Category: Interest Groups

Introduction

Groups and Teams can be collectively defined as those which “are composed of two or more individuals, who exist to perform organizationally relevant tasks, share one or more common goals, interact socially, exhibit task interdependencies (i.e., workflow, goals, outcomes), maintain and manage boundaries, and are embedded in an organizational context that sets boundaries, constrains the team, and influences exchanges with other units in the broader entity” (Kozlowski and Bell, 2001:6). Whilst some authors highlight a divergence between the two; such as that team members work towards a shared aspiration or goal, whilst those in groups will be observed as a collection of individuals working towards their personal targets (Katzenbach and Smith, 2005), this essay will hereby refer to the two interchangeably. Allen and Hecht (2004) speak about a “romantic” but idealised notion towards groups and teams that has developed over time which is developed further by Glassop who remarks that “literature lacks consistent empirical evidence to support their widespread adoption [towards teams]” (Glassop, 2002:233). Cruz (2011) highlights that most studies regarding experimental evidence of teams concentrate on the positive implications that they have. This essay will focus on and critically evaluate the potential influence and implications of the darker nature of teams put forward in recent literature. This essay will also argue that the shortcomings and perceived “conflict” in groups (Hinds and Mortensen, 2005) do not outweigh the positive externalities in organizational contexts. The first section will analyse the bearing that groups can have on an individual’s identity; whilst the second section will delve into the impact teams have on an person’s morality and values. Lastly, the essay will examine whether teams can still be considered the most relevant unit of analysis by discussing their effectiveness in the workplace, in lieu of their potential to impact negatively on individuals.

The Contrasting Effects of Groups and Teams on Identity

Primarily it has been found that when brainstorming, individuals tend to have an inclination towards working in groups, believing that this will generate supplementary ideas compared to individuals working alone; as shown by a study carried out by influential psychologists (Paulus, Dzindolet, Poletes and Camacho, 1993:87). They state that there is “both a bias in favour of group brainstorming and the existence of an illusion of actual productivity.” This theory is further developed by suggesting that employees will gain an impression of inclusion (Katz and Kahn, 1978) and a sense of belonging (Goodard, 2001); thereby impacting positively on their identity. Additionally, Rentsch and Zelno (2005) conduct a convincing and detailed analysis, finding that informal groups consisting of people from similar backgrounds can have an increased schema accuracy compared to unfamiliar or formal groups. That is: members in these teams will gain higher utility from a feeling of familiarity amongst team members. This is because they will frequently mis-interpret the behaviour of team members in unfamiliar groups and feel that they are being personally singled out for further criticism, when this is not the case (Baron, 1988; Ensley and Pearce, 2001). Other studies further emphasise the powerful effect teams can have on identity. Wellins, Byham and Wilson (1991) describe how; if implemented correctly, teams can collectively become “empowered,” which can be linked to effectiveness as empowered workers will be more productive. Some authors agree with this concept and talk about how the group can affect an individual, as they find that a group that is positively evaluated by peers can lead to workers becoming emotionally affiliated with the group, as “these groups may contribute more to a positive social identity,”(Ellemers, Kortekaas and Ouwerkerk 1999:373) further engendering a workers’ sense of identity. One aspect that must be mentioned in this context is leadership. Credible experiments have shown that self-monitoring groups can proceed with the emergence of a leader for both men and women (Ellis 1998, Garland and Beard 1979). As characteristics such as adaptability are tested; other team roles can also be developed (Belbin 2012). All these team roles can further enhance a workers’ identity.

