with celebration of diversity. In its turn, this created a situation when, despite many students inability to point at the U.S. on the worlds map, they nevertheless know just about everything they can about sexual positions and about different kinds of drugs. And, as it has always been the case, throughout the course of history, the lower is the rate of peoples IQ, the stronger is their affiliation with morality, ritualistic (new age) spirituality and emotional sensuality.

Apparently, Tim Burton and Linda Woolverton were well aware of this fact, which is why their cinematographic interpretation of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-glass appears to have been made in exact accordance with the dogmas of political correctness  it is intellectually shallow, highly moralistic, pretentiously rebellious and artificially sophisticate. By providing their movie with a linear storyline, by instilling it with clearly defined feministic overtones, and by depriving it of Carrolls original spirit of logical riddlism, Burton and Woolverton simply strived to appease marginalized aesthetic tastes of American moviegoers. In the next part of our paper, we will explore this suggestion at length.

Difference in the rationale of the storyline of development

The most obvious difference between Carrolls Alice in Wonderland and Alice in Wonderland by Burton and Woolverton is the fact that, unlike what is the case with Carrolls novel, the movie features a clearly defined developmental storyline. From the time when Alice fell down the rabbit hole until the time she came out of there, every part of her journey never ceased being consequential, in regards to the previous ones; whereas, in the original novel, there are no strong logical links between places and situations, Alice would find herself in. In its turn, this can be explained by the fact that Carroll viewed his novel as an exercise in logic  by placing Alice in seemingly unrelated situations, Carroll was prompting readers to utilize their own sense of rationale while figuring out how the novels scenes, themes, and motifs defined its storyline.

In the preface to his book The Logic of Sense, Gilles Deleuze had come up with a perfectly legitimate suggestion, while stating: The privileged place assigned to Lewis Carroll is due to his having provided the first great account, the first great mise en scene of the paradoxes of sense  sometimes collecting, sometimes renewing, sometimes inventing and sometimes preparing them (2004, IX). Just as it is being the case with many contemporary commercials, the connection between the novels scenes only exists in the minds of readers.

In Burton and Woolvertons movie, however, scenes progress from one to another in rather a linear manner, which undermines the storylines plausibility  only a few adult viewers would find the story 19 years old girls adventures in Wonderland (as the ultimate consequence of her unwillingness to marry Hamish), as being very credible. It appears that producers preoccupation with trying to provide viewers with insight onto motivations, behind Alices every move, had played a bad trick on them  instead of endowing the movie with credibility, it resulted in creating an entirely opposite effect. The fact that Burton and Woolvertons interpretation is cinematographic, cannot serve as justification for the fact that the movie appears to be deprived of Carrolls novels original spirit. For example, the 1981 Russian animation Alice in Wonderland does not feature a linear plot, just as it is the case in Carrolls novel, and yet  it is highly watchable.

Nevertheless, it is not the fact that the movies structure does not quite correlate with that of a novel, which makes it anything but Carrollian, but the fact that Burton and Woolvertons interpretation of Carrolls novel is highly moralistic. Unlike what is the case in the novel, the movies characters are being clearly divided into good and evil. Apparently, the movies producers were not concerned with stimulating viewers brain cells, as much as they were concerned with instilling them with positive values. One would only need to compare qualitative subtleties of Alices dialogues in the novels and film, in order to realize the full legitimacy of this statement. Here is what Alices dialogue with a Pigeon sounded like in Carrolls original novel:

I have tasted eggs, certainly, said Alice, who was a very truthful child; but little girls eat eggs quite as much as serpents do, you know. I dont believe it, said the Pigeon; but if they do, why, then theyre a kind of serpent: thats all I can say. Youre looking for eggs, I know that well enough; and what does it matter to me whether youre a little girl or a serpent? (1876, 30).

The context of this dialogue implies emotional impartiality  Alice and Pigeon are simply exercising their ability to indulge in logical reasoning  nothing else. And, here is how Alices dialogue with Mad Hatter sounded like in Burton and Woolvertons movie:

Hatter: Im frightened, Alice. I dont like it in here, its terribly crowded. Have I gone mad?. Alice: Afraid so, youre entirely bonkers. But Ill tell you a secret  all the best people are! (00.56.33).

In this dialogue, Alice sounded like a typical middle-aged White housewife, whose post-climaxes urges and whose bellyful idling makes her believe that she is a great expert on tolerance. It is not only that Alice did not try to actively confront Hatters madness, as is being the case in Carrolls original novel, but she actually encouraged him to expose others to his madness as something absolutely natural. By doing so, Alice acted as todays enforcers of political correctness, who often go as far as denying the validity of scientifically proven facts, simply because these facts do not sound tolerant enough to their ears. For example, in 2009, the officials from American Psychological Association have openly proclaimed that homosexuality can no longer be discussed in terms of pathology, even though that such their suggestion is being utterly unscientific  as recent as 5 years ago, the officials from the same Association used to suggest something entirely opposite. Nowadays, it is not only that mentally deviated people are being assumed normal, but particularly special  the fact that in Burton and Woolvertons movie, Alice never ceases being fascinated with different emanations of behavioral inadequateness, on the part of creatures, simply reflects film creators strong affiliation with left-wing political agenda.

Thus, it comes as no surprise why it was namely Mad Hatter, who assumed a highly moral posture of a rebel against oppressive authority and who rallied others to support his cause  the parallels between Mad Hatter and often mentally inadequate promoters of left-wing agenda, who call for an abandonment of euro-centric terms of authority and discipline as intolerant and chauvinistic, are quite obvious not to be noticed. And yet, the original sounding of Carrolls original novels can be referred to as anything but progressive, in the politically correct sense of this word. As it has been rightly pointed out in Calvin Petersens article Time and Stress: Alice in Wonderland: Carroll obviously felt this secret of irony, whether or not he ever fully admitted it to himself. The Era of Progress had brought neither the millennium nor utopia, but an all-devouring, all-destroying, dark resistless stream. It may be that the stream and the conception of time which it carries that bring on the stress of modern existence  life ever rushing from its own perplexity, progress as a thin veneer against a darker truth (1985, 432). The fact that Burton and Woolvertons movie is being instilled with a variety of positivist ideas is what sets it apart from Carrolls novels more than anything else does.

In its turn, this also explains why the movies imagery appears fantasy-like  Burton and Woolvertons Wonderland reminds John Tolkiens Middle Earth: Red Queens soldiers look like orks, the members of White Queens entourage look like elves, the castle of White Queen looks like Tolkiens Rivendale, etc. Also, just as is the case with Tolkiens novels, the movies storyline revolves around the never-ending struggle of good against evil. Yet, it is important to understand that the charm of Carrolls novels consisted in the authors ability to provide readers with an opportunity to mentally construct their own Wonderland.

As Douglas Nickel had rightly suggested in his book Dreaming in Pictures: The Photography of Lewis Carroll: Carrolls pictures operated in a world where migration from one classification to the other was not as unmanageable as it would later become, where real and unreal as yet coexist equally as a set of potential pictures available to the artistic imagination (2002, 53). By being taken to Carrolls Wonderland, readers felt as if they were inside of ones dream. However, the scenery of Burton and Woolvertons movie is being just too realistic to be referred to as dream-like, and the appearance of Wonderland creatures is being spared of any symbolic undertones whatsoever, unlike what is the case in Carrolls original novels.

Apparently, it never occurred to Burton and Woolverton that creatures physical appearance was meant to provide readers/viewers with insight into the workings of their minds. For example, in the article from which we have already quoted, Daniel Bivona points out the fact that Blue Caterpillars hookah is actually an item, closely associated with the East: The hookah, itself a stock orientalizing feature, highlights the Caterpillars foreignness; and the tautological turn that their conversation takes demonstrates, not that the Caterpillar is incorrigibly illogical, but rather that he refuses to be comprehended by Alices categories of meaning (1986, 151). By depicting Caterpillar with hookah, Carroll wanted to emphasize that the rationale of this creature worked along different lines, as compared to what is the case with the rationale of Whites. In his article Cultures of Reason, Bruce Bower states: In a variety of reasoning tasks, East Asians take a holistic approach. They make little use of categories and formal logic and instead focus on relations among objects and the context in which they interact (2000, 57). Nevertheless, it is highly doubtful whether the films creators were even aware of what was the actual reason for Carroll to depict Caterpillar with a hookah in its mouth, in the first place, otherwise, whey would make Caterpillars eyes appear slanted; just it was the case with the character of Yoda from George Lukas Star Wars.

Instead, Burton and Woolverton made Caterpillar look like Winston Churchill. Apparently, it has now become taboo for producers to even think of portraying representatives of ethnic minorities in a somewhat unfavourable light. The same does not apply to wicked Whites, of course, which explains why Burton and Woolverton had made a point in ridiculing the character of Hamish  in the eyes of producers, this character was supposed to emanate psychological qualities that are now being ridiculed by Medias and by especially progressive social scientists as euro-centric, and therefore evil  emotional coldness, perceptional rationalism and the ability to plan things ahead of time.

Thus, it will not be an exaggeration to say that Burton and Woolvertons movie subtly promotes an idea that, with the exclusion of mentally abnormal individuals (the best people), such as the character of Mad Hatter and White Queen, all Whites can be divided on ice-cold imperialists (the characters of Red Knave, Hamish and Red Queen), and on saliva-drooling imbeciles (the characters Tweedledum and Tweedledee). This suggestion is consistent with our papers main thesis, which is being concerned with the exposal of Burton and Woolvertons Alice in Wonderland as another cinematographic vehicle of pushing forward the neo-Liberal agenda. The fact that, besides aiming to instill viewers with a sense of historical guilt, the movie also promotes a feminist cause, can serve as yet additional proof as to the full validity of this papers initial thesis.

