Category: Interests

Tourism is a variety of tourism activities supported by various facilities and services provided by the community, businessmen, government and local government. Tourism is a trip that is carried out by a person or group of people by visiting a particular place for recreational purposes, personal development, or studying tourist attractions that are visited in a temporary period. Overall activities related to tourism and are multidimensional and multidisciplinary in nature that emerge as a manifestation of the needs of each person and country as well as interactions between tourists and local communities fellow tourists, the Government, Local Governments and Entrepreneurs are referred to as tourism. Tourism aims to enhance economic growth, improve people’s welfare, eradicate poverty, overcome unemployment, preserve nature, the environment and resources, promote culture, uplift the nation’s image, foster a love for the motherland, strengthen national identity and unity, strengthen friendship between nations (Law Number 9 of 2009 concerning Tourism).

Tourism is one of the sectors of choice of regency and city government in Indonesia as regulated in Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 38 of 2007 concerning Division of Government Affairs between the Central Government, Provincial Governments, and Regency / Municipal Governments, where the Central Government is in accordance with autonomy regions have delegated the authority to manage their resources and wealth with the capabilities and strengths that each has. This choice of governance is a real government affair and has the potential to improve people’s welfare in accordance with the conditions, uniqueness, and superior potential of the region concerned. Regional autonomy also places districts and cities as centers of growth. Tourism is a field that can participate in advancing the region through increasing local revenue from tourism. Therefore, each region has designed various offers on the potential of the region to potential investors to invest in their regions, and this is expected to also be able to increase the tourism potential of the regency / city area.

Regional development is one part of national development that cannot be separated from the principle of regional autonomy. The country of Indonesia, as we know it, is a developing country that has a wide range of tourism potential, both natural and cultural tourism because Indonesia has a variety of tribes, customs, and culture because of the geographical location of the country of Indonesia as a tropical country that produces natural beauty and animal diversity.

The role of tourism in development broadly consists of three aspects, namely the economic aspect (foreign exchange, taxes), the aspect of cooperation between countries (international friendship), and the cultural aspect (introducing our culture to foreign tourists). Indonesia’s tourism development as an internal part of national development that is carried out in a sustainable manner, aims to help realize the improvement of the personality and abilities of people and people of Indonesia, by utilizing science and technology and taking into account the challenges of global development (Sedarmayanti, 2014).

In addition, based on the work report of the Ministry of Tourism, the contribution of the tourism sector to the economy in Indonesia (GDP) reached 5% or 1% lower than the government’s target of 6% with the amount of foreign exchange obtained reaching Rp 253, 25 trillion. Besides that, Indonesia is also able to become the Top-20 fastest growing travel destination in the world, won 27 Wonderful Branding Indonesia awards in 13 countries, and Wonderful Indonesia Branding Strategy for online penetration ranked 47th (beating Thailand (68) and Malaysia (85) ) according to the World Economic Forum (WEF) 2017. Reflecting on each of these achievements, it is very necessary to create an innovative and sustainable marketing strategy to realize the ideals of the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism which is to make Indonesia a World Tourism Center.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Tourist Return Interests

Interest is defined as the will, desire or liking (Kamisa in Lita, 2009). Interest is something that is personal and closely related to attitude. Interests and attitudes are the basis for prejudice, and interest is also important in making decisions. According to Umar (2014), interest in revisiting is a behavior that arises as a response to an object that indicates the customer’s desire to re-visit. From the two definitions above, it can be concluded that the interest in revisiting is something personal in the form of behavior that arises in response to an object that results in the customer’s desire to make a repeat visit.

In this case the theory of interest in revisiting interest is taken from the theory of repurchase interest in a product, so that in several categories the interest in visiting can be applied to purchase interest. Interest is the urge to motivate someone to take action. The desire to travel in the future is influenced by their attitude towards their past experiences. While the theory of reasoned action and planned behavior is the most commonly used model for predicting behavior since the early 1980s, consistent results show that attitudes, subjective norms and control explain variations in future visiting desires.

Product

Product is the center of marketing activities. Product can be goods or services. If there is no product, there is no transfer of ownership, there is no marketing. All marketing activities are used to support product movement. One thing to keep in mind is how great the promotion, distribution, and price efforts are if not followed by a quality product, liked by the customer, then the marketing mix business will not succeed. So keep in mind what products will be marketed, how the tastes of today’s customers, what their needs and wants. Needs related to customer needs. The customer buys an item because it is needed. But there are also sometimes other elements contained behind the goods such as beauty when wearing them, according to taste, smooth, color, sweet, fresh, and so on. Therefore the product produced must consider ‘product features’, namely the model, appearance, special features, attributes of the product. Types of sub-component product combinations can be solved again into four. The first and foremost component is the number of types of goods that will be offered to companies offering services, are all kinds of services that will be offered. The second component is all special services (technical, maintenance, and services after sales transactions) offered by companies that offer to support the sale of goods (after sales service). The third component is the stamp along with its reputation, quality, toughness, and general factors of use. Although the quality and durability factors are also important for consumer goods, they are usually considered an important part of the trade mark and reputation of the goods, if not treated as separate factors. The fourth component is concerned with the appearance of the goods and the packaging.

Tourism Promotion

Promotion in today’s modern marketing cannot be ignored. This promotion is highly developed during the ‘selling concept’ in which producers rely heavily, very high hopes for increased sales by using promotions. In recent years producers have begun to pay attention to their tastes, by making goods that meet the needs and wants of customers. Between promotions and products can not be separated and there must be a balance.

In a combination of promotions including advertising activities, personal selling, sales promotion, publicity, all of which are used by companies to increase sales. The scope of promotional activities is influenced by the types of activities carried out. The scope of promotional coverage carried out only by advertising alone will be narrower than being used simultaneously in conjunction with technical activities depending on the type of variation of media used in each component, if the advertising media used is a national daily, then the distance of advertising reach will be further than if only used by the local daily. Promotional activities from rival companies are other factors that need to be considered. If the company is not well-known and the competition is too active in its promotion, the company needs to take certain steps.

RESEARCH METHODS

Types of Research

This research is a descriptive study with a quantitative approach that aims to explain an empirical phenomenon accompanied by statistical data, characteristics, and patterns of relationships between variables. When viewed from its characteristics, this study is included in correlational research, namely the type of research with the characteristics of the problem in the form of the influence between two or more variables. The purpose of correlational research is to find answers fundamentally about influence and influence and investigate the extent of that influence, making it easier for writers to obtain objective data in order to know and understand the management of marketing strategies in increasing tourists in Dairi. In this study, the dependent variable is the tourist return interests (Y) influenced by independent variables namely: product (X1) and tourism promotion (X2).

Research Location and Time

The study was conducted at the Pariwasata and Culture office in Dairi Regency because the Office was focused on marketing tourism potential in Dairi Regency.

Population and Sample

In this study, the population is archipelago tourists who are on or have been touring in Dairi Regency. The population in this study cannot be well defined, and demographic information about the population cannot be obtained precisely, so random sampling cannot be done (Ma’ruf, 2005). For this reason, the sampling method used in this study is a convenience sampling method which is a quick and concise sampling. 110 samples are deemed sufficient according to researchers to be samples that can represent the population.

Data Analysis Method

This study uses descriptive qualitative analysis methods to determine the existence of relationships between dependent variables and independent using inductive statistics correlation with multiple regression analysis. The qualitative descriptive objective in this study is to provide a systematic, factual and accurate description of certain facts.

The data analysis method used in this study is multiple regression analysis (Sugiyono, 2004). Therefore the research formulation in the path analysis framework only revolves around the independent variable (X1, X2, …, Xk) influencing the dependent variable Y, or how much direct, indirect, and total influence or simultaneous set of independent variables (X1 , X2, …, Xk) to the dependent variable Y. Hypothesis testing using t test, F test, r squared test.

Effect of Product on Tourist Return Interests

Product variables are declared significant with a significance value of 0,000. The product variable is stated to have a significant effect on the interest of the repeat visit. This means that the product has an important role in the interest of tourists visiting. Product variable regression coefficient has a positive value of 0.108. This shows that the relationship formed between the product and the interest of the repeat visit was positive.

These results support the research conducted by Siburian (2013), Pandiangan (2012), suggesting that the product significantly influences consumer interest in revisiting. When the customer believes that he is satisfied by a service product, and shows his desire to rely on the service product, then that customer might form a positive purchase intention for the service product. A satisfying service product will bring customers to try or reuse it and continue to recommend the service product to others, therefore the product is the most important element.