It should be acknowledged that throughout history there is a lack of reliable empirical evidence to substantiate the impact teams have on the distinctiveness of workers; due to the ambiguity that comes with measuring subjective variables such as identity. For example, Asch (1955) designed an experiment to test whether groups extinguish our ability to think independently. The results paint a pessimistic picture for those who oppose the darker view; showing that conformity will kick in when people work in groups; as individuals lose some identity by agreeing to others’ opinions without contributing much of their own; later identified as “groupthink” (Janis 1972). Mori and Arai (2010) conducted a similar study on conformity, with minor changes. Conversely, their results showed that men would not conform to the majority opinion. These opposing results deconstruct Asch’s argument which suggest teams take away identity. More convincing empirical research needs to be undertaken before we can accept the darker view conclusively. If stages of group development are analysed to understand the impact groups have on identity; then results are mixed. Using Spitz and Sadock’s (1973) stages of group life, we see evidence to support both the dark side view and the opposite view. They describe feelings of anxiety as well as dependency that develop when working in groups; which reinforces the view that groups and teams negatively impact ones’ identity. This is mirrored in studies by Braaten (1975) who found comparable results in that during team work there will be hostility when trying to complete tasks. On the other hand, Spitz and Sadock talk about the optimistic feelings that the sample study had towards the group leader at the end of the project showing positive aspects in group work. A weakness of this study, however, is that the sample group used to examine this theory were all female medicine students so one could criticize the study, as it could be biased due to the characteristics pertinent to medicine students. What is more, Braaten (1974) observed a phase where values of working maturity and trust developed amongst groups and teams. Ultimately, it should be noted that groups and teams have a positive impact on identity, as Rothschild-Whitt (1986:313) summarises their psychological value by stating workers get a “strong sense of meaning and satisfaction from work, broadened competence and raised self-esteem” from working in teams.

Likewise, Adler (1993) argues for standardized working in groups; where each worker will have control of their own particular job; finding that workers will feel empowered knowing that they are best suited to the job they are given; further improving their identity due to their high affinity for their role. There will also be many groups in organisational contexts which comprise of a leader, whose role may be to manage the individuals in the team. Leaders however, can sometimes alienate other team members; as well as derail a groups’ identity through their own individualism. This is shown by the example of Steve Jobs in 1985, where his relationship with his team in Apple deteriorated due to him being too focused on his own vision; forgetting about the importance of building good team relationships which then led to him being removed as CEO from Apple. Correspondingly, toxic emotions can be reciprocated for the leader from the team. Hollenbeck, De Rue and Nahrgang (2015) note that in times of stress; feelings of resentment can build towards a manager or leader, through no fault of their own and exertion from employees may drop. This leads the manager to become a scapegoat. Nevertheless, when leaders are deployed suitably in teams, they can engender a positive mentality or identity in the interest of the team, which is in line with Woodrow Wilsons’ (1890) quote “The ear of the leader must ring with the voices of the people.”

A Critical Evaluation of the Influence of Groups on an Individual’s Morality and Values

When assessing the impact that groups have on morality and values, it is imperative to analyse the findings of the experiments carried out by Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939), at the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. In an experiment designed to analyse the leadership qualities of rival groups, the conclusions drawn showed the impact on a child’s values that a team can have. Reflecting upon this, Lewin (1948: 98) states “His relation to this group and his status in it are the most important factors for his feeling of security or insecurity. No wonder that the group the person is a part of, and the culture in which he lives, determine to a very high degree his behaviour and character.” So, this indicates that the type of groups that individuals are divided into will affect their behaviour, morality and values. One could extrapolate this concept further and argue that groupwork will give workers a feeling of responsibility as highlighted by Trist and Bamforth (1951). They advocate the use of groups and teams, but only if there is high autonomy, as the sense of independence and work-pace flexibility will positively influence their principles and values in organisational contexts. Analysis on Social Impact theory developed by Latane, (1981) gives credence to supporters of the darker view, as it talks about the negative consequences on ones’ values, due to the power status of a majority group; but Moscovici (1976) rightly dismisses this argument. He observes that there are many examples in history where a minority hasn’t been influenced by a majority; but instead has imparted their own values onto the masses; such as the suffragette movement. After conducting studies, he found that confidence in ones’ own beliefs were crucial to stop negative values in teams affecting individuals.