In his critical review of Burton and Woolvertons movie, Ethan Alter states: At its core, Burtons take on the material recasts Carrolls odd little childrens story as a tale of female empowerment. His Alice stands on the precipice of adulthood, torn between becoming the woman 19th-century society expects her to benamely a dutiful wife and motherand the woman she wants to be, a free-spirited dreamer (2010, 138). There are many scenes, throughout the course of a movie, when Alice beats impossible odds, by simply exposing these odds to her female charms (the scene of Alice escaping on Bandersnatch, for example). Without even having to mention that these scenes are being inconsistent with the spirit of Carrolls original novels, they also do not add to the movies overall plausibility, as Alices feminist posture does not make much of a sense, within the context of the Victorian eras socio-political realities.

Thus, we can say that Burton and Woolvertons Alice in Wonderland is more related to the Lord of the Rings movie, than to Carrolls novels, out of which Burton and Woolverton supposedly drew inspiration. Just as it was the case with Frodo single-handedly saving Middle Earth, Alice was given the mission of saving Wonderland, which she initially rejects. Just as Middle Earth, Burtons Wonderland appears romantically realistic. Just as Sauron, from Lord of the Rings, Red Queen is being presented as the ultimate villain, who wants to destroy Wonderland. In other words  Burton and Woolvertons Alice in Wonderland is essentially a politically motivated fairy-tale under the disguise of a politically disengaged intellectual mind-opener.

Conclusion

This papers ultimate conclusion can be articulated as follows:

Whereas; the themes and motifs in Burton and Woolvertons Alice in Wonderland appear to be formally related to those from Lewis Carrolls original novels, the very essence of these themes and motifs points out their incompatibility with Carroll novels original sounding. Whereas; Carroll had written his novels with the purpose of helping children and adolescents to expand their intellectual horizons, Burton and Woolverton had produced their movie to instill viewers with the sense of politically correct morality, as the ultimate mean of preventing them from being able to expand their intellectual horizons. However, both producers cannot be solely blamed for the fact that their Alice in Wonderland appears to be a mockery of Lewis Carrolls original novels. It is namely due to the process of Western societies continuous intellectual marginalization, that producers had no choice but to proceed with endowing their movie with a high degree of emotional intensity, at the expense of depriving it of its intellectual integrity.

Bibliography:

Alice in Wonderland. Dir. Tim Burton. Perfs. Mia Wasikowska, Johnny Depp, Helena Bonham Carter. Walt Disney, 2010.

Alter, Ethan Alice in Wonderland, Film Journal International 113.4 (2010): 138. Print.

Bivona, Daniel Alice the Child-Imperialist and the Games of Wonderland, Nineteenth-Century Literature 41.2 (1986): 143-171. Print.

Bower, Bruce Cultures of Reason, Science News 157.4 (2000): 56-58. Print.

Deleuze, Gilles. The Logic of Sense. London: Continuum, 2004. Print.

Lewis, Carroll. Alice in Wonderland. Ed. Donald L. Gray. New York: Norton, (1876) 1971. Print.

Nickel, Douglas. Dreaming in Pictures: The Photography of Lewis Carroll. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.

Petersen, Calvin Time and Stress: Alice in Wonderland, Journal of the History of Ideas 46.3 (1985): 427-433. Print.

Sacksteder, William Looking Glass: A Treatise on Logic, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 27.3 (1967): 338-355. Print.

Wheat, Andrew Dodgsons Dark Conceit: Evoking the Allegorical Lineage of Alice, REN 61.2 (2009): 103-123. Print.

Introduction

Aurora Levins Morales, the author of the poem Child of the Americas, was born of Puerto Rican mother and a Jewish father in Indiera, Puerto Rico. She later relocated to the United States: New Hampshire and Chicago.

Currently, she hails from San Francisco alongside her family. In Child of Americas, she draws tremendously from her diverse cultural identities to address the need for an integrated culture among the Americans by advocating that all Americans, including herself, come from different and mixed-up cultural identities, which while assimilated together, make up a single culture.

This single culture is identifiable as American culture. She, therefore, considers herself as a child of the Americans rather than just Puerto Rican. Based on a detailed interpretation of her works, the inference that the majority of her writings including the Poem Child of the Americas borrow significantly from her childhood memoirs and racial identities holds.

Interpretation of the Poem

People possessing mixed identities always struggle to establish their real cultural identity. The struggle is even worse in the world, which does not create equal acceptance of millions of people belonging to a myriad of races, nations or varying cultural backgrounds. Aurora is perhaps one of such people. In the poem Child of the Americas, Aurora uses child of America as a sign to explain her exposure to the American culture.

She ends up being part of it. She voices out how others tag them the name US Puerto Rican Jews: Something that makes them whole. History immensely contributes to what she is. She learned to speak Spanglish as her first language. Although it was not their choice to be what they are, other people have stereotyped them as not part of the American culture by their race. However, they are, in the real sense.

The author emphasizes the problem of ethnicity that has persisted amongst some of the American people, even to date. She claims in the poem that she is Caribena Island grown. Spanish in my flesh ripples from my tongue, lodges in my hip (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108).

Ripples and lodges act as symbols that emphasize on her physical bodily appearance. Racial differentiation bases itself on physical features such as the shape of the face, skin color, and eye color amongst others. Some of these features happen to encompass the reason as to why the author comments, I speak from that body (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108).

This means that she has no absolute ability to control her physical appearance. All she can do is to appreciate the way she looks, as &rooted in the history of my continent (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108). It is not by coincidence that the author mentions the problem of ethnicity. This problem has existed in America for a long time to the level of according lesser rights to some races, for instance, the blacks, to the whites.

To the whites, the blacks are more of slaves subjected to follow the authority from their masters: whites. She bears some stereotypical associations of her race to ghettos or instead areas of living standards by saying that I am a US Puerto Rican Jew, a product of the ghettos of New York I have never known (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, pp.1107).

The phrase, am not an African Africa is in me (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, pp.1108) recognizes the fact that, although the Africans went to America as slaves, with the immense struggles and contributions of envisioned people, the Native Americans appreciated their rights. As a result, the legally African emigrants qualified as Americans. Although they have since then changed the better part of their culture, Africa remains at the bottom of their hearts since they always have something in common to associate with Africa.

In her poem, Child of the Americas, Aurora says that she is a crossroad of many Diasporas. The word Diaspora refers to a wide range scattering, typically applied to mean displacement of Jews from Israel to Babylon in 16th-century B.CE. In this context, she uses the word Diaspora to say that she comes from people who have widely spread out.

She further adds that she is neither an African nor Latino. She is thus a child of mixed identities: a fact used in the definition of her poem: Child of Americas. To her and her mother, cultural diversity does not amount to anything about which one should worry so much. This source of power makes her universal, as a home can exist in any place.

Aurora says in her poem that she is an immigrant&the daughter, and granddaughter of immigrants (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108). She has also learned to speak English unconsciously. She uses it to express herself on daily routines. Since language is part of peoples culture, she attempts to argue based on how she has all rights for consideration, as part of an American culture irrespective of her decedents cultural background and or race.

She sees the fact that she is an immigrant or a decedent of immigrants as an identity that makes her an American. This premise tends to hold for all Americans, apart from the natives. America is what it is today due to the presence of immigrants since it is from these immigrants that the founding fathers of America came. America is a hot pot of cultural diversities. Therefore, Aurora seeks to highlight the cultural and racial diversities in her poem.

The metaphor, I am not African, Africa is in me&.Spanish is my flesh, am not European; Europe lives in me (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108) gives indirect evidence that the American culture is a product of many cultures. Europeans formed the first wave to arrive in

America in search of freedom for worship, oppression, economic and other critical opportunities that they perceived as difficult when it came to securing ample access back in Europe. The phrase, Spanish is my flesh (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108), acknowledges the fact that American and Spanish people intermingled sharing essential elements of their cultures including food, traditions, and religion. Therefore, even the Latins who are immensely proud of their roots are also equally included among the American community.

She further asserts in the poem that I was born in the crossroads and I am whole (Barnet, Burto & Cain, 2008, p.1108). This emphasis that she is a child of crossroads further amplifies her belief that there exists no typical or rather a standard American figure, as every American is a byproduct of a melting pot of cultural diversities. American culture is, therefore, a mixture of diverse cultural heritages and influences.

Upon selecting a person coupled randomly with tracking down of his or her history, it becomes evident that his or her first association with America does not exist. The bottom line is that every person in America today was born at a crossroad. This fact is what makes America whole and united the way it is today. The awareness of the existence of cultural diversities among Americans makes American people Americans.

Scrutiny of the poem calls upon the reader to deploy imagination, as a stylistic device for interpreting it in his/her endeavor to unveil its meaning. As discussed in the paper, the author presents her message in the form of symbols. Otherwise, poetry fanatic can declare Auroras poem an informative piece of masterwork.

Reference

Barnet, S., Burto, W., Cain, W. (2008). Literature for Composition: Essays, Fiction, Poetry, And Drama, (9^th Ed): Aurora Levins Morales: Child of the Americas. Harlow: Longman Publishers.