Effect of Tourism Promotion on Tourist Return Interests

Promotion variable is declared significant with a significance value of 0,000. The promotion variable is stated to have a significant effect on the interest of the repeat visit. This means that promotion has an important role in the interest of a return visit. The regression coefficient of the promotion variable has a positive value of 0.265. This shows that the relationship formed between promotion and return interest is positive.

These results support research previously conducted by Siburian (2013), Lubis (2012), Munandar (2014) which suggests that promotion significantly influences consumer interest in revisiting. Promotion is the key where potential buyers of a service product can find out a particular service product. Good promotion, attractive, and right on target will attract new customers to come, try or buy a service product and participate in promotion.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of research and discussion in the previous chapter, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Product has a positive and significant effect on tourist return interests in Dairi Regency.
2. Tourism promotion has a positive and significant effect on tourist return interests in Dairi Regency.
3. Products and tourism promotion as independent variables in this study proved to simultaneously have a positive and significant effect on tourist return interests in Dairi Regency as the dependent variable.
4. The amount of product and tourism promotion factors towards tourist return interests is 59,8% and 40,2% are other factors that influence tourist return interests other than the factors examined in this study.

Specifically my interests are real world production based training, researching new technologies, techniques and workflows,and developing my own artistic style. In addition to that I do a lot of research on the history of Photography and that leads me to establish the Photomuse, India’s First photography museum and a rural art gallery which always interpret art education in different style.

As a educator and Cinematographer within such a technologically innovative field, it is my duty to continue developing myself as both an artistic and technical professional in order to remain a valuable mentor to my students and contributor to my field. The drive to consistently find effective ways to incorporate that knowledge into my teaching methodology for my students has led to the creation of multiple internships, mentorships and production experiences with my industry connections. My philosophy of teaching is built upon mixing the theoretical with the practical, developing both the logic and creative sides of the brain, in order to train highly employable and qualified job applicants.

I am constantly aiming to fulfill my mission of bringing the concept of the “apprenticeship” back into academia as well as the studio. The industry consists of highly collaborative work environments that require innovative teaching techniques to produce highly qualified artists and designers that can contribute immediately to a studio’s workflows. Combine these unique training needs along with the fact that all entry level jobs in the industry now require 1-2 years experience, and its becomes imperative that we develop real world production based training within the classroom, basically a modern version of the apprenticeship.

It is a common issue, especially in this rapidly changing global economy, that graduating art and design students will have to work for free for a few years to get that first paying job in their desired profession. Many, who cannot afford to work for free, are forced to take jobs that are not in their desired profession and work on the side for free to continue training, hence extending the time it takes to get into their desired profession, or abandon their pursuit of their dream jobs altogether. Bringing the production studio into the classroom, either virtually or physically not only gives students more work experience but also develops their skill sets of logical analysis, team collaboration and creative problem solving of real world production issues that studios require of their new hires. This is why the industry is very network oriented. Professionals are hired more on who they know than their actual skill set because being recommended for the job is an indicator that the job candidate knows how to work in a collaborative studio environment and that’s a safer bet than an unknown job candidate with a better skill set.

Due to these industry hiring practices, academic production studios offering apprenticeships is an essential academic innovation to benefit the next generation of graduates into the industry. The idea of an apprenticeship is an irreplaceable form of education and training, especially in a production based field where skills can only be refined with experience. This is a field where practical training is needed most but apprenticeships have all but disappeared. That is why production based training or “apprenticeships” are central to my teaching methodologies as a educator and to my training methodologies as an industry professional.

In this industry, producers typically expect their employees to carry out several tasks during a production. Students must be prepared to be flexible with their skills and so this is another strong factor in my philosophy of education. This is why alumni must leave with both the logic of the production and the creativity of the artist. Both sides of the brain must be trained to the maximum potential of the student as the content they create will depend on their logical abilities to use the tools of their trade along with their creative abilities to address the production issues that lay ahead of them.

My full-time industry jobs have strengthened my ability to research and develop wide ranging industry workflows. I take raw, inexperienced talent and mentor them in their integration of a fast paced, collaborative film industry practice .. I have brought these industry development practices into the classrooms . I am always looking to evolve teaching practices in my field due to the constant innovation ofthese highly technical industries. The fast paced developments in the industry and its workflows are something that I study very closely. Over the years, I have developed my style of teaching methods which is always connected with real problem analysis and solutions. Which is almost close to case studies of business management courses.

My Students are not only receiving training in real world production pipelines, but they are also learning how to function in a studio environment. The in-house studio acts as a nursery where potential industry employees grow their team building, problem solving, and production skills. Students participating in studio projects force them to be pushed outside their comfort zones where they are forced to learn different parts of the production pipeline and grow their creative problem solving abilities. Keeping up to date with industry developments not only makes me a more valuable industry professional, but it also ensures that I am a valuable learning source for my students.

Abstract

This paper will discuss questions of U.S. interests involved with possible interference in Libya, first through economic and geopolitical lenses. Then, these interests will be practically balanced and weighed against the respective harms to U.S. geopolitical, economic, national security, and even environmental interests. Then, the moral question will be addressed, with benefits the U.S. might hope to gain from interference in Libya being temporarily put aside. An analysis will be conducted into the Libyan civil war, economic issues, human rights violations, refugee crisis, and legal process in order to determine if the Libyan crisis is so immense that a moral obligation to assuage it exists. Specific tools in the U.S. diplomatic toolbox will be explored in order to determine if an effective and productive mode of interference exists.

Discussion

In discussing whether the U.S. should interfere in Libya, the first question worth asking is whether the U.S. has interests worth interfering on behalf of in Libya​. Put simply; the U.S. does have interests in Libya worth considering. In 2010, $41.9 billion worth of oil was exported out of Libya. The U.S. has broad counter-terrorism interests in the Middle-East and, as disputes and power vacuums in the region provide opportunities for terrorism to take root, it is certainly worth considering if U.S. interference would provide finality to the crisis while deterring terrorist cell growth.

It is, however, narrow-minded, selfish, and asinine to assert that U.S. economic and geopolitical interests are, alone, the only interests worth considering when discussing interference in Libya. After all, a central aim of the U.S. is to both increase energy independence from foreign entities and another aim of the U.S. should be to, more importantly, reduce the use of fossil fuels like oil in light of security and environmental challenges posed by climate change.

The U.S. interest in reducing terrorism, also, does not seem to be historically effective at reducing its presence, at least through military interference. The U.S. military interference in Iraq, for instance, has been recognized as a failure of U.S. foreign policy. While in conjunction with interference in Afghanistan, it can be credited with the destruction of much of Al Quaeda’s leadership, U.S. interference in both Iraq and Afghanistan bolstered anti-American in the region and lit the spark which started the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria.

Arguments made in respect to the U.S. benefiting from interference in Libya geopolitically or economically, at least in a short term manner, are therefore improper in describing the impetus for the U.S. to interfere. Instead, the U.S. must view this calculus as one of morality, not material gain. The U.S. can only hope to achieve the long term end of making Libya into a steadfast ally in a tumultuous region if the U.S. takes its first blind step in the direction of altruism. In other words, the U.S. must not decide to take action in Libya because of what it stands to gain, but because of what Libyans have already lost and will continue to lose if nothing is done.

The question should, then, be reframed from whether the U.S. has interests worth interfering on behalf of to the following: ​is there suffering in Libya such that U.S. interference is morally demanded and, if so, would diplomatic interference quell or swell that suffering​? There is, without a doubt, suffering in Libya that morally commands some form of action. Between February and June of 2018, clashes in the southern town of Sebha between armed groups loyal to the Awlad Suleiman and Tebu groups erupted, resulting in the deaths of at least 16 civilians. In May of 2018, the Libyan National Army (LNA) began an attempt at wresting control of an eastern city in Libya from the Derna Mujahedeen Shura Council (DMSC), an armed group with terrorists in its membership. Clashes erupted on August 26th of 2018 in the Libyan capital, Tripoli, between armed groups vying for control of state institutions. While the south side of Tripoli faced most of the conflict, careless shelling in civilian neighborhoods killed 120 civilians and wounded 400 more.