As stated in the introduction to this essay, there are many critics of the usage of groups and teams in organisational contexts, with Sewell questioning their longevity in organisations due to the negative impact they have on ones’ morals by saying “not only do teams have an immensely long tradition, but also they have an organisational history of neglect and abuse that predates the modern era.” (Sewell 2001:1). Stein and Pinto (2011) take this analysis to extreme lengths, suggesting that “intraorganizational ganging dynamics” can emerge from groupwork in the workplace; which are groups that denigrate behaviour that is beneficial to organizations. This can impact a worker’s morality; as shown by the recent example of whistleblowing at St George’s Hospital. Following reports of high mortality rates, Professor Mike Brewick (2018) carried out an investigative study at the hospital, with his findings showing that two camps had formed creating a “toxic atmosphere” (Mike Brewick, 2018:14). Furthermore, the ganging culture in the groups at the hospital led to Professor Marjhan Jahangiri taking court action, after being barred from working, by senior staff. In the conclusion of Stein and Pinto’s (2011) report however, they concede that it is possible to avoid gangs forming if senior managers are made aware of their presence and take necessary steps to stop the establishment of gangs; thus avoiding the darker impact they can have on an individual’s morality and values. Hinds and Mortenson (2005) also carried out a study on conflict within teams. They noted that diversity within the group could lead to conflict; be it age, geographical or other factors. Conflict within groups make it difficult to positively influence the values of an individual, as workers become motivated towards their own goals rather than the groups’ targets. This shows the darker impact that teams can have on morality. Alternatively, Pelled et al (1999) offers a contradictory viewpoint, suggesting that conflict can ameliorate performance. So, further study is needed to accept the darker view of the impact that groups have on morals.

Do the Darker Nature of Teams Adversely Impact the Effectiveness of Employees?

Sinclair (1992) imparted that groups and teams can “provide leadership, accomplish research, maximize creativity and operationalize structural flexibility,” (Sinclair 1992:611) which indicates the achievements that can be attained through teamwork. Naturally, most managers will hope that working in teams will stimulate the creation of ideas more quickly than employees working individually. Teamwork should enable individuals to focus on the task at hand. The confidence that managers have in the effectiveness of teams is shown by the fact that a staggering 65% of organisations in Great Britain were utilising them as of 1999 (Cully, O’Reilly, and Dix, 1999). Robust studies on memory performance carried out by Vollrath, D. A., Sheppard, B. H., Hinsz, V. B., and Davis, J. H. (1989) showed that groups would remember greater amounts of knowledge (as well as make fewer mistakes), than an individual. Furthermore, Katzenbach and Smith (1993) suggested that teams will be effective; but only when certain conditions are met. They argue that effectiveness of groups will be nullified if there are large groups, due to the logistical issues they face. Secondly, it is argued that teams can only be beneficial in organisational contexts if the groups discipline themselves and agree on joint accountability. This is backed up by Wageman and Gordon (2005) who through convincing empirical research, find that groups with an egalitarian status perform better than those with meritocratic values. On the other hand, there are limitations to these studies. For instance, in Wageman and Gordons (2005) study, the criteria for how workers described their relationship with other team members was a Likert-type scale; which only gives discrete options and can sometimes omit the actual points of view of the subjects; thus skewing results. On top of this, “team performance criteria are tricky to get right,” (Allen and Hecht 2004:6) due to the difficulty in replicating organisational structures to undertake studies. Therefore, using empirical studies, it is difficult to conclude whether the dark element of teams will affect performance. Latane, Williams and Harkings (1979: 831) also analyse an interesting impact of one dark feature of teams – social loafing. Whilst acknowledging that social loafing has a dark nature “which leads to lowered profits and lowered benefits for all,” they ultimately concede that groups can achieve goals which would be impossible if conducted solely by individuals.