Abstract

The paper discusses the interpretation of gunshot residue (GSR) evidence and how it can provide valuable insights into activities associated with the use of a firearm and connect them to a person of interest in a criminal investigation. The paper also outlines the general principles of the interpretation of analytic results and frameworks used by forensic practitioners. It is argued that there are two approaches to the interpretation of GSR evidence irrespective of its origin or methods adopted: formal and case-by-case.

The latter approach is commonly applied by forensic scientists because it helps them to take into consideration specific circumstances of a case. The case-by-case approach to the interpretation of GSR evidence is rooted in the use of the Bayes theorem, which allows calculating the likelihood ratios of competing hypotheses. The paper also discusses the details of People v. Robert Blake to show the application of competing propositions at the source and activity levels in the interpretation process.

Introduction

The interpretation of the evidence is at the core of forensic science; therefore, aspiring forensic experts have to utilise coherent, logical frameworks for ascribing meaning to and making inferences about single or multiple items of evidence. It is of utter importance to have a deep understanding of the theory of interpretation to make informed choices of different interpretations pertinent to a particular field of activity. The understanding of competing interpretation frameworks is especially important for judging the validity of firearm discharge residue (FDR) evidence or gunshot residue (GSR) evidence interpretation due to the stochastic process of residues formation (Ditrich 2012).

The aim of this paper is to discuss the interpretation frameworks and issues associated with GSR evidence. The paper will also discuss general principles of evidence interpretation and how they help to arrive at a balanced expert opinion that can be used to inform parties in legal proceedings.

Background

Forensic specialists recognise that interpretations of forensic evidence are prone to the introduction of errors, which can have substantial consequences in legal contexts. It follows that practitioners interpretation should be performed within logically-consistent frameworks irrespective of adopted methods (Morrison 2014). The importance of this assertion is emphasised by the fact that the analytical dimension is only one sphere of forensic experts interest. The other one is concerned with judicial and investigative aims of the trade, which necessitates the cooperation with numerous stakeholders in the legal process.

The modern forensic science relies heavily on the principles of Bayesian reasoning. These principles allow to reason under uncertainty and communicate results of the reasoning in an effective manner. A forensic practitioner, in the process of interpretation, is guided by the rule derived from the calculation of the likelihood ratio based on the Bayesian model according to which the process cannot be divorced from a framework of circumstances. The framework is formed by the elements of interpretation such as time, actions, and location, among others (Evett et al. 2000). The more certain elements in the framework, the more accurate the interpretation.

The second principle is that the interpretation can only be considered valid if at least two competing hypotheses are proposed and addressed. The third principle calls for considering the probability of evidence at hand with respect to the proposed propositions. The application of these principles should be universal and has to start at the moment when a case is presented to the specialist (Evett et al. 2000).

The evidential interpretation must be impartial; therefore, it is not sufficient to direct analytical lenses at proposition only. To promote clarity and logical reasoning, the hierarchy of propositions must also be considered. Furthermore, the stratification of competing hypotheses helps forensic practitioners to understand two opposite positionsthat of prosecution and that of defence (Evett et al. 2000). At the highest level of the hierarchy, a proposition can come in the following form: Mr. Lambert murdered Ms. Smith. A competing proposition can be articulated as follows: some other man murdered Ms. Smith.

At the activity level, forensic experts should consider circumstances of a case in order to form the two opposite hypotheses: Mr. Lambert discharged a murder weapon, and some other man discharged the weapon. At the lowest level of the hierarchy of proposition, it is necessary to consider the following two hypotheses: the trace recovered from the suspect, weapon, or the crime scene are GRS, and the trace is not GRS. Forensic specialists with extensive experience recognise that the creation of propositions is the most challenging part of the evidential interpretation process.

When interpreting evidence, it is not sufficient to provide verbal support to one of two hypotheses; rather, it is necessary to quantify their likelihood ratios. The magnitude of the ratios reflects the support for each proposition. Such numerical values, which are calculated with the help of the Bayesian equation, are extremely important for reporting evidence weight (Morelato et al. 2012). The equation, its role in forensic science, and its application to the evaluation of competing hypotheses will be discussed at length in the following section of the paper.

Interpretation of GSR Evidence

GSR Evidence

GSR refers to discharge materials produced by the explosion of a cartridge during a firearm discharge (Chang et al. 2013). GSR is comprised of discrete burnt and unburnt products arising from the propellant, the primer, the cartridge case, the bullet, and the firearm (Chang et al. 2013). GSR produced by the primer is referred to as inorganic GSR or IGSR; GSR stemming from the propellant is called organic GSR or OGSR. Given the extreme scale of the force with which volatile, gaseous particles exit the firearms muzzle, the majority of them is deposited on the target.

However, since GSR also escapes other openings of the weapon such as the ejection pot and breach area, it can be detected on other surfaces that include, but are not limited to, the shooters hands close, and hairs as well as other objects in the vicinity of the discharge (Morelato et al. 2012). The distribution of GSR is affected by numerous factors the key of which are the location, barrel length, distance from the culprit, time ager shooting, the ammunition, and weapon type (Ditrich 2012).

When it comes to the interpretation of GSR evidence, the primary focus of forensic specialists is to classify it as IGSR. The sub-source level classification deals with the uncertainty of origin attribution regardless of the case under consideration. It has to do with the fact that the residue can be attributed to environmental sources. Another level of the forensic experts task concerns the persistence of the particles and the risk of secondary transfer (Charles & Geusens 2012). Thus, the role of the practitioner is to arrive at expert opinion on GSR evidence by taking one of two interpretative routes: formal approach and case-specific approach.

Formal Approach

The formal approach to the interpretation of GSR evidence was developed in 1979 by Wolten and associates who classified particle composition and morphology (Maitre et al. 2017). The seminal research conducted by the scholars resulted in the emergence of formal classification standards such as those produced by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Forensic practitioners used to compare their results to classifications of characteristic particles described in standard guides to make expert conclusions. Given that each cases specific conditions were not considered during the interpretation, this approach was dubbed as formal by Romolo and Margot (2001).

Under the formal framework, the characterisation of GSR is performed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with the help of an attached energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX). The analytical focus of SEM/EDX investigations is on special surface layers of GSR, which allowed to make judgements about its morphology and microstructure (Sturm, Schartel & Braun 2012). The interpretation of GSR evidence with the help of ASTM guidelines revolves around the difference between the court questioning and the conclusions reached by the forensic scientists (Maitre et al. 2017, p. 3). Whereas the courts interested in the activities before, during, and after the discharge of the firearm, forensic specialists taking the formal approach to the interpretation focus on the source of GSR.

Taking into consideration the fact that evidence related to a specific case is not compared to all amount of recovered residue in order to prove that more than several particles fall under the criteria specified in classifications, the interpretation can be misleading. The lack of OGSR information also affects the interpretation of the evidence. Benito et al. (2015) argue that the use of lead-free ammunition further complicates GSR interpretation through the formal approach. Therefore, an alternative, case-by-case approach has emerged.

Case-by-Case Approach

The approach was proposed by Romolo and Margot (2001), who took an issue with the formal framework for its inability to interpret GSR evidence in the context of a particular cases circumstances. The case-by-case approach presupposes the comparison of residue particles with the specific ammunition with respect to conditions of a case. The approach is rooted in the framework of Bayes theorem; therefore, it is also referred to as Bayesian approach.

To achieve impartiality of the evidential interpretation of GSR, the theorems requirement to use at least two mutually exclusive hypotheses is used: two samples of GSR are derived from the same source, and two samples of GSR are derived from different sources (Hannigan et al. 2015). The comparison of residues presupposes that their chemical composition consists of several classes, which accounts for substantial variabilities.

The following equation shows the application of Bayes theorem to the interpretation of evidence.

The application of the theorem to the interpretation of GSR evidence necessitates the calculation of prior probabilities that concern the first degree of belief of stakeholders about each proposition (Maitre et al. 2017, p. 3). The two hypotheses in the equation are Hp (prosecution) and Hd (defence). E represents evidence; I represents circumstances of a particular case.

The calculation of the likelihood ratio (LR) allows determining to what degree the evidence corresponds to one of the two hypotheses and measures its ability to discriminate between them. By applying the ratio, it is possible to translate the jury opinion into their final conviction with respect to a case. When conducting LR assessment, the forensic specialist has to consider relevant circumstances (I). Details about these circumstances can be derived from the person of interest, police, witnesses, or investigator, among others.

Information about the circumstances of a case can influence evidential interpretation; therefore, whenever new details emerge, the LR assessment has to be changed correspondingly. The generation of the two hypotheses prior to the completion of the results of an analysis is another principle that guides forensic practitioners working under the case-by-case framework. The assessment also involves the application of analytical analysis that produces evidence (E) with respect to the two propositions.

Hierarchy of propositions

The interpretation of GSR evidence involves the development of several competing propositions that can be classified into three levels: the source level, the activity level, and the offence level (Maitre et al. 2017). The offence level represents the highest order of questioning. It necessitates the assessment of information that is the most cases is not available to forensic practitioners and falls under the remit of triers of fact; therefore, its discussion is not included in the paper.

At the source level, the simplest question that should be asked is whether the recovered trace represents GSR. Thus, the aim of the evidential interpretation with respect to Hp is to assess the degree of compatibility between the recovered material and what is considered GSR. From this vantage point, it is clear that the competing proposition should claim that the material is not connected with the discharge under consideration.