These conflicts, a product of an ongoing civil war, along with three major terrorist attacks on the part of ISIS in 2018, have caused an immense amount of death, injury, and destruction. This unfortunate situation has, further, stacked on top of already pressing economic, legal, and human rights challenges in Libya. The unemployment rate since 2009 has been between 19 and 25 percent, with unemployment amongst the youth population as high as 30 percent. The death penalty is a punishment for over 30 articles in Libya’s penal code, including for acts of speech and association. An unknown amount of people were sentenced to death by Libyan civil and military courts since 2011, often as a result of trials characterized by due process violations.

Libyan law does not outlaw domestic violence and allows a man who kills his wife or another female relative because of suspicion extramarital sexual relations to get a reduced sentence. Tens of thousands of civilians have had enough of the conflict, persecution, and economic struggle, so they have been displaced; roughly 40,000 – 200,000 people, to be precise. In order to stop the perpetuation of civil war, the death of civilians, the denial of fundamental human rights, and the state-sanctioned abuse of women, the U.S. should interfere in Libya and is, arguably, morally obligated to do so. It is, also, clear that military interference is counterproductive, leaving only the diplomatic toolbox for solution methods. A foremost concern is whether such diplomatic interference is unilateral or multilateral. After all, interference is often viewed better by recipient nations if such interference is multilateral and tends to be more effective because of the increased power of multiple nations. With Libya, however, the U.S. has a unique opportunity and is arguably forced to act unilaterally. Under the Trump administration, Article five of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which guarantees that member nations come to each other’s aid in times of war was not re-signed by the U.S., stressing U.S. ties and eliminating U.S. soft power over these nations, which would be most likely to aid in some diplomatic form. Additionally, past NATO interference in Libya was viewed as counterproductive by civilians and, unfortunately, produced adverse outcomes. These factors present an opportunity for the U.S. to re-brand its interference as altruistic.

Re-branding interference is not just a matter of aesthetic changes, but mechanical ones as well. The mechanical changes could include but are not limited to: increases in developmental aid, the imposition of sanctions, deployment of UN peacekeeping forces, and the formulation of a clear strategy which promotes negotiation and peace between the several fighting factions inLibya. While the United States government has committed to providing $187 million in assistance to Libya, only $12.7 million has been spent thus far; delivering on that full promise of aid would be an excellent start at convincing Libyans that the U.S. will keep its promises to them. The identification of more friendly and ethical groups in Libya, potentially providing aid to these groups, and sanctioning opposing parties which are opposed to peace, fundamental issues of human dignity, and negotiation will work to either bring parties to the negotiating table or to combat adversarial parties in Libya along with their ideologies.

It may take a long time, but the U.S. has long acted with blatant disregard for the concerns of civilians and rational actors in regions in which it interferes. The U.S. taking time with long term strategy and sanctions while still tending to urgent issues of death with aid and peacekeeping is necessary to establish a pattern as an actor on behalf of peace and to change Libyan perception of the U.S. from the zooming drone in the sky to the shining city on the hill.

References

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Voting is one of the most important parts of politics. Voting ensures freedom of speech and the existence of democracy. Voting is a basic process that keeps a nation’s governmental system works. It enables the citizens to choose their own government. It also allows the people to choose their representatives in the government. The purpose of every government is to develop and implement various policies for the benefit of its citizens. Although elections always involve citizens casting votes for candidates or political parties, there is a great deal of variation in the precise set of rules employed by the world’s electoral systems. Some allow citizens to vote for candidates, others allow them to vote only for political parties, some allow citizens to cast only one vote, some involve electing only one representative in each district. But not all forms of voting are equal or cannot represent small groups of people or diverse interests. In many cases small groups of people who’s interests are different from the majority have no impact on politics which means that their preferred beliefs or principles are put aside. That consequently affects not only politics, economics but also society. Our diverse, modern society requires a modern voting system that will facilitate adequate representation of this growing diversity. The need to represent more communities of interest while promoting coalitions is especially pressing in our cities, where the majority is increasingly composed of a collection of minorities. Governments should take great care in choosing an electoral system, as the ability to bring all groups to the table of representation may be the only glue in the future that will hold our countries, major cities and surrounding suburbs together.

The present winner-take-all electoral system used in most elections in the United States typically divides representation into districts or wards, with each district electing one representative. Other times it elects several seats at-large, with 50.1% of voters having the power to win all seats. These winner-take-all systems were implemented at a time when no other systems had been developed and when the electorate of most states was relatively homogeneous and when communication and transportation were slow, making geographic-based representation more logical. To early Americans, any method of election was a vast improvement over being ruled by a king.

But winner-take-all systems do a poor job in representing political minorities that are geographically dispersed. The problem with winner-take-all voting in the 21st century is that many cities and states are composed of an increasingly diverse population with a variety of political views. Particularly in urban areas, people are from varying race, class, ethnic and religious backgrounds. Yet they all must share the same representative in the House of Representatives and in most state legislatures. What about the 49.9% of voters who might not vote for a winning candidate or those on the winning side who had to settle on a lesser of two evils? What about the majority of adults who no longer vote in most elections? They all too likely are represented by someone with whom they feel little affinity. This poor representation calls into question the effectiveness of a single representative speaking for increasingly diverse populations.

Fortunately, there are tried and true alternatives. Proportional representation systems of voting (such as choice voting and party list voting) and semi-proportional systems (such as limited voting and cumulative voting) are designed to promote full representation. This means that various political constituencies within the majority and the minority can win representation while still maintaining majority rule. In our society, minority often has the connotation of a racial or ethnic minority, but proportional voting systems allow representation of any type of minority: Republicans in a Democratic area, liberal black voters in a white-majority area in the south, pro-life voters in a pro-choice stronghold, independent voters most everywhere, and so on. With proportional representation, more voters get a seat at the table. And more voters get a piece of the pie.

Choice voting, limited voting and cumulative voting are candidate-based systems already used in local elections in the United States. Each use different methods to achieve full representation, and, not surprisingly, result in different outcomes. Limited voting and cumulative voting are semi-proportional system that are particularly successful in opening access to representation for a cohesive political minority by allowing its members to express a strong preference for particular candidates. Because of their particular rules, both limited and cumulative voting sometimes fail to achieve the broader goal of full representation, but both result in more representative assemblies than winner-take-all systems.

Choice voting comes closer to achieving full representation. When compared to winner-take-all systems, choice voting sharply reduces the percentage of votes it takes to win a legislative seat. This lower victory threshold allows various minority constituencies to win representation without having to be a local majority created in the districting process. It allows them to elect a candidate to represent their shared values and interests – in a sense, choice voting allows individual voters to district themselves with political allies. At the same time, choice voting encourages coalition-building and majority representation by valuing a candidate’s ability to be the second and third choice of supporters of other candidates. Choice voting promotes coalition-building and organizing across racial, ethnic and partisan lines. When its potential is fully realized, choice voting combines the best of local, district elections and at-large, citywide elections. On the one hand, neighborhoods tend to win representation because candidates often decide they can best earn strong support from voters in their geographic area. Yet other candidates will win by appealing to a geographically dispersed community of interest, all while forming coalitions. The end result is a legislature that is a perfect view of the community, and more fully representative of the wishes of the electorate.

There is a large body of both theoretical and empirical literature suggesting that, the more fragmented and dispersed a political system is, the less effective its government is likely to be. Electoral systems are relevant here because the question of whether a given government can enact legislation effectively is linked to whether it can assemble a working majority in the legislature, which is in turn linked to the electoral system. The conventional wisdom has been that plurality systems are more effective than PR systems because they are supposed to be less fragmented and therefore more decisive. The main argument, originally developed by Maurice Duverger (1954), is that, because only one candidate from one party can win, candidates tend to cast a wide net to secure as broad a base of support as possible, and this tends to provide inducements for the aggregation of different interests into a fewer number of political parties, which normally should be no more than two. There are also essential economies of scale involved in this process .Proportional systems, on the other hand, are supposed to encourage the multiplication of parties, and, as a result, they are more prone to give rise to coalition governments and to be less effective.