Conclusion

To encapsulate this essay, there are multiple drawbacks to groups and teams; with regards to their effect on identity. Toxic atmospheres can develop in organisational contexts, especially when there is a poor leader or feelings of unworthiness develop. Moreover, they can have the opposite effect to those intended if workers conform to others’ ideas; thus abandoning their own morals and values. As has been argued however, teams and groups should still be regarded as highly effective, as overall they can have a positive impact on the psychological side of the workforce; by empowering workers whilst raising self-esteem. Finally, after analysing the studies on the darker nature of teams, I believe the results cannot be fully accepted without further research; due to the subjective nature of measuring impact on identity, morality and values and the difficulties in measuring these factors. Thus, I have shown that although groups and teams cannot be considered as a panacea in all situations, they can still be considered the most relevant unit of analysis; assuming they are implemented correctly.

In our democratic society, we vote to elect our political representatives at the state and federal levels. State voters ultimately decide who will represent them at a national level in Washington D.C. and the United States Congress. Each congressional district on the House side is up for re-election every two years and every six years on the Senate side. These elected officials represent their constituents and decide what federal legislation is written and how much funding can be directed back to the state that they represent. This federal funding can be directed back to the state to support a multitude of interest areas. Some examples are health care, housing, community development, child care, job training, transportation, clean water, and public education. Each state fights for adequate funding at the federal level every year to maintain its current funding levels and advocates for more funding for new priorities. This is where interest and advocacy groups come into play to sway influence where the funding ends up.

“Among democracies, it is in the United States that interest group activity is most accepted and displays the widest range of tactics. The lobbying profession, both at the federal and the state level (and increasingly at the local government level), is highly developed. In regard to lobbyists in Washington, D.C., in newspapers and other popular writings, they are often talked about in connection with the terms “K Street” and “Gucci Gulch,” as it is on K Street that many of the contract lobbying firms are located, and the corridors in the Capitol where lobbyists congregate have been nicknamed for the expensive shoes and garments they often wear. Increasingly, however, American-style tactics have been adopted in other democracies and in transitional systems as ideology, and the centralization of the policy process has been eroded.” 1

There are three major types of interest groups; public interest, underpaid professional workers, and business, corporation, and trade organization groups. Each one uniquely represents a specific demographic for a specific purpose.

Public interest groups claim to work not for self-interest, but for the best interest of the public. An example of a public interest group would be People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) or Green peace. The second type of interest group associate with underpaid professional workers. Some can argue this type of interest group isn’t that underpaid. Some examples of an underpaid interest group are lawyers belonging to the American Bar Association, doctors belonging to the American Medical Association, and teachers belonging to the National Education Association. There are also interest groups that are powerful organizations that identify as Labor unions such as the AFL-CIO and the Teamsters Union. These interest groups protect workers in factories or businesses which yield a lot of influence. The third most common type of interest group is formed around businesses, corporations, and trade associations. This group represents about half of all interest groups in Washington D.C. The average person thinks interest groups have a wide influence throughout our government resulting in special privileges for people who already have more money and power than most. An example of a business, corporation, and trade organization group is the oil and tobacco industries. They each have large interest groups who promote their respective interests on Capitol Hill. The key resource in all these interest groups is funding and well-funded interest groups tend to have more influence.

Most well-resourced interest groups actively involve themselves in most if not all political campaigns. Most politicians listen to people and groups who can donate lots of money to their cause. An interest group’s end goal is to help elect candidates who favor their positions and negatively affect those who oppose them. These large well-funded political arms of interest groups are called Political Action Committees (PACs). Since the 1970s the amount of PACs has increased tremendously to try and sway influence. The start of the increase was when campaign finance reform laws were passed to restrict contributions to campaigns. Some can argue PACs have changed the face of American elections because of the amount of money they can generate and contribute. PACs can accept checks from contributors for the sole purpose of the campaign. PACs give the contributors the ability to support or oppose an issue that they want to be represented resulting in greater influence for their interests. PACs can play hardball by funding opposing candidates to punish the politicians they have normally supported in the past who have been neglecting their issues. “Interest groups are not allowed to donate money to campaigns directly, but they can contribute money through their Political Action Committee (PAC). Theoretically independent of interest groups, PACs can solicit donations from group members and then give that money to candidates they support. A PAC can only give $10,000 ($5,000 in the primary campaign, $5,000 in the general election campaign) to each candidate during an election, but they can give money to as many candidates as they wish.” 2 Our democratic system is on a cycle that is tied to the President’s budget. This cycle is systematic and on a similar timeline from the years past.