Taking into consideration the fact that GSR or particles that resemble them can be produced by a variety of legal activities and environmental sources, it is important to have Hd proposition (Morelato et al. 2012). If the firearm and ammunition have been found during the investigatory process, it is necessary to consider whether or not the recovered residue corresponds to the GSR produced by the same ammunition and weapon as a reference (Morelato et al. 2012). Thus, the source level hypotheses deal with alternative sources of GSR.

Activity level propositions concern actions taken by the suspect prior to, during, and after the event under consideration. It is clear that the second level propositions represent the chronological dimension of the interpretive process. To take into account this dimension, the forensic expert has to assess the transfer and persistence of GSR. To form competing propositions, the specialist should have additional information about the deposition of the residue, its retention, and the time of the event (Morelato et al. 2012).

Secondary transfer is the parameter that should be considered by the forensic practitioner during the process of evidentiary evaluation because the presence of the trace is only indicative of the fact that the suspect handled the firearm. However, the presence itself does not confirm the fact because it can be explained by accidental contamination. Even though the probability of such a scenario is extremely small (0.02 for each of 3 particles (Pb-Ba-Sb)), it should not be disregarded by practitioners (Hannigan et al. 2015). Currently, there is no evidence of the secondary transfer of OGSR (Hofstetter et al. 2017).

When it comes to the persistence of GSR, it is important to understand whether or not circumstances of a case corresponding to the results. Specifically, it is important to established temporal connections between the alleged activity of the suspect and the sampling. Therefore, the second component that has to be considered by the practitioner is the persistence of GSR. By accounting for the component, it is possible to establish whether the trace has been left prior to or after the alleged activity of the person of interest. The persistence and variability of IGSR particles are used under the Bayesian approach because their characteristics tend to change with time. For example, the number of particles diminishes rapidly in the first 30 minutes after the discharge (Morelato et al. 2012). It follows that the inclusion of the component in LR calculations is of utter importance for proper evidential interpretation. The persistence of OGSR has not been sufficiently studied (Gallidabino et al. 2013).

People v. Robert Blake

The case involved Robert Blake, who was accused of discharging his weapon twice at his wife Bonnie Lee Bakley (Sweetingham 2005). The shots were fired from outside of the victims car. The suspect claimed that he was sitting next to his wife when the event occurred. The police did not take any precautions to ensure that the suspects hands were not contaminated when he was in their custody. His clothing was also open to contamination. At the time of the homicide, Blake carried a firearm other than the murder weapon (Burnett 2014). There were no witnesses of the event.

Murder Weapon

The murder weapon was a vintage 9 mm Walther pistol (Burnett 2014). At the source level, it was necessary to determine whether or not the weapon left the GSR on Blakes hand. The investigators failed to recognise that it was not sufficient to show that the match of samples from the hand and clothes of the suspect indicate his involvement in the homicide. The process of evidential interpretation was conducted without the analysis of the elemental composition of the residue produced by the combination of the murder weapon and ammunition found near the scene. Instead, the investigators concentrated on whether or not it produced breech GSR (Burnett 2014, p. 125).

Prior to test firing, the weapon was cleaned with isopropyl alcohol, which was followed by the firing of lead-free ammunition (Burnett 2014). Therefore, the possibility of the sampling of the particles composition before the test was precluded. The casings from the crime scene were not sampled. It is clear that at the source level, it was necessary to show that there was a connection between the trace recovered from the suspects hands and the casings.

GSR from Hands and the Vehicle

The vehicle in which the homicide had been committed was sampled; the samples were examined with the help of SEM/EDS analysis. GSR samples from the suspects right hand showed five consistent characteristics, whereas the left hand revealed only one GSR particle (Burnett 2014). The samples revealed that GSRs main features were aluminium, lead, antimony, and barium. However, aluminium could not be produced by the cartridges found at the crime scene, which suggested that it was an ingredient from ammunition that had been previously fired from the murder weapon.

Police Environment

Blake was apprehended by the police and delivered to the police station. Unfortunately, the police officers did not take the necessary precautions to ensure that he was not exposed to contamination in the police car or the station itself before the sampling was done. In addition, more than three hours elapsed between the shooting and the sampling.

Contamination plays an important role in the evidential interpretation of GSR. It has to do with the fact that particles of lead, barium, and antimony can be produced by numerous sources. For example, there are many sources of environmental pollution that can produce IGSR-like particles: welding processes, paints, and varnishes, among others (Morelato et al. 2012). A study conducted by Grima et al. (2012) explored the possibility of GSR contamination from fireworks. The findings of the study suggested that some particles if treated individually were found to be indistinguishable from GSR (Grima et al. 2012, p. 49).

The resemblances in morphology and shape between the two types of residue are attributed to the similarities in firing conditions. This fact has given rise to numerous independent lines of investigation challenging the evidential value of IGSR. A corollary is that the use of ASTM GSR criteria in the process of evidential interpretation should be abolished in favour of the case-by-case approach. Furthermore, it follows that the reference GSR population from the crime scene is absolutely necessary to determine the source of residue (Grima et al. 2012).

Automobiles are also known to produce particles similar to IGSR. Specifically, Pb-Ba-Sb is associated with automobile-related activities (Morelato et al. 2012). Brake pads can produce Pb-Ba-Sb particles; however, their morphology is usually angular. Airbag explosions can also deposit particles that can be confused with IGSR by forensic practitioners without sufficient experience. The findings of a recent study by Brozek-Mucha (2015) suggest that welding fume particles stemming from steel and aluminium alloy welding resemble IGSR. However, the study suggests that even though single particles containing aluminium, lead, and titanium are similar to those produced by the discharge of a firearm, the presence of iron and iron oxide particles in a large population can indicate their origin (Brozek-Mucha 2015). It means that forensic specialists should be cognizant of this fact while evaluating the evidential value of one or several particles.

Implications

The amount of the residue on the suspects hands was twenty times lower than could have been expected, given that no washing of hand was involved (Burnett 2014). Furthermore, the suspect was apprehended in only three hours after the shooting, which means that the lack of residue cannot be ascribed to deterioration. It shows that when interpreting the evidence at the activity level, forensic specialists had to recognise a lack of correspondence to the circumstances of the case. Burnett (2014) argues that even though several IGSR particles were recovered from Blakes hands, their number should have approached 97. Therefore, the persistence of IGSR played a prominent role in the interpretation of the evidence in the case.

Conclusion

The paper has discussed the evidential interpretation frameworks and principles applicable to GSR. General principles of the interpretation of the analytical results of a forensic investigation have also been outlined in the paper. It has been argued that a case-by-case or Bayesian approach is superior to the formal framework used for GSR interpretation because it helps to align the process with both circumstantial elements of a case and judicial aims. To exemplify the contribution of GSR evidence to the investigative and interpretation processes, People v. Robert Blake was used.

Reference List

Benito, S, Abrego, Z, Sanchez, A, Unceta, N, Goicolea, MA & Barrio, RJ 2015, Characterization of organic gunshot residues in lead-free ammunition using a new sample collection device for liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, Forensic Science International, vol. 246, pp. 79-85.

Burnett, B 2014, The gunshot residue evidence of People v. Robert Blake, in Scanning Microscopies conference proceedings, Monterey, California, CA, pp. 121-134.

Chang, KH, Jayaprakash, PH, Yew, CH & Abdullah, AFL 2013, Gunshot residue analysis and its evidential values: a review, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 3-23.

Charles, S & Geusens, N 2012, A study of the potential risk of gunshot residue transfer from special units of the police to arrested suspects, Forensic Science International, vol. 216, pp. 78-81.

Ditrich, H 2012, Distribution of gunshot residuesthe influence of weapon type, Forensic Science International, vol. 220, pp. 85-90.

Evett, IW, Jackson, G, Lambert, JA & McCrossan, S 2000, The impact of the principles of evidence interpretation on the structure and content of statements, Science & Justice, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 233-239.

Gallidabino, M, Weyermann, C, Romolo, FS & Taroni, F 2013, Estimating the time since discharge of spent cartridges: a logical approach for interpreting the evidence, Science & Justice, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 4148.

Grima, M, Butler, M, Hanson, R & Mohameden, A 2012, Firework displays as sources of particles similar to gunshot residue, Journal of the Charted Society of Forensic Sciences, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 49-57.

Hannigan, TJ, McDermott, SD, Greaney, CM, OShaughnessy, J & OBrien, CM 2015, Evaluation of gunshot residue (GSR) evidence: surveys of prevalence of GSR on clothing and frequency of residue types, Forensic Science International, vol. 257, pp. 177-181.

Hofstetter, C, Maitre, M, Beavis, A, Roux, CP, Weyermann, C & Gassner, AL 2017, A study of transfer and prevalence of organic gunshot residues, Forensic Science International, vol. 277, pp. 241-251.

Maitre, M, Kirkbride, KP, Horder, M, Roux, C & Beavis, A 2017, Current perspectives in the interpretation of gunshot residues in forensic science: a review, Forensic Science International, vol. 270, pp. 1-11.

Morelato, M, Beavis, A, Ogle, A, Doble, P, Kirkbride, P & Roux, C 2012, Screening of gunshot residue using desorption electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry (DESI-MS), Forensic Science International, vol. 217, no. 103, pp. 101-106.

Morrison, GS 2014, Distinguishing between forensic science and forensic pseudoscience: testing of validity and reliability, and approaches to forensic voice comparison, Science and Justice, vol. 54, pp. 245-256.

Romolo, FS & Margot, P 2001, Identification of gunshot residue: a critical review, Forensic Science International, vol. 119, pp. 195-211.