Scholars disagree as to which electoral systems may be most appropriate in divided or conflict‐prone states and societies. Two schools of thought predominate. One school has long argued that some form of proportional representation is needed in the face of deep‐rooted ethnic divisions, in order to give minorities adequate representation. Such arguments have been important in influencing the electoral design recommendations of consociational/proportional representation approaches to managing ethnic cleavages, based on elite power‐sharing mechanisms. According to promoters of this school of thought, in terms of electoral systems, party‐list PR tends to be the best choice for divided societies, because it enables different groups, to define themselves into identity‐based parties, and to gain representation in parliament in proportion to their numbers. The scholar most associated with the consociational model, Arend Lijphart (1969), developed this prescription from a detailed examination of the features of power‐sharing democracy in some continental European countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland). However, there is disagreement over how far these measures can work when applied to violence/conflict in developing countries. 9 Other scholars have argued that systems based on PR are more likely to exacerbate fault lines of conflict than to generate compromise because they encourage fragmentation and the hardening of narrow identities. In a setting with multiple social cleavages, this magnifies rather than compresses differences, makes it difficult to build sturdy government (coalitions), and can lead to immobilism and even polarization. According to this school of thought, the situation is exacerbated in PR systems where thresholds are low, because there are considerable incentives for the proliferation of parties. This may in turn enable very small parties that can make or break a government to have disproportionate impact in determining policy and receiving patronage. On this basis, scholars in this tradition argue that, while proportionality and moderation are both worthwhile goals, they may be difficult to achieve simultaneously and they may in fact pull in opposite directions. According to this tradition, what is needed are electoral systems that can generate incentives for conciliation among different groups and to help build bridges across groups by making such behavior essential to secure electoral success. Electoral systems in the plurality family are believed to provide those kinds of incentives more readily, because candidates need to cast a wider net of support in order to win. For example, the system used for presidential elections in Nigeria requires the winning candidate to gain support from different regions, thus helping to break down the claims of narrow parochialism or regionalism.

References

1. Blais, A. (1991), ‘The Debate over Electoral Systems’, International Political Science Review/Revue international de science politique, Vol. 12, No. 3
2. Gallagher, M., Laver, M. & Mair, P. (2011), ‘Chapter 11: Elections, Electoral Systems and Referendums’ in Representative Government in Modern Europe, 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill Education, Berkshire UK
3. Lijphart, A. (2012), ‘Chapter 8: Electoral Systems: Majority and Plurality Methods Versus Proportional Representation’ in Patterns of Democracy: government forms and performance in thirty-six countries, 2nd Ed., Yale University Press, Newhaven USA & London UK
4. Protsyk, O. & Sachariew, K. (2012), ‘Recruitment and Representation of Ethnic Minorities under Proportional Representation: Evidence from Bulgaria’, East European Politics and Societies, Vol. 26, No. 2
5. Reilly, B. and A. Reynolds (1999) “Electoral Systems and Conflict in Divided Societies”.
6. Raabe, J. (2015), ‘Principles of representation throughout the world: Constitutional provisions and electoral systems’, International Political Science Review, Vol. 36, No. 5
7. Moser, R. G. (2008), ‘Electoral Systems and the Representation of Ethnic Minorities’ Comparative Politics, Vol. 40, No. 3

Introduction

The long-standing discussion around the policy development and the political actors that play the most crucial role in it has been lying on the root of another colloquy: power in policy making (Hill, 2009). This paper enters the debate by primarily tracing back to its forebear, id est the Marxian political theory and the forthcoming discussions during the 19th century, and then proceeding to the most recent policy controversies and findings.

Theory and Shortcomings

The phrase ‘organised business interests’ is linked to policy making apparatuses crystallised in the discursive representations of the modern state. Diving into the political concerns of the early modern times, we might translate ‘business interests’ into ‘bourgeoisie interests’: in 1848, the State found its modern raison d’être in words of Marx and Engels as ‘a committee of managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie’ (Marx; Engels, 1848). The amplification of this thesis with the historical materialism theory succinctly encompassed a new explanation of how different economic interests dictated changes in the political spectrum from time to time. Hence, the domination of bourgeoisie interests in modern policy making emerged since the economically hefty class at this point was the bourgeoisie and the State was pecuniarily dependent on it (Marx, 1846). In this frame, employers started to be organised in collective entities during the first half of the 19th century (Hilbert, 1912) and their influence was simultaneously theorised as pivotal.

Drawing inspiration from the advancements within the later Marxist approaches, Miliband’s (1969) illustration of the similar social background and the networks that bourgeois and state’s elite share implied an inevitable business interests’ domination in policy making (Hill, 2009). In general, the Marxist rhetoric offers traditionally a rich theoretical ground for the statement discussed in terms of economic power and the State’s tendency to serve the winners of this game, i.e. the capital’s interests (O’Connor, 1973; Gough, 1979). However, not solely Marx or Marxists attempted to untangle the complex of the modern state in the name of power. But this paper argues that Marxism was the first theory delineating clearly the bond between the State, the business and the latter’s prominent influence.

Even if Marxists’ analyses became objects of esteemed critiques, the lens through which they answered Dahl’s question (‘Who governs?’ Dahl, 1961) was widely adopted. Looking at the policy development process, Cairney (2012) advocated that power may be treated ‘as influence(…)as a resource to be used’. This way business interests – irrevocably linked to resources – started to be more systematically valorised by political theorists to ameliorate the robustness of their models. Thus, pluralism introduced its privileged-position-of-business argument (Manley, 1983) where an unequal competition of interests occurs; there, ‘business officials are privileged not only with respect to the care with which government satisfies business needs’ but also due to their embroilment in policy consultation (Lindblom, 1977). Simultaneously, elitism shed light on certain aspects of business interests’ influence in policy with the ideas of ‘political class and elite’ (Bottomore, 1966) and the ‘military-industrial complex’ (Mills, 1956). Hence, the co-admitted participation of businessmen as key-interlocutors in policy deliberations was accompanied by the idea of the existential dependence of the State on the military and the defence industry, driving to the prevalence of these two elites in the political dialogue (Eisenhower, 1961).

Having epitomised the theoretical consensus around businesses’ influence and soughting to link the above to recent scholarships, we argue that in the modern ‘pluralist heaven’ the ‘heavenly choir’s strong upper-class accent’ (Schattschneider, 1960) is not witnessed by listening to an “ambiguous power song”. On the contrary, businessmen seem to exercise their power and entrench their interests in a precise and practical way by submitting for instance a grand proportion of comments to a newly introduced rule, which includes ‘high quality information’ and expertise that agencies favour (Yackee, 2006). Their ‘perfection of power’ (Foucault, 1977) could be observed more clearly in studies that do not initially investigate this issue but, from my perspective, their co-finding is the constant satisfaction of business interest groups in terms of policy outcomes. For example, the inner-conflict of UK’s current coalition government about immigration was primarily explained in terms of partisan politics by Hampshire and Bale (2015). However, the final policy outcome for the immigrants in the labour market was a result of lobbying with employers (Hampshire; Bale, 2015). In this consultation process ‘not all pro-immigration clients were(sic) equal’ (ibid) since the education lobby did not accomplish to convince the Government about student immigrants. A cornerstone of these analyses is Shin’s research which also underpins the preponderance of business interests in policy development by stating that in the end ‘voters expect politicians of any ideology to promote economic growth’ (Shin, 2017), even if policy instruments differ.

Many examples could embellish our canvas, emerging from the correlations between firms’ size and political power (Salamon & Siergfried, 1977), their capacity to keep issues off the public scrutiny (Cairney, 2012) or even State’s own role as an employer and its unique nature (Fredman; Morris, 1990) being closer to business’ (even only in terms of structure and operation). Although, building an empirical amalgam is not this paper’s purpose. Besides that, it is also worth mentioning that multiple studies engage with the opposite idea and demonstrate valid results to support it (e.g. Anderson and Hassel, 2015). What emerges from this picture is that political science crumbles in its own inability to effectively juxtapose diverse scholarships and come to fruitful conclusions that combine evidence critically.

Conclusion

The attempt of this paper was not to bear out that organised business interests are the only determinant during the policy development process. Our aim was to provide a plausible argument that business interests are indeed one of the most important political actors nowadays that should not be forgotten or placed in an un-politicised frame. Policy procedures should be set under scrutiny that incorporates the whole amalgam of political interests without accepting the offspring of certain historical and political processes as “natural” entities of the system which should not be controverted.

Introduction

Charlie Gard was diagnosed with infantile-onset encephalomyopathic mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome (MDDS), an uncommon hereditary illness leading to gradual muscle weakness and brain damage. Charlie also suffered from congenital hearing loss and severe epilepsy. There was a hypothetical prospect that a novel nucleoside therapy might improve Charlie’s prognosis. Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) contemplated making a referral (1) but decided against it when scans showed that Charlie’s brain had been acutely damaged by his illness (2), presumably having progressed to the stage of severe epileptic encephalopathy (3). GOSH regarded nucleoside therapy to be opposed to Charlie’s best interests. His parents acknowledged that if there was zero possibility of an upswing then Charlie’s standard of living was not worth prolonging, but they saw hope in nucleoside therapy, contacted a Professor of Neurology in the United States (US) agreeable to offer it and raised £1.3 million via crowdfunding. The disagreement between GOSH and Charlie’s parents could not be straightened out and the dispute was referred to Mr Justice Francis in the High Court. Four statements were pursued by GOSH: that Charlie lacked capacity, that it was in his best interests for mechanical respiration to be removed, that supportive care should be delivered and that it was against his best interests to receive nucleoside therapy (4). Mr Justice Francis approved the declarations and in the subsequent months, his grant was maintained at three levels of appeal (5), and Charlie died at 11 months in July 2017.

The ruling that untested treatment was against Charlie’s best interests and the withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment (6) was crushing for his parents and hard for their advocates to understand. Many found it unfathomable that a therapy plan, presented and financed unanimously by both parents, which holds a possibility of improving a child’s prognosis could be dismissed. This essay aims to provide a critical analysis of the ethical principles surrounding the Charlie Gard case, with emphasis on limitations of ‘in the best interests’ argument. It highlights opposing advice and examines disparities in approach between clinicians, parents and independent child advocates.

Conflicting ethical principles

There are three rationales behind declining or discontinuing conceivably life-sustaining medical care: the patient rationally declines treatment (autonomy); the anticipated value is insufficient to justify the public resources required to provide treatment (distributive justice); or treatment is not in the patient’s best interests (7).

Autonomy

There is no dispute that Charlie’s parents had control over their son’s treatment, but the fundamental concern that surfaced was: should that control be unconditional and sovereign? Many proponents asserted that parents’ rights and responsibility should be a decisive factor regarding treatment. They claimed that when there is a rational dispute over sustaining life-prolonging treatment, “we should accede to the wishes of the parents and err on the side of a chance of life (8).”

However, British law permits for situations where physicians can pursue their own perspective of a child’s care against the parents’ opinions. The courts established that Charlie’s doctors should be permitted to withdraw his treatment if the treatment had no possibility of a favourable outcome and were putting him in pain or at risk of distress (9). With regards to the welfare of the child, the court assesses what is in the child’s best interests from the child’s point of view. Even though the parents’ opinion is a pertinent element, the court is not compelled to comply with parents’ wishes (10). Besides, the extent of parental rights is restricted where parents do not have ownership of children, as Mr Justice Francis tried very hard to specify in paragraph 18 of his ruling (1). The best interests of the child outweigh the parents’ autonomy. Parents are granted autonomy based on the premise that they act in the child’s best interests, but if parents’ decisions are distinctly opposed to the child’s best interest, then it is only reasonable to disregard them. It is unfair to presume that a child’s view is unlike his parents since a child unopinionated; neither is it right to consider parental viewpoint as the child’s. Essentially, parental autonomy gives parents the power to choose between other feasible options. For instance, the choice of either treatment a with a particular success rate, or treatment b with a better success rate but is more taxing in the short run (11). On the contrary, the choices were unequal in Charlie Gard’s situation as the other only feasible treatment could not be proven as effective.

This is not to discount that the parental opinion is not a significant aspect in ascertaining the child’s well-being. The parental opinion will be held in high regard and possibly be conclusive, but it is widely known that parents in this harrowing situation can find themselves lacking good judgement and be inclined to seek all available options, even if, when perceived impartially, their favoured choice is against the best interest of a child. The fundamental rule is that the child’s best interests must triumph and that must prevail even to situations where parents persistently hang on to a different viewpoint, albeit for the best of intentions (12).

Distributive Justice

Constraints in medical amenities, such as intensive care, indicates that not everyone who might likely benefit from treatment can be tended to. They must be ordered based on the principle of distributive justice. Therapies with a minimal likelihood of benefit should not be given as they deny someone with a more favourable prognosis. It is less contentious to withhold treatment if it will provide less benefit to one patient compared to another patient than to claim that it provides no benefit at all, particularly when not providing treatment will lead to death. Although nucleoside therapy is inexpensive, at the minimum three months of intensive care would have been required, amounting to roughly £150,000. A 10% possibility of a reduced lifespan of severe disability was the best result predicted by Hirano (13). Fifty years of life at quality 0.3 equal to fifteen quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), which means the predicted value of a 10% possibility of such a life is 1.5 QALYs. This would imply a value of £100,000 per QALY, considerably beyond the prevailing threshold of £30,000 per QALY. This is a legitimate and rational justification for withholding treatment even though the threshold itself is disputable. Hence, despite the fact that it was apparently in Charlie’s interests to receive treatment, it could still be limited on the basis of distributive justice (14).

Nevertheless, there was no basis backed by distributive justice to stop Charlie from receiving treatment in the US because Charlie’s parents have raised sufficient money for his treatment outside the UK. His treatment does not deny others a chance. Therefore, advocates might assert that because we are incapable of discerning whether life will eventually end up being in Charlie’s interests and worth living, it would no longer be justified to deny Charlie his shot at life (15). That being said, an alternative justification for declining treatment would be best interests, which is notably more complicated. The futility of treatment, the likelihood of success is too low as well as the outcome of having a life not worth living are all open for discussion. These might be convincing arguments for discontinuation of treatment and should not be disregarded.

Futility

Widely used reasoning for discontinuing treatment based on best interests was that additional treatment would be ineffective. Treatments can be ineffective either because it has no evidence-based reasoning, or because the patient had suffered irreversible damage to their health. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of a treatment is subject to the goals of care (16). In other words, if Charlie’s parents wished to prolong his life for as long as possible or if they considered this as a ground-breaking study on nucleoside therapy that could benefit future patients, then experimental nucleoside therapy may have been regarded as fruitful. On the other hand, if they anticipated him to make a complete neurological recovery, then flying to the US for a novel therapy that had not been proven to be effective for his condition may have been improbable or unwise. Therefore, futility, similar to best interests, is of moderate utility as it cannot elucidate numerous value-based disputes.

In Charlie’s case, there was a hypothetical justification, which both groups of clinicians came to terms with, resulting in GOSH originally planning an ethics committee request to give the therapy a go in January before Charlie experienced multiple seizures. The likelihoods of the treatment being successful were not zero and hence, from a physiological viewpoint, it was worthwhile. Eventually, the determining factor that ended the legal actions against GOSH was the conclusion that his illness had already caused permanent damage. The findings of the muscle imaging done in July brought about a common consensus between the physicians at GOSH, Dr Hirano, and the Vatican’s physician that Charlie’s health was beyond treatment, and his parents received this without demanding any additional court ruling (17). However, we cannot pinpoint specifically when Charlie’s condition became irreversible. Essentially, if a treatment might prolong life span, then it is a subjective assessment based on one’s principles and beliefs, not a medical or scientific opinion, as to whether before-mentioned treatment is useful, and this would be based on more circumstances explained below.

Low likelihood of success

Even if the claim that additional treatment would be ineffective is refuted, it would still be plausible to argue with the second line of reasoning on best interests: that the prospect of recovery, while not zero, was exceedingly slim. The judge in Charlie’s case frequently associated the extremely low probability to zero (1). Still, Dr Hirano asserted that a “vanishingly small” possibility is also the sole chance, with the alternative being death. The question then lies in determining what probability of recovery is considered too low. Would it be 1% or 0.1%? If there is also an extremely low possibility that the treatment would result in acute or extended distress, then even the slightest probability of recovery would seem plausible to treat.

For Charlie’s situation, this was a challenging question. As the legal case was proceeding, Charlie’s welfare was compromised, and he suffered distress associated with the procedures in intensive care (e.g. suctioning, tube feeding, ventilation) and epileptic seizures. Nonetheless, these complications can be handled with medical interventions like sedation and analgesia. His pain was originally controlled without morphine and subsequently with a small dosage, demonstrating that the pain Charlie was experiencing was presumably manageable. Hence, despite the low likelihoods of improvement, it would have been feasible to provide treatment on this basis for a short time in the beginning.

Life not worth living

The third justification for withdrawing treatment that could be against the best interests of a patient is the outcome of having a life not worth living. Despite turning out to be successful, the ideal result obtainable is still not one worth aiming for, with respect to both duration or standard of living. Supporters maintained that if Charlie was responsive and able to feel joy, then his life was worth living as it is considerably better than dying. They also argue that numerous severely disabled people considered their lives to be valuable and there is insufficient evidence to state that prolonging their life is against their best interests (18). On the contrary, others are in favour of acknowledging that even if the treatment were to be successful, Charlie’s anticipated welfare was not worth experiencing if he was unable to interact socially. Together with the judge’s evaluation that a slight hypothetical possibility of success was equivalent to none, it is sound to rationalise that death with dignity would triumph over living a life detached from human connections.