Sturm, H, Schartel, B & Braun, WU 2012, SEM/EDX: advanced investigation of structured fire residues and residue formation, Polymer Testing, vol. 31, pp. 606-619.

Sweetingham, L 2005, Expert: gunshot residue does not mean Robert Blake killed his wife, CNN. Web.

Introduction

Criticized by ancient philosophers, lying has become an inherent trait of modern community. An episode from The Andy Griffith Show about Mr. McBevee demonstrates the complexity of the modern concept of lying and deception which requires taking into account not only the individuals motives in telling a lie, but also the awareness of delusiveness of words and the achieved results.

Classical and modern definitions of lying and the related aspects

Though historically the concept of lying obtains negative connotation, the underlying motives and consequences of telling a lie need to be taken into account for reconsidering the classical definition of the concept. An ancient philosopher Augustine claims that all lying is wrong without differentiating between various reasons which can make people to distort the reality. Lying speech is evidence of an attempt to own and control what is not ours, when we lie we enact a kind of treachery (Meilaender 56).

Emphasizing the fact that one lie will result in a set of following lies, Augustine neglects the context and peculiarities of every individual case of deception. The biblical definition of lying is negative as well. One of Solomons wise sayings proclaims that a lying mouth destroys the soul (The Book of Common Prayer and the Holy Bible Red 44).

Thus, the traditional definitions of the concept not only did not go to the roots of the social phenomenon of deception, but also promised the negative consequences for any instances of lying for the individuals spiritual and physical existence. Lying lips conceal hatred (The Book of Common Prayer and the Holy Bible Red 624).

However, taking into account the complexity of the concept of lying, modern theoreticians incorporate the parameters of intentionality and personal purposes into the definition of phenomenon. A person S deceives another person S1 if, and only if, S intentionally causes S1 to believe X, where X is false and S knows or believes that X is false (Carson 48). Thus, expanding the biblical concept of lying, it can be stated that individuals awareness of delusiveness of certain message is critical for regarding the act as lying.

Examples of lying and telling the truth from The Andy Griffith Show

The instances of more or less innocent lying are used for producing a comic effect in an American sitcom The Andy Griffith Show which was released by CBS between 1960 and 1968. In the episode in which Andy asks his son not to enter the kitchen with an imaginary horse, both of them are aware of the fact that the horse is only a part of the boys game. Moreover, Andy knows it for sure that Opie does not believe in the existence of the horse.

Thus, this sample cannot be regarded as lying because it lacks a mercenary motive for deceiving an interlocutor and the end effect of misleading is not achieved. However, playing the same trick with Barney can be regarded as lying because not only the motivation of deceiving the man, but also the end effect of misleading him is present. A successful combination of the ethos, pathos and logos components predetermined the success of the lying pattern.

Regarding the ethos element, it was Andys silent support that made Barney believe Opie because he first hesitates about the trustworthiness of the boys words. The pathos element implies affecting Barneys feelings because he is impressed and starts discussing the responsibility of having such a large animal. As to the logos element of the utterance, though having a horse sounds weird, it does not go beyond the limits of reality.

Though there was no any mercenary motive in deceiving Barney, this seemingly innocent lie is intended to be a joke and Opie as a speaker successfully achieves this initial goal, producing a comical effect. Lying is indulged in sometimes for its own sake, without an instrumental motive (Carson 42).

However, this trick has a negative impact upon Opies reputation and the credibility of his future words. When in the following scene the boy tells about his new friend Mr. McBeevee, nobody believes him. Thus, the moral messages of this episode imply that lying has a negative impact upon the individuals credibility as a speaker, destroying the ethos element of his following words.

The reconsidered concept of lying

Reconsidering the classical definition of the concept of lying, the aspects of context, intentionality and following consequences need to be taken into account for regarding certain act as telling a lie. Analyzing the two examples of Opies statements that there is a horse Blackie in his garden and that he has met Mr. McBeevee in the wood, it can be stated that the logos element is preserved I both of them. Thus, listeners could believe both of these utterances.

The main difference is the ethos element because Opies words are not taken seriously by adults. In the first case with the horse, the boys lying game was supported by his father while in the second case his father himself supposes that Mr. McBevee is an invisible imaginary man. Children soon discover the benefits of lying for much the same reason that adults do  to impress others, to avoid punishment or disapproval, or to get out of something they dont want to do (Scott 149).

Still, the episode under consideration contains an interesting example of not confusing a lie and the truth. Viewing the lying game through the childs eyes adds special appeal to the episode which demonstrates that children may be much sincere and more successful in detecting a lie than adults with all their life experience.

Conclusion

Providing an example of telling a lie for the lying sake and difficulties with distinguishing between a lie and the truth, an episode from The Andy Griffith Show demonstrates the complexity of the concept of lying.

Works Cited

Carson, Thomas. Lying and Deception: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.

Meilaender, Gilbert. The Way that Leads There: Augustinian Reflections on the Christian Life. Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing Co, 2006. Print.

Scott, Gini Graham. Playing the Lying Game: Detecting and Dealing with Lies and Liars, from Occasional Fibbers to Frequent Fabricators. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2010. Print.

Sorensen: Lying is just asserting what one does not believe (36). The Book of Common Prayer and the Holy Bible Red. Church Publishing, 2007. Print. New Revised Standard Vers.

Thomas Theorem is a sociological perspective that explains the way people perceive and interpret reality. The theorem states that If individuals define situations as real, they are real in their consequences (Bornmann & Marx, 2020; Sack, 2022). The main idea of this concept is that facts are not the same; rather, they differ significantly depending on the individuals who observe and interpret them. Therefore, what a person or a group of individuals may interpret as reality may be different from other people depending on such factors as, their beliefs and experience. Bornmann and Marx (2020) indicate that Thomas Theorem emphasizes a subjective definition of situations, which can determine their behavior instead of the objective reality. Additionally, if a situation is successfully defined by groups of individuals or a society, it creates social norms and moral codes.

People start behaving in a certain way based on how they interpret a particular situation.

An Example of Thomass Theorem in My Life

I almost lose my best friends whom we have been so close with for several years, always supporting each on in everything. One day, they suggested that we go to one of the best hotels in the town to enjoy our favorite meal. I was surprised to find several other classmates in the hotel, but my friends seemed to have expected to meet them. Everything was going well as we enjoyed our food and beverages until when one of my best friends requested me to the counter and order more drinks because there was no waiter around. While at the counter I noticed my classmates were seriously discussing something with low voices and they could glance at me and then continue. Could they be discussing me and the problems I am facing? I thought. The worst happened when they all stopped what they were doing and seem to have changed the topic when they saw me approaching the table with the drinks.

At that point, I did not doubt that they were talking about me. I believed they were negatively discussing me in my absence and that is why they kept. The thought that my friends, whom I had trusted with my secrets could discuss me with other people made me angry. I was no longer enjoying their company and my favorite drink become tasteless. I stood up quietly and went out of the hotel ready to find a cab to take me home. I was about to switch off my phone when I saw a message from one of my friends. The message indicated that my problems will be resolved since the classmates offered unconditional financial support even without demanding to know what I was experiencing. I realized that I interpreted the situation based on past experiences where friends and even relatives discussed and exposed my secrets to the public.

We were walking down the street when a pretty-looking girl blocked our way requesting our help. She indicated that two boys have stolen her small carrying her essential documents, including her phone and they want to harm her. At a distance, we could see the boys approaching us and they were armed with crude weapons. My friend grabbed my hand and told me we should run away because we are in danger since that is the trick street gangs use to steal property from innocent people. Were it for my friend, I would have offered to help the girl and found myself in trouble. Our different interpretation of the situation was due to our experience and perception of women. While my friends experience with street gangs made him believe we were in danger, my belief that women cannot involve themselves with such criminal activities made me interpret the girl needed help.

References

Bornmann, L., & Marx, W. (2020). Thomas theorem in research evaluation. Scientometrics, 123(1), 553555.

Sack, H. (2022). William Isaac Thomas and the Thomas theorem. SciHi.

Interpretation

The discussion focuses on the significance of interpretation in languages and literature, paying particular attention to the concept of oral presentations, performance behavior, and bodily actions. The authors introduce the discussion by providing a historical context of body language and interpretation. The idea of interpretation is fundamental to scholars and researchers, speakers, and other audiences that depend on presentations to acquire information and knowledge in various life aspects. Therefore, this article emphasizes the significance and use of the body in oral interpretations. However, Gehrke and William fault the existing literature for not paying sufficient attention to the relationship between the body and voice (190). The authors argue that numerous textbooks that can be traced back to the beginning of the discipline exhibit limited devotion to discussions regarding voice and body.

In addition to the limited dialogues, the article also claims that the existing literature provides generalized conclusions and emphasizes giving learners exercises that empower them with interpretive skills (Gehrke & William 190). The argument then transitions to modern literature and its presentation of the relationship between voice and body. The article notes differences and similarities between the previous and the more current literature. The primary similarity is the emphasis that, based on science, being a good interpreter makes one an excellent communicator because the art of communication improves interpretive skills (Gehrke & William 191). However, this arouses whether empowering learners with interpretive skills implies having good interpretive skills or makes them impersonators.

The authors also note key differences between past and current literature regarding interpretation as a skill. A critical difference between interpretation skills in the past and the contemporary literature is the emphasis on the weakening of suggestion as to the prominent oral presentation style of performance (Gehrke & William 191). The chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the bodys use in oral presentations by analyzing the differences between past and current literature.