Mediation

Many critics have mentioned the crucial value of mediation or engaging a different out-of-court method in circumstances like this. There are certainly several cases in which conflict between parents and doctors about the ideal treatment plan is settled agreeably via mediation. In various cases, especially where both parents share the same view, the escalation to court is suggestive of an unresolvable conflict. In spite of that, as Mr Justice Francis emphasised, mediation should be supported so that both parties completely grasp the other perspective. A breakdown in communication between parents and doctors brings about detrimental effects financially, emotionally, and physically. Doctors are also mediators to a great extent. The course of action for treatment is reliant upon mutual contribution and this requires a collaborative synergy. While the responsibility to interact with and advise parents is legally and ethically explicit (19), the discrepancies in the legal approach and the contradictory ethical advice on unproven, novel therapies make the situation more complicated.

In Charlie Gard’s case, professional advice from the General Medical Council (GMC) and Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH) put forward ambiguities pertaining to the ethics of approving the unsubstantiated therapy. Also, legally, it was uncertain based on the current judicial model that it would fulfil either the best interests test or the Bolam test. All things considered, mediation could not have focussed on determining a middle-ground, for there was no such compromise. Parents may understand their children best, and their wishes may be driven by emotion, optimism, and empathy, but that judgment may still be against the best interests of the child. When communication breaks down, it was reasonable and fitting to take the issue to court. The resolution of inconsistencies in professional advice on permitting novel therapies might aid doctors in explaining and utilising risk-benefit analysis. Clinical ethics committees are crucial to evaluate the ethical tensions between parental autonomy, maleficence, and beneficence. Their objectivity and detachment from the issue are necessary mediation credentials.

Conclusion

With respect to life-prolonging treatment of a young child, best interests are not decided by parents or doctors, but either via a hospital-based procedure of accommodation and negotiation, or a court-based judge ruling. The opinions of parents will frequently triumph others in a hospital setting. Hospitals are reluctant to take matters to court because the physical and psychological effect from the legal case might undermine the child’s best interests. Doctors must be certain that any adverse effects on the child related to going against the opinion of parents are less significant than the adverse effects related to meeting their wishes. As soon as proceedings start, the importance of the parental opinion diminishes. It is pertinent in deciding the child’s well-being and to an extent that as the ruling will affect the involvement of the parent with the child and the impact this will have on the child’s well-being, but because well-being cannot be established in relation to the child’s opinion, principles and desires, clinical characteristics are extremely crucial (20). The case was brought to court for resolution and at this point, the formulation and utilisation of best interests were limited by the obtainable proof and the statements pursued by GOSH. Rather than being mediators, judges are instead restricted by the primary principle of best interests and the need to assess the treatment from the child’s perspective. The final verdict made in Charlie’s best interests would, therefore, be backed by the futility of treatment, low likelihood of success and ultimately having a life not worth living.

References

1. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary (2017) Great Ormond Street Hospital -v- Yates and Gard judgment 24 July 2017, High Court of Justice, Family Division: Courts and Tribunals Judiciary.
2. Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children (2017) Latest statement on Charlie Gard, Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/news/latest-press-releases/latest-statement-charlie-gard (Accessed: 12 February 2019).
3. In the Matter of Charles Gard [2017] EWCA Civ 410 [20].
4. European Court of Human Rights (2017) GARD AND OTHERS v. THE UNITED KINGDOM, Strasbourg: European Court of Human Rights.
5. The Supreme Court (2017) Permission to appeal hearing, Available at: https://www.supremecourt.uk/news/permission-to-appeal-hearing-in-the-matter-of-charlie-gard.html (Accessed: 12 February 2019).
6. Judiciary of England and Wales (2017) Decision and short reasons to be released to the media in the case of Charlie Gard, Available at: https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/gard-press-summary-20170411.pdf (Accessed: 12 February 2019).
7. thebmjopinion (2017) Julian Savulescu and Peter Singer: Unpicking what we mean by best interests in light of Charlie Gard, Available at: https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2017/08/02/unpicking-what-we-mean-by-best-interests-in-light-of-charlie-gard/ (Accessed: 12 February 2019).
8. Julian Savulescu and Peter Singer (2017) Charlie Gard: Why Donald Trump and the Pope are right, Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-13/charlie-gard-donald-trump-and-the-pope-are-right/8706390 (Accessed: 12 February 2019).
9. Arthur Caplan and Kelly McBride Folkers (2017) ‘Charlie Gard and the Limits of Parental Authority’, Hastings Center Report, 47(5), pp. 15-16.
10. Royal Courts of Justice (2006) An NHS Trust v MB & Anor, High Court of Justice, Family Division: Royal Courts of Justice.
11. Iain Brassington (2017) ‘Charlie Gard: An Ethical Analysis of a Legal Non-Problem’, Journal of Medical Ethics, -(-), pp. -.
12. Sean Morrison (2017) ‘Charlie Gard: Judges who ruled baby’s life support should be withdrawn publish conclusion as parents hope for Supreme Court fight’, Evening Standard, 5 June.
13. BBC (2017) ‘Charlie Gard has 10% chance of improvement, US doctor claims’, BBC, 13 July.
14. DJC Wilkinson and J Savulescu (2011) ‘Knowing when to stop: futility in the intensive care unit’, Curr Opin Anaesthesiol, 24(2), pp. 160-165.
15. J Savulescu (2017) ‘Is it in Charlie Gard’s best interest to die?’, The Lancet, 389(10082), pp. 1868-1869.
16. Jessica du Toit and Franklin Miller (2015) ‘The Ethics of Continued Life‐Sustaining Treatment for those Diagnosed as Brain‐dead’, Bioethics, 30(3), pp. 151-158.
17. Telegraph Reporters (2017) ‘Charlie Gard: Mother’s full statement – ‘we are so sorry that we couldn’t save you”, The Telegraph, 24 July.
18. Bruno, M.A., Bernheim, J.L., Ledoux, D., Pellas, F., Demertzi, A. and Laureys, S., 2011. A survey on self-assessed well-being in a cohort of chronic locked-in syndrome patients: happy majority, miserable minority. BMJ open, 1(1), p.e000039.
19. Rob Heywood (2012) ‘PARENTS AND MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS: CONFLICT, COOPERATION, AND BEST INTERESTS’, Medical Law Review, 20(1), pp. 29-44.
20. Royal Courts of Justice (2017) D (A Child), Court of Appeal, Civil Division: Royal Courts of Justice.

Serendipity is my favorite word. It is defined as the occurrence of fortune purely by accident; finding good things even while we are not looking for them. Reminiscing on life, and the winding roads that have led me here, I’m convinced that I’m the product of little pockets of serendipity. For example, after high school, I joined Makerere University in my home country, Uganda. However, two months later the university shut down indefinitely due to a strike by disgruntled, unpaid lecturers. Concerned about the uncertainty of my future at Makerere, I applied to Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Not long after, I received my acceptance letter, and thus began the chain of events that would unfold, as my life in America began.

The biggest culture shock I experienced in America was the expression of a fully functioning secular society. Religion has been a significant part of my life since I was a child so this was a world I had never lived in. My evangelical Christian parents raised me to believe in the absolute inerrancy of scripture, and every school I ever enrolled in was either Anglican or Roman Catholic. So, as one might imagine, I was overwhelmed with the freedom of spiritual thought and expression that I found here. Many times, I contemplated abandoning my faith, but how could I strip from myself something that had been as influential as any classroom in the shaping of my opinions, thoughts, and principles? This admittedly is a reality I viewed negatively and I envied people who had begun on a clean slate; those who had the chance to birth their ideologies and define their own truths without watchful eyes or forceful hands.

I declared a major in accounting which – in retrospect, I did to detach myself academically from the humanities and any introspective discipline that required me to define myself or explain how I viewed the world. I had never been given this liberty and so, having it suddenly thrust upon me was a curious thing. Initially, I took to accounting because there was less opinion and more fact. Having only known structure my entire life, the methodological rules that governed accounting computations felt almost… homely. I’m happy to say that this pseudo-sense of comfort didn’t last long. It would certainly be dishonest to myself to think that as a black, female, immigrant, in America I could distance myself from social justice in any form. Martin Luther King JR is famously quoted as having said “There comes a time when silence is betrayal. Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter. In the end, we will remember not the words of our enemies, but the silence of our friends.” Hearing this in an African-American literature class in my junior year of college was a sobering wake-up call.

Junior year was a period of reflection wherein I swam upward, from the deep sea of imposed piousness that had drowned me all those years. When my face finally broke the surface of the water, it felt like I finally knew how to breathe. For the first time In my life, I began to read the bible because I loved its teachings. That sacred text awakened in me a passion for the pursuit of justice and moral responsibility. During this time, I joined a non-denominational church in downtown Baton Rouge whose heart for serving the community reeled me in.

Growing up in Uganda gave me an unobstructed view of poverty, homelessness, and the struggles of families in low-income communities. But going to business school showed me that we as a community have the ability to challenge the status quo. In May of 2018, I had the pleasure of participating in Opportunity Funding Corporation, a pitch competition designed to encourage entrepreneurial initiatives by black college students in America. I left that experience imagining just how beneficial such entrepreneurial training would be if there were more efforts to empower economically marginalized groups. To further educate me on the role of humanitarian aid in the eradication of poverty, in February 2020 I will intern with the African-American relations team of Compassion International, a Christian nonprofit organization that connects children living in poverty with financial sponsors.

I believe that Harvard Divinity School is the next critical step in my pursuit of ministry. And if I wasn’t completely sure before, Divx 2019 extinguished all doubt. Discussing the role of faith in nonprofits and humanitarian aid as I sat in a Government and Humanitarian Action lecture with Dr. Diane Moore reassured me that HDS could truly become a home for me. Business and religion often do not publically intersect in the way that politics and religion, history and religion, and other such humanities do. And therefore, prior to visiting HDS, I was apprehensive about the insufficiency of resources for students with a business school background and an accompanying desire to study religion. This notion was proven wrong after I visited Professor John Brown and heard about his cross-disciplinary experience in getting his Master’s degree in both Business Administration and Divinity at Harvard University. If admitted, I would be honored to work with her and discuss my research interests in analyzing the intersection of contemporary religion and economics with him. Furthermore, I was elated to read that Dr. Catherine Brekus has a similar interest in the relationship between Christianity, capitalism, and consumerism in the United States.

Throughout this application process, many asked why I would choose to study religion. The answer is simple. Numerous social injustices have their genesis in the abuse of religious freedoms, for example, terror attacks due to extremism, and racism that was perpetrated by the KKK sacred places of worship being used as a tool to ostracize and harm those deemed as others. What we believe as individuals and as a collective often shapes our political, social, and economic landscape. Community and strife, Integrity and hypocrisy, extremism and apatheism; Religion is chockfull of endless contradictions owing to the fact that a singular belief can inspire people to respond in diverse, pluralistic ways. By seeking to understand how religion or the lack of it drives human behavior, we can address injustices from the root whilst knowing that majority of the injustices we see and experience are merely an outward manifestation of a spiritual disconnect. Does religion claim to have all the answers? Certainly not. It’s just like Dean Hempton said, “We don’t have all the answers. But if we do not think about them, then we don’t have any answers at all.”

As the crowd roars and the team takes the field, there is one group of athletes that is always there to support and encourage them: the cheerleaders. Their bright smiles, infectious energy, and unwavering spirit inspire both the players and the fans. It’s no wonder why so many young athletes aspire to become cheerleaders themselves, and I am no exception. I want to be a cheerleader because of the unique opportunities it offers to develop my physical abilities, leadership skills, and sense of community.

Passion for Cheerleading

Cheerleading has been a passion of mine for as long as I can remember. There is something about the energy, teamwork, and athleticism involved in cheerleading that has always drawn me in. I love the rush of performing in front of a crowd, and the feeling of accomplishment that comes with mastering a difficult stunt or routine.

Cheerleading has had a significant impact on my life, both personally and academically. Through cheerleading, I have learned the importance of dedication, hard work, and teamwork. These skills have not only helped me in my cheerleading pursuits but have also translated to other areas of my life, such as school and work.

In addition to the personal benefits, cheerleading has also provided me with a sense of community and belonging. Being part of a cheerleading team means being part of a family, and the friendships I have formed through cheerleading are some of the strongest and most meaningful relationships in my life.

Teamwork and Leadership

Teamwork and leadership are two essential skills required in cheerleading. Cheerleading is not just about performing stunts and choreography; it involves working with a team towards a common goal. A cheerleader must be able to communicate effectively, take direction, and support their teammates.

Additionally, leadership skills are crucial for leading the team and inspiring others to achieve their best performance. The author can demonstrate these skills through examples of their experiences working with a team and taking on leadership roles in previous activities or organizations.

Physical Fitness and Health

Cheerleading requires a high level of physical fitness and athleticism, and it promotes a healthy lifestyle. As a cheerleader, the author would be committed to maintaining their physical fitness and staying healthy. They understand the importance of safety precautions and are committed to following safety guidelines and protocols to prevent injuries. The author recognizes that being physically fit and healthy is not only important for their own performance but also for setting a good example for others on the team.

Challenges and Hard Work

Cheerleading is a physically demanding sport that requires a lot of hard work and dedication. From the early morning practices to the grueling routines, cheerleading can be both mentally and physically challenging. However, these challenges are what make the sport so rewarding.

To prepare for these challenges, I have developed a strong work ethic and determination. I understand that cheerleading requires a lot of practice and repetition, and I am willing to put in the time and effort needed to master new skills. In addition, I am always looking for ways to improve and push myself further, whether it’s through additional training or seeking feedback from coaches and teammates.

One of the biggest challenges in cheerleading is the risk of injury. As a cheerleader, I am constantly pushing my body to the limit, and there is always a chance of getting hurt. However, I am prepared to face these challenges by taking care of my body and following proper safety protocols. I understand the importance of conditioning, stretching, and warming up properly before practices and performances.

Conclusion

In conclusion, becoming a cheerleader is a dream that many young people aspire to achieve. It requires a unique set of skills, including teamwork, leadership, and physical fitness. Cheerleading can be challenging, but it also provides an opportunity for personal growth and development. Through this essay, I hope to have conveyed my passion and determination to become a cheerleader and contribute to a team of motivated individuals.

Introduction

Sports have always played a significant role in my life, but there is one sport that holds a special place in my heart: basketball. From the sound of squeaking sneakers on the hardwood to the exhilarating atmosphere of a packed stadium, basketball has captured my attention and ignited a passion within me. In this narrative essay, I will share my personal journey with basketball and explain why it is my favorite sport.

Body

The First Dribble

I remember the first time I held a basketball in my hands. It was like a magical connection formed instantly. The weight of the ball, the texture of the leather, and the rhythmic bounce against the ground all felt so natural to me. As I took my first dribble, I could feel a sense of freedom and liberation. Basketball quickly became an outlet for me to express myself and channel my energy.

The Bond of Teamwork

One of the aspects I love most about basketball is the sense of camaraderie and teamwork it fosters. From early pick-up games in the neighborhood to organized team practices, I experienced the power of collaboration and unity. The shared goal of working together towards victory created a deep bond among teammates. The feeling of being part of a supportive team, where each member contributes their skills and talents, is truly remarkable.

The Challenges and Growth

Basketball has taught me valuable life lessons about perseverance, resilience, and the importance of hard work. I faced many challenges on the court – missed shots, tough losses, and physical exhaustion. However, each setback served as an opportunity for growth. I learned to embrace failure as a stepping stone to success and to push myself beyond my limits. The discipline and determination required to improve my skills on the court translated into other areas of my life as well.

The Thrill of Competition

There is an indescribable thrill that comes with competitive sports, and basketball embodies that spirit. The fast-paced nature of the game, the strategic plays, and the adrenaline rush during intense moments create an electrifying atmosphere. Whether it’s a close game with seconds on the clock or the joy of executing a perfectly timed pass, the excitement of basketball is unmatched.

The Universal Language

Basketball is a sport that transcends borders and cultures. It has the power to bring people from diverse backgrounds together, uniting them in their love for the game. I have had the privilege of playing basketball with individuals from different countries, speaking different languages, and yet, we found common ground on the court. The universal language of basketball allows for connections and friendships to form beyond cultural barriers.