Listening Research in the Communication Discipline

Listening is another critical component of communication whose research has evolved through time. This chapter captures the evolution of listening, with particular attention to the historical development of research in this area. Although some sources claim that Dr. Ralph Nicholas is the father of hearing research, the authors that the information is incomplete because there is evidence that listening research is as old as the discipline and the oldest related profession (Gehrke & William 207). According to the reading, listening research is a broad and complex discipline that expands beyond media theory and public address interpersonal communication. The chapter outlines its purpose as mapping out the intersections between media theory and interpersonal communication, which will provide more insights into the dimensions listening research may take in the 21st century.

In exploring the history of listening research, the authors acknowledged that they encountered historiographical and conceptual challenges related to the discipline, indicating that there are other areas of contention in communication studies. The conceptual problem arises from issues related to definitions and the emphasis that the description puts on a concept. For example, ILAs definition of listening shifts attention from hearing to listening to depict that it is possible to hear an array of messages without listening (Gehrke & William 208). The emphasis on active and conscious awareness of a recipients message is a prime distinction between the concept of hearing and listening, which is another distinction that listening research showcases throughout its history. The analysis proves that scholars in this field omit particular activities related to hearing or add critical components absent in other disciplines to achieve an acceptable definition and distinction between listening and hearing (Gehrke & William 208). The lack of a difference indicates the conceptual challenges scholars face in providing a specific description of the two concepts.

However, over the years, listening research scholars have adopted a pragmatic approach to defining the concept of listening. The definitions have been refined through synthesis and analysis to show some variations and improvements in research. The analysis reveals that most reports focus on presenting listening as an intentional behavior similar to writing, reading, and speech (Gehrke & William 209). This approach attracts questions regarding the prospects of emerging definitions for listening and how they may affect future listening research. The discourse also arouses queries regarding dimensions that scholars can introduce to delineate the concept of listening.

The chapter also explored the historiographical challenge that scholars experience when researching the concept of listening. According to Gehrke and William, drafting the history of listening research is challenging because the history of its absence would overshadow these efforts (213). The lack of substantial historiographical information about listening research has derailed its contributions to the literature. The chapter addresses this challenge by analyzing previous tensions regarding the concept of listening, which presumed that audiences are passive speech recipients (Gehrke & William 208). The authors also turned to mid-century research to study listening as behavior by drawing knowledge from best practices from communication movements during wartime. The research concluded that while listening research has made significant strides over the years, there is a need for further developments that will act as the backdrop and link to future research.

Work Cited

Gehrke, Pat J., and William M. Keith. A Century of Communication Studies: The Unfinished Conversation. Routledge, 2015.

Hermeneutics refers to the methodology and theory of interpreting language, primarily linguistic text. In the book Hermeneutics, Palmer uses rhetoric and different philosophies of communication to expound issues concerning theology. The view of understanding involves the philological methodology and questions the nature of historical knowledge, the philosophy of language, and the basis of interpretation in existential experience. A key driver to writing this book entails the urge to seek the relevance of the Bultimannian theory of biblical interpretation in understanding the literary theory.

The book provides one with knowledge regarding the philosophy of language as an essential tool for interpretation. The philosophy of language studies the nature of human language, its use, and origin, the truth and meaning of the language. Hirsch propagates that the norm should understand the speakers intentions to ascertain the validity of any interpretations of the message (Palmer 60). Another contribution of the book towards personal knowledge on rhetoric and philosophy of communication is the authors call for an open mind when dealing with the bible. The author uses Diltheys historical relativism, which states that one should not use a single chronological age to judge another. In this writing, Palmer calls for readers not to consider any literary work through the standards of the present world. This ideology plays an essential part in educating the readers on the importance of paying attention to historical and cultural transitions in understanding the history of communication.

Another significance of the book is that it calls for readers first to seek the proof then later seek the meaning to understand communication. The books also advance personal knowledge on communication by necessitating readers to pay attention to translation instead of analysis. A focus on translation to determine the reality is paramount to the literary interpretation of texts or words. The authors state that translation gives one the ability to uncover obscure, unfamiliar, or strange meaning into something clear to the present language.

The book is guided by scholarly questions which different authors attempt to answer within the course of the book. One fundamental literary question seems persistent throughout the book and includes the question of how does one knows. For instance, the book seeks how one can understand the texts on the bible. How can one see the bible, a book from a distant world, space, language, and time (Palmer 27). Individuals need to appreciate the difference in time horizons and develop solutions to deal with the issue instead of sweeping the problem under the rug. A critical translation of the text to eradicate any unfamiliarity is proposed as essential to understanding the bible. A necessary translation interprets the reader to a language that holds significant meaning to the world today. The position taken by the author is, however, limited to certain aspects like biasness that might affect the validity of the translation.

The book gives readers crucial communication skills and tactics to employ in day-to-day activities. Through the use of different metaphors like souping up and sweeping under the rug, the author indicates different styles one can showcase in the classroom to become more persuasive or attract listeners attention (Seargeant et al.). The book grants one with understanding skills that are essential in the marketplace. Understanding helps create harmony with employees, customers, and suppliers, plus all the parties within the supply chain. According to the book, Gadamer notes that the key to understanding is not control or manipulation rather openness and participation (Palmer 215). These assertions call for individuals to remain open and enrol in activities that improve the experience between critical players within the marketplace.

Work Cited

Palmer, Richard Edward. Hermeneutics: Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger, and Gadamer. Northwestern University Press, 2000.

Seargeant, Philip, et al. Persuasive Language. The Routledge Handbook of English Language Studies, 1st ed., Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, 2018.

Scriptural authority and theological interpretation are two distinct and different topics. According to Entwistle (2021), scripture is incredibly authoritative, and those who do this place their views on the same level of authority as scripture itself. Theological interpretation takes precedence over psychological interpretation, which a person may have, and a persons knowledge of things must be reviewed, perhaps leading to incorrect conclusions. When erroneous findings are discovered, it is an excellent time to reassess the data that underpins theological and psychological decisions. According to colonists, people may experience emotional distress due to the disparities that have arisen, and they will have to work harder to deal with and work through them. The distinction is critical since the information discovered may not be accurate. Regardless of what life has provided an individual, theology delves into the basis on which God brought that individual to life (Entwistle, 2021). As a result, without a thorough understanding of theology, one can never comprehend the foundations of Gods mechanisms of creating the world and his people. On the other hand, psychology can reveal where a person has been their entire life.

While Entwistle differentiates between theological interpretation and scriptural authority, colonists final commitment is to theology (Peterson, 2016). They intended to place scripture atop nature but were concerned that it would be misinterpreted. Nature has less power than Scripture (Entwistle, 2021). Anyone can make mistakes when it comes to an understanding of the Bible. This models literature is based chiefly on theological interpretation and scriptural citation. Failure to do so resulted in a lack of knowledge of the difference between theological interpretation and scriptural authority. Instead, they relied on their convictions, which resulted in confusion and theological imperialism. As a result, they start to believe that their mode of thinking has authority behind it (Entwistle, 2021). Everyone should be aware that scripture is authoritative, especially true for those who believe the Bible is true.

It is the conviction that the Bible is supreme, and it is impossible to have Gods word without having Gods works. However, colonialists see Gods word as troublesome because they apply their way of thinking to it, resulting in an ambiguous interpretation (Entwistle, 2021). Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your understanding, says Proverbs 3:5 (Loader, 2014). They are doing this, and they do not consider Gods word to be authoritative.

Psychologists interpretations are less essential than theological clarification, This interpretation is vital because theology is grounded on the Bible and what it examines. They are apprehensive that nature could be misinterpreted, resulting in inaccurate results (Entwistle, 2021). A persons first notion is indeed their ultimate opinion. Both psychological and theological expositions can be false; methodologies, premises, and psychological or theological data collection may result in erroneous findings (Entwistle, 2021). When things are misrepresented, it is crucial to investigate the issue and not assert or depend on somebody elses premises. Let everyone be obedient to the ruling authorities, writes Romans 13:1 Harvey, 2017), because there is no authority besides that which God has established. The Lord is the origin of everything excellent and unblemished.

When people go through the Bible and come across a scripture that they do not understand, they should first refer to a religious person who is well-versed in scripture to help them better understand the passage they are studying. Then, they can explain it to them in their own words. The answers are considerably different when one questions the pastor, but the referenced meaning remains the same, just more in-depth. Some people will perceive the scripture differently than when others read it. That does not mean that their approach is wrong but that everyone reacts differently to the reading. Therefore, attending Bible study or theology studies is beneficial to understanding scriptures actual and correct meaning.

Reference

Entwistle, D. N. (2021). Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration. Cascade Books.

Harvey, J. D. (2017). Romans. B & H Academic.

Loader, J. A. (2014). Proverbs 1-9. Peeters.

Peterson, R. S. (2016). Darren Sarisky, Scriptural Interpretation: A Theological Exploration. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013, 292pp. $102.95 / £65.00. International Journal of Systematic Theology, 18(1), 108112.

Introduction

The Epistle of Paul to Philemon (otherwise known as Philemon) is a book included in the Christian New Testament. The most common interpretation of the book was that Paul wrote a letter to Philemon on behalf of Onesimus, who was a runaway slave that had wronged his owner. Throughout his writings, Paul used the language of slavery versus freedom. As at the time of the writings setting, slavery was very common, the letter tried to alleviate the suffering of some slaves since Paul put a pastoral focus on the problem.