Conclusion

Basketball has been an integral part of my life, shaping me both as an athlete and as an individual. From the early moments of discovering the joy of dribbling a basketball to the lessons learned through teamwork, challenges, and competition, the sport has enriched my life in countless ways. The passion and excitement I feel when I step onto the court are unparalleled. Basketball has taught me the value of hard work, resilience, and the importance of unity. It has provided me with unforgettable experiences, lasting friendships, and personal growth. As I continue my journey with basketball, I am grateful for the opportunities it has given me and the memories that will forever be etched in my heart.

Should we care more about the interests of humans than the interest of animals?

In most cases, people view the interests of humans as more important than the interests of animals. The rationale behind this view is that people think that they should direct all their actions toward fulfilling their needs. For example, when people work, they do so to ensure they have enough resources to satisfy their needs. The major goal of any human action is seen as fulfilling human interests. When people decide to do something collectively, one of the underlying motivating factors is the consequence of their collective action, which in most cases works in their favor. In other words, people are motivated to act in a certain direction when they have something to gain out of it. The majority, if not all, of human actions, focuses on individual interest and seeks to provide benefit to other people. Care for the interests of human beings, consequently, gets more emphasis than the interests of animals in contemporary society. However, in considering the numerous concepts established by Kant, such as the faculty of desire, the theory of morality, and the categorical imperative, one can postulate that there should be a balance between the interests of animals and humans.

In looking at pleasure and displeasure in animals, one can argue that people have an entitlement to perceive non-rational creatures as living things. It is important to note that according to the Kantian approach, some animals undertake activities that bear resemblances to human actions. For example, Newton postulates that “a beaver constructs a dwelling for itself, or a bird prepares its nest in anticipation of a coming storm” (519). From some of the actions that animals undertake, people can conclude that they generate things according to representation implying that creatures have a faculty of desire just like individuals. The Kantian approach defines life through desire; hence people should not have a preference for care when it comes to themselves or animals. Since Kant ascribes life to animals, it means that he already assigned pleasure and discontentment tendencies to them. Like humans, animals have a consciousness of representation and their living power. In their desire to survive, animals maintain themselves as species or individuals. Although animals do not have cognitive judgments, they maintain themselves and can become aware.

To comprehend the Kantian justification of rational beings and the value of nature, individuals must deliberate on the concepts of end and will. In his explanation, Kant asserted that things in nature work per the laws or principles implying that the doer has a will (Tonetto 520). For one to derive actions from laws, then they will be projected as a practical reason to perform a deed. For example, animals such as dogs can recognize danger allowing them to “reason” on how to escape from the vulnerability. Animals do not have strong cognition but they follow their inclinations and desires in acting, for instance, eating, reproducing, and avoiding harm. Animals do not act based on reason per se like humans (Newton 86). Regarding practical reason and the categorical imperative, Kant holds that the will of animals has an end to itself (Tonetto 521). Newton notes that rational beings ascribe to the notion that they must handle themselves and others as ends translating to a kingdom. The concept implies that everything in the kingdom has a price or an end. Although Kant claims that people do not have a direct duty to animals, the point is that humans have an “amphiboly in moral concepts of reflection” (Tonetto 523). Animals have relationships with individuals’ rights and interests, hence the need to have a duty to them. Although people should people’s interests favor humans, individuals have a right to ensure they do not mistreat animals.

Considering the Kantian approach to the issue of conflict between the interests of human beings and the interests of animals, the categorical imperative emphasizes rational thinking before taking action. If the action aims at achieving a moral end, the issue of interest does not matter. Kantian approach, in this case, neither considers the interests of humans nor the interests of animals, but whether the action fulfills moral duty (Khalid 85). If an action does not fulfill a moral duty, even if it serves the interests of humans, then one should not do it. For instance, people may think of clearing a forest to settle the human population at the expense of animals. This action seems to serve human interests over those of animals living in the forest. Considering Kantian theory of morality, clearing forests amounts to destroying nature, which affects the interests of animals in the short term, but eventually, human interests are also affected negatively. Since the conservation of nature is part of moral duty, one should not destroy nature in favor of the interests of humans. In view of the Kantian approach, individual actions should be based on fulfillment of moral duty rather than consequences. In this regard, humans have a moral duty to protect animals suggesting they should care but it does not mean that they should equate their interests to those of creatures.

The Kantian approach provides rational guidance on people’s actions. This theory suggests that people should think of their actions in such a way that it would be acceptable if everyone in the world does the same (Stern 87). When one cares more about human interests than the interests of animals, then such care should be aligned with the categorical imperative. For instance, since clearing a thousand hectares of forest would facilitate settling a sizeable population, what if the same action is adopted as a policy across the world? Can one stand to see forests across the world cleared in favor of the short-term interests of people? If the answer is no, then that action is bad, and caring more about the interests of humans than the welfare of animals becomes morally unacceptable). The main issue here is that the decision to compromise moral standards or neglect moral duty for the interest of a handful of individuals is not morally right. To some extent, the interests of animals are important just as the interests of humans, and both should be accorded equal consideration. In looking at rational guidance, there does not exist a hollow in how people act since collectively, the interests of humans and animals are equal.

The Kantian approach provides the concept of basic ideas as a guide to rational actions. This concept entails the command that one should not do what one cannot allow any other person to do. If one thinks of taking an action that compromises the interests of animals in favor of the interests of humans, one should first think about whether one can allow other people to do the same under the same circumstance. This aspect allows one to think over their choices and reflect on the consequences if other people decide to do the same (Stern 102). If one cannot allow another person to do the action, then, the deed is wrong and one should take an alternative measure. Regarding this principle, there are times one should accord an equal measure of care toward both animals and humans. The underlying view in this command is that both humans and animals are important.

Caring more about the interests of humans than the welfare of animals conflicts with the moral detail under the Kantian principle. The moral detail of the Kantian approach depicts the factor of selfishness whenever individuals think of taking an action (Khalid et al. 82). In most cases, people consider selfish gain as the result of an action, instead of looking at the bigger picture. For instance, if one considers an action just because he benefits from it at the expense of animals, then such an action is wrong. One should first view the action as the maxim that everyone else would adopt in a similar situation (Stern 95). For example, a person may decide to utilize his entire land for farming without caring for animals on his farm. The argument may be that utilizing the entire land serves his interest over the interest of animals. What if all other people take such a decision? In this case, animals may become instinctual, just for the selfish interests of people. The concept of moral detail, therefore, commands that one should set aside a space for animals, hence balancing the interests of humans with those of animals.

People should consider the concept of moral worth when doing something. Tonetto notes that the moral actions of humans should peg on what they intend to attain (520). People, what they do should consider the implications of their actions and morality. For instance, one should ask themselves, is mistreating animals morally right? Of course, it is wrong since these animals feel pain. One’s action is not judged by the outcome but by the motivation behind the action. Considering this aspect, one should not consider whether to care more about the welfare of humans or the interests of animals, but the moral worth of his actions. For instance, one may acquire a huge sum of money through a lottery and decides to give to charity just to earn respect and recognition, instead of donating the money towards nature conservation. In this action, giving to charity is a noble thing. However, the motivation is wrong since the giver wanted to gain recognition. He did not take giving as a moral duty but as a channel for selfish interests, hence abandoning conservation efforts. He chose to focus on the interests of humans instead of animals, which would be achieved through conservation efforts just because such action would not earn him respect.

Conclusively, both human interests and animal interests should form part of people’s concerns. The decision on what to give higher priority between the two choices should be based on moral duty rather than selfish gain. Kantian approach to issues seeks to challenge people’s actions and to excite rational thinking. This theorist does not look at the consequences of actions but seeks to judge actions from a moral point of view. If a person’s decision is not guided by a sense of moral duty, then the decision is wrong despite having a pleasant outcome from the surface. In a nutshell, caring more about the interests of humans than the welfare of animals does not matter, but the moral value of the decision is what matters.

Works Cited

1. Khalid, Khalizani, et al. “A structural Approach to Ethical Reasoning: The Integration of Moral Philosophy.” Academy of Strategic Management Journal, vol. 16, no. 1, 2017, pp. 81-113.
2. Newton, Alexandra. “Kant on Animals and Human Pleasure.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy, vol. 47, no. 4, 2016, pp. 518-540.
3. Stern, Robert. Kantian Ethics: Value, Agency, And Obligation. Oxford University Press, 2015.
4. Tonetto, Milene Consenso. “Kant’s Concept of Indirect Duties and Environmental Ethics.” An International Journal for Moral Philosophy, Vol. 16, no. 3, 2017, pp. 519-532.