Social-scientific criticism of the Philemon is the most suitable approach to hermeneutics since it is concerned with the understanding of political, cultural, social, and religious dynamics of the text as perceived by the original audience of the writings. Since the book of Philemon includes the language of slavery versus freedom as a metaphor, analyzing this biblical text with the help of social-scientific criticism will hold the most ground.

Thesis and Points to Back It Up

Because modern views on slavery are completely different to the ones that existed in the ancient Roman society, analyzing Pauls Letter to Philemon from the standpoint of social-scientific criticism is the most practical approach that reveals the peculiarities of both views:

1. Slavery was institutionalized in the ancient Roman society, although society considers it unacceptable today;
2. The modern reader will not agree with Pauls stance nor will he or she will understand the contradictions in the Letter to Philemon;
3. Emic and etic of the Letter to Philemon do not coincide.

The Aim of Social-Scientific Criticism, and the Impact of This Approach on the Interpretation of the Text

Social-scientific criticism (SSC) of the Bible is a hermeneutical method which constructs an interpretation of the Biblical text by considering its social and cultural nuances, therefore putting the interpretation into the environmental context; this is done by employing models, theories, and methods of research that are typical of the social sciences.¹

It should be stressed that, due to the fact that SSC is an element of the historical-critical method of exegesis, SSC views the Biblical texts as meaningful configurations of language which were utilized as a means of creating communication between the readers of the text and its authors. Consequently, social-scientific criticism examines the following aspects of the texts from the Bible:

1. The social issues pertaining to content and form, as well as the factors that have an impact on the results of the process of communication;²
2. The presence and nature of the connection between such elements of the texts as its linguistic, social, theological, and literary components;
3. The manner in which the textual communication taking place between the creator of the text and the texts audience can be viewed as a response to a particular socio-cultural environment, and how the text was created as a means of transferring the information from the books author to its reader. ³

The interests of historians and hermeneutics specialists are usually limited to the ideas and the concepts of theological thought. It is important to mention that the criticism of Biblical text requires considerations of relationships and connections between behaviors and beliefs  relationships between beliefs existing in the culture and the social and economic context within which that culture exists.

SCC makes an attempt to analyze the mentioned issues both at textual and social context levels, thus requiring that the condition that the communication in the text was informed by the cultural conditions in which it took place is met. Consequently, it is needed to employ a method that may permit identifying and analyzing the cultural and environmental conditions that played a critical role in determining the way in which the communication in question took place.⁴

Social-scientific criticism may be aligned with the contextual analysis of the biblical text as it considers the aspects of social, historical, political, and other factors that determine the context and the setting of the text.⁵ Since the beginning of the 1970s, more historians and specialists in the sphere of hermeneutics have been using the social science theory in order to explain biblical texts as well as the social interactions described within them. Wayne Meeks, Gerd Theissen, John Gager, Fernando Belo, and others have pioneered the application of the social-scientific criticism of biblical text and established a foundation upon which an expanding stream of hermeneutical approaches along with the social-scientific directions have started to build.

It should be pointed out that the critics who employ the method of the social-scientific analysis usually take as an assumption that all the knowledge has its roots in the society, and that without such an assumption, the hermeneutics of the Biblical texts may be considered impossible, as it might be impossible if no religious assumptions are made.⁶ It has also been suggested that the interpretation of the contents of the Bible ought to provide the clarification of the social position of the interpreters, not only of the social location of the texts authors.⁷

The Relation of the Social-Scientific Interpretation of the Text to the Christian Tradition and to the Contemporary Context, and its Application to the Modern Issues

When it comes to social-scientific criticism of biblical texts, it is also necessary to distinguish between the emic (existing within a social group) and the etic (existing from an observers perspective).

In hermeneutics, the emic denotes the ancient sources such as the Bible itself, whereas the etic refers to the scholars and readers of these sources who live today; discerning these two notions permits for creating an awareness of the fact that there exist numerous gaps which separate the todays world from the situations described in the literary sources of the past, which, in turn, prompts the individuals who engage in the interpretation of these sources to consider the plausibility structures ⁸ which make a contribution to the development of those notions and beliefs existing in the test which strike the contemporary readers as superstitious, bizarre, and/or counter-scientific. Thus, it is clear that introducing this distinction allows for lowering the amount of ethnocentric and anachronistic assessments of the Biblical texts.

In addition, it may permit for limiting the eager and inappropriate use of the texts originating in the ancient times for the purpose of analysis of the ethical issues which exist nowadays. To give an example of such an inappropriate use employing the example of the Letter to Philemon to this discussion, it would be inappropriate to judge the institute of slavery that existed at the time of the writing from the modern perspective, according to which slavery is wrong. Similarly, it would be ineffective to apply the contemporary views of freedom and equality to the non-egalitarian society of the ancient times.

Formal Analysis

The main body of the letter to Philemon from Paul deals with a specific crisis. In the case of the text, the crisis was not associated with either confused or doctrinal morality. While Paul was always concerned with strengthening the ideas of Christian faith, in this letter, he was interested in strengthening the relationships between two people. The formal analysis of Pauls showed a conventional pattern of deliberative requests addressed to persuade a person to a specific point while maintaining the integrity of all parties involved in a crisis.

Initially, the exordium prepared the reader of the letter to hear out the first request by creating an atmosphere of friendship, respect, and brotherhood.⁹ The second section of the letter demonstrates that Paul had the best intentions at heart when appealing to Philemon. His appeal was supported by providing reasons why Philemon would benefit from the decision to take Onesimus back  a highly diplomatic move.

Furthermore, Paul made an appeal to Onesimus only after developing a relationship with Philemon that was not coercive: I appeal to you my son Onesimus, who became my son while I was in chains.¹⁰ The final part of the letter contains the deliberate rhetoric of peroration¹¹ during which the author repeated his initial appeal on a more personal basis: Confident of your obedience, I write to you, knowing that you will do even more than I ask.¹²

Social-Scientific Criticism as Applied to the Book of Philemon: Historical and Contextual Analysis

When interpreting Pauls Letter to Philemon from the social-scientific perspective, it is crucial to understand that the background of slavery in the ancient world is the most prominent theme.¹³ It should be noted that at the time which is described in the text, masters owned their slaves; however, it is also important slaves could sell themselves into slavery from their own initiative, earn wages for their work, buy themselves out of slavery and become, and purchase other slaves for themselves even while still being slaves. Because slaves came from a variety of backgrounds, many of them were doctors, artists, and philosophers.

In the society of the Ancient Rome, slavery was not related to racism, as it was in 17-19 centuries in America; on the other hand, it was simply viewed as an instrument for dealing with manual labor. This context may explain the contents of the letter to Philemon. For instance, if a critic does not apply the stereotype of American slavery and gets an understanding of slavery at the time of the texts setting, everything will make more sense. For instance, answering the question of Why did not Paul advocate for the freeing of all slaves? will be possible by stating that at that time, the system had been not as abusive or cruel as it used to be, for instance, in the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States.

Because the modern interpretations of slavery are different from the ones that existed in the ancient society, it is not surprising that Paul does not argue for or against slavery. Because slavery was deeply integrated into the society, its abolition could have had an unthinkable political effect.¹⁴ Paul did not question whether slavery was right or wrong, although, he did state that slavery was a human institution, which he believed would fade away like many other human institutions. It could be so that Paul had faith in the coming return of Jesus. Thus, it can be concluded that Paul saw his present as something that would pass.

Slavery is one of the most disputed topics among historians and those interested in the social-scientific aspect of interpretation. When applying the Letter to Philemon to the discussion about slavery, it is evident that the author of the text neither encouraged slavery nor spoke against it, which reflects his diplomatic intentions that will be discussed further. For instance, while Paul encouraged Philemon to take Onesimus back as a friend and not as a slave, he still told Philemon that he could give orders to Onesimus, which is quite paradoxical.

When looking at the Onesimus situation, Paul believed that Onesimus had to return to Philemon not as a slave; rather, under a bond of respect and love. Moreover, Paul did not suggest that the slave had to be punished, although the Roman law allowed slave owners to be extremely brutal, going as far as execution. For this reason, Paul wrote to Philemon and asked him to accept Onesimus back for the sake of reconciliation and forgiveness. By doing so, Paul attempted to diminish the social barriers that divided people in the society of that time. For Paul, the movement to freedom was associated with the shift to standing under the lordship of Jesus Christ, which, in this case, would mean that Christ had a claim to the obedience of Onesimus, as opposed to Philemon.¹⁵

Overall, the issue of slavery in the context of Pauls Letter to Philemon remained unresolved and understudied given the circumstances during which the text had appeared. Verses presented too little information about the wrongdoing of Onesimus as well as whether he owed money to his owner. Nevertheless, the tone in which Paul appealed to Philemon showed that the composer of the letter played a role of an advocate and a diplomat who wanted to be neither for nor against slavery, which reflects the structure and the ways in which the Roman society of that time operated.

To the modern reader, the position of Paul can seem contradictory and unclear: if he intended to free Onesimus, a brother, why nothing was said against slavery, and why was Paul so polite? Based on the social-scientific interpretation of the text, the structures and the institutions of the Roman society of that time did not require an abolition of slavery, and the modern perspectives on this matter are completely different from those existing in Ancient Rome.

Detailed Analysis of the Text, and Its Interpretation Using the Social-Scientific Approach

Pauls Letter to Philemon dealt with three requests (favors) the texts composer was trying to ask the recipient. The first request was associated with asking Philemon to accept his slave back: If then you regard me a partner, accept him as you would me.¹⁶ Martin Luther successfully pointed this request out and stated that Paul acted as he was Onesimus himself who had wronged his master.

It may be assumed that what Christ did for the sake of humanity was similar to Pauls actions towards Onesimus and Philemon. The second request was also linked to an if-then statement. He asked Philemon to charge him for the wrongdoing of Onesimus, thus acting as a guarantor for the relationship between Philemon and his slave. The third request to Philemon was to refresh my heart in Christ,¹⁷ which was a plea for forgiveness and renewal of relationships.

From a social-scientific perspective, Pauls approach can be regarded as somewhat political or diplomatic because he acted in the interests of one person while building relationships with another individual.

Despite the fact that modern diplomacy is not grounded on the ideas of religion and faith in Jesus Christ or any other deity, Pauls Letter to Philemon is unique in its approach towards new opportunities of reconciliation between two parties that had a misunderstanding. Book of Philemon can also teach much about the way human relationships were handled in the Roman society of that time. The fact that one person played a role of an advocate for the interests of another without pursuing any personal gain is surprising, especially given that the modern society operates on the basis of personal interests, gains, and monetary values.

Importantly, Onesimus was indeed a fugitive from justice.¹⁸ It should also be stressed that Paul did not seek to minimize the sins of the runaway slave; rather, he asked Philemon for forgiveness on Onesimus behalf. Thus, the letter can be regarded as a diplomatic piece of writing composed by a brother, to another brother, on behalf of another brother¹⁹. In the context of the letter, Paul set aside his own rights and acted on behalf of another person. Verse nineteen is the most pivotal section of the letter; in the verse, Paul offered to pay whatever Onesimus owed to Philemon as if he was the one that accrued debts himself²⁰.

The Relationship Between the Social-Scientific Interpretation of the Text and Non-Denominational Christianity

When it comes to the alignment of the social-scientific approach towards text interpretation and the non-denominational faith tradition, it should be stressed that the non-denominational Christian faith does not stand closely to the traditions of confessionalism and creedalism. Therefore, it can fully accept the untraditional perspectives offered by the social-scientific interpretation of religious writings. Thus, it is possible to conclude that non-denominational Christianity and the social-scientific interpretation of the Epistle of Paul to Philemon are not contradictory, and may contribure to one another without a conflict.

Conclusions

While Pauls Letter to Philemon is concerned with one of the most controversial topics of history, slavery, the stance the author had can be considered diplomatic: Paul did not speak against slavery nor did he support it. The social-scientific approach towards the interpretation of the letter revealed that the modern perspective on slavery is completely different to the way the ancient Roman society regarded it.

Although the social-scientific interpretation of the Letter to Philemon does not align completely with the Christian tradition of biblical text analysis, it is applicable to the contemporary views on slavery. With regards to the application of the social-scientific approach to Philemons interpretation within the context of current issues, it is evident that the etic and the emic of the text do not align: while the Roman society of that time regarded slavery as normal, modern readers see this practice as unconstitutional and immoral.

In conclusion, it is imperative to mention that the social-scientific interpretation of Pauls letter to Philemon shed light on how the ancient Roman society viewed such social institutions as slavery as opposed to how the modern reader perceives them today. Pauls Letter to Philemon is a piece of literary work written by a true diplomat who neither supported nor disproved opinions held by the proponents of different views. While the contextual and historical analysis showed that the ancient and modern views on a certain social institution differed drastically, the formal analysis showed that the intention of the letter to Philemon was not to support either opinion, but rather to bridge the gap between two individuals who found themselves in a situation of a relationship crisis.

Bibliography

Bible Gateway. Pauls Request. Biblegateway.

. Philemon. Biblegateway.

Dabbs, Matt. Pauls Letter to Philemon  Historical Background. Mattdabbs(blog). 2009.

Elliot, John. Social-scientific Criticism: Perspective, Process and Payoff. Evil Eye Accusation at Galatia as Illustration of the Method. Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 1-10.

Gaventa, Beverly, and David Petersen. The New Interpreters Bible. Nashville, TN: Abington Press, 2010.

Gorman, Michael. Elements of Biblical Exegesis: A Basic Guide for Students and Ministers. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010.

Knoles, John. Philemon: Christian Diplomacy. Nativemarriage. 2017.

Redd, Scott. Literary Analysis of Pauls Letter to Philemon: An Analysis of Pauls Use of Poetic Devices to Appeal to Philemon Conscience. Thirdmill. 2017.

Ryan, Judith. Philippians and Philemon. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2009.

Footnotes

1. John Elliot, Socal-scientific Criticism: Perspective, Process, and Payoff. Evil Eye Accusation at Galatia as Illustration of the Method. Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 2.
2. Elliot, Socal-scientific Criticism, 2.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 4.
5. Michael Gorman, Elements of Biblical Exesis: A Basic Guide for Students and Ministers (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010), 67.
6. Elliot, Socal-scientific Criticism, 5.
7. Ibid., 5.
8. Ibid., 5.
9. Bible Gateway, Pauls Request, Biblegateway. Web.
10. Bible Gateway, Philemon, Biblegateway. Web.
11. Bible Gateway, Pauls Request.
12. Bible Gateway, Philemon.
13. Matt Dabbs, Pauls Letter to Philemon  Historical Background, Mattdabbs(blog). Web.
14. Beverly Gaventa and David Petersen, The New Interpreters Bible (Nashville, TN: Abington Press, 2010), 78.
15. Judith Ryan, Philippians and Philemon (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2009), 47.
16. Scott Redd, Literary Analysis of Pauls Letter to Philemon: An Analysis of Pauls Use of Poetic Devices to Appeal to Philemon Conscience, Thirdmill. Web.
17. Redd, Literary Analysis of Pauls Letter.
18. John Knoles, Philemon: Christian Diplomacy, Nativemarriage. Web.
19. Knoles, Philemon: Christian Diplomacy.
20. Ibid.

Introduction

Saint Bonaventure was a member of the Franciscan order and a philosopher in the 13^th century. The philosophy of Bonaventure can be considered Augustinian because it was heavily influenced by Augustine (Sutanto, 2021). One of the most significant issues that Bonaventure advanced was the nature and status of the soul. The theologian indicated that the nature of the soul, being, and truth are the three ways that provide proof for the existence of God (Salvador-González, 2021). This paper will review the interpretation of Saint Bonaventure on the soul.

Nature and Status of the Soul

Saint Bonaventure notes that the soul represents the principle that maintains life in a body. The soul is assigned specific powers that are necessary features for its functions (Löwe, 2021). Another aspect is that the soul signifies Gods image and nature serves an important role in bringing the soul to God (Milne, 2021). This idea indicates that knowledge and wisdom about all things are possessed by human beings through the soul. Bonaventure advised people to live righteous lives to ensure that their souls returned to God (Milne, 2021). This occurs when a person looks inward and recognizes the presence of the soul, which is proof of the existence of God.

Saint Bonaventure pointed out that the soul possesses memory, will, and intelligence. Memory is used to create thought objects, which can refer to the future, the present, or the past (Salvador-González, 2021). The three aspects mirror the spiritual nature of God and foreshadow the Trinity. The philosopher was able to explain that the soul is the form of the body and the spiritual substance (Kemp, 2018). This means that it is composed of spiritual matter and form. The two aspects help to explain why the different characteristics of the soul. Memory, will, and intelligence can help individuals to reflect inwardly and learn more about the soul.

Another aspect that describes the nature of the soul is that it has three main parts, which are the spirit, the senses, and the mind. The senses are focused on the objects or exterior corporeal, the spirit is preoccupied with the self, while the mind with above the self (Salvador-González, 2021). These three aspects lead the soul toward Gods knowledge. Sense perception is the first stage of the process of knowing God. The human soul uses its spiritual and intellectual powers to guide a person toward the path of God.

Regarding the status of the soul, Bonaventure notes that it is immortal. The idea is based on the belief that the soul represents the image of God and possesses key powers, which relate to the divinity of God. Bonaventure indicated that the soul consists of both form and substance (Rickabaugh, 2018). This gives it human and divine characteristics and further underlines the idea that some aspects of the soul are immortal. Therefore, Saint Bonaventure was a crucial theologian and philosopher who helped advance knowledge of the soul.

Conclusion

In summary, Bonaventure views the soul as an image of God, which gives humans certain powers. Memory, will, and intelligence is essential aspects of the soul and is crucial in assisting people to get closer to God. The powers of the soul are considered necessary features and they depend on the soul. These powers should be considered in the same category as the soul.

References

Kemp, M. (2018). Most Evident to Us, Most Distant from God: The Body as Locus of Salvation in Bonaventures Breviloquium. Essays in Medieval Studies, 34(1), 53-64.

Löwe, C. L. (2021). Bonaventure on the Soul and Its Powers. Vivarium, 59(1-2), 10-32. Web.

Milne, J. (2021). Saint Bonaventure and the Divine Order of Creation. Medieval Mystical Theology, 30(1), 17-36. Web.

Rickabaugh, B. L. (2018). Responding to NT Wrights Rejection of the Soul. The Heythrop Journal, 59(2), 201-220. Web.

Salvador-González, J. M. (2021). Contemplating God from the Mirror of the Soul: The First Level of St. Bonaventures Introspective Aesthetics from Its Inspiring Sources. Poligrafi, 26(103/104), 153-173. Web.

Sutanto, N. G. (2021). Questioning Bonaventures Augustinianism? On the Noetic Effects of Sin. New blackfriars, 102(1099), 401-417. Web.