To maintain contact before the new year’s President budget interests group storm the Hill every year all about the same time. Interest groups send representatives to Capitol Hill to put pressure on members of Congress and policymakers explaining why they need their money and what will happen in their specific state if they don’t support their effort. The designated representatives gain congressional access through a lobbyist.

A lobbyist is the main way of messaging agendas to political leaders. A lobbyist defined as ”a person who takes part in an organized attempt to influence legislators.” 3

An interest group also can testify in congressional hearings to sway opinions on specific matters. The end goal of any interest group is to directly influence policymakers and political figures through various means. I will try and show in this paper the larger amount of money an interest group has is what allows them a greater ability to spread their message or influence. This influence is conducted through wide and various messaging campaigns to try and sway both the Congressional representative but also the constituent population back in the home state. To conduct these messaging campaigns, adequate funding is required to send the message.

Interest groups rely heavily on resources to convey their message and agenda to a specific population or Congressional representative. The US dollar is probably the single most important factor in an interest group’s success. The irony is even with large cash flow and enough money, interest groups hardly need a group to sway opinions. Interest groups also play outside games by trying to convince ordinary citizens to apply pressure on their government representatives. “Interest groups playing the outside game often rely on grassroots activism and electoral strategies to achieve their goals.

Grassroots Activism consists of mobilizing large numbers of people to achieve the interest group’s goal. By mobilizing thousands (or millions) of voters, an interest group can demonstrate to government officials that the public strongly supports its particular cause. Some grassroots efforts are general, trying to motivate as many people as possible, whereas others are more targeted. An interest group, for example, might target a member of Congress by holding rallies in his or her district and encouraging his or her constituents to write letters. A member of Congress who receives tens of thousands of letters endorsing health care reform, for example, is likely to pay attention to the group that sponsored the letter-writing campaign. In fact, most grassroots activists rely on a number of tactics to achieve their goals.” 4 An example of grassroots activism is by staging a mass rally in Washington D.C. This rally is a sign that a group has large and vast influence. This type of event is a huge bonding experience to those in attendance and can make US history. There are many grassroots events throughout history with one of the famous ones being in 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, “I Have a Dream” speech. This grassroots event was a watershed in the civil rights movement. These types of grassroots events require significant funding but make a significant impact on our nation. The ability to generate funding is significantly important when it comes to public elections.

Everyone who has ever been around a public office election realizes that money is especially important for elections. The amount of money generated can make or break a campaign for reelection, especially in a Congressional district or state. Interest groups tend to help candidates who favor their causes with generous campaign donations and fundraising events that generate campaign money for a specific candidate. It has been recognized that most democracies around the world are dangerously close between interest groups and candidates. It has even been said by Dan Rather, that “we have the best Congress that money can buy”, because of the amount of money it takes to be elected. The reality of political election our system requires a Congressional candidate to raise a certain amount of money to be elected or to maintain their current office. Certain interest groups make sure that enough campaign donations are received for their candidate. In turn, when the candidate is elected and holds office a payback for campaign services is usually rendered for their generous donations. This interest group in a roundabout way has now paid for access and placement for a seat at the table in the United States Congress. Without the right amount of campaign donations, the candidate would never be able to compete or maintain office and now they feel inclined to help the organizations that helped them either win or stay elected. Campaign donations used to be capped, but in 2009 the United States Supreme Court lifted limits on direct corporate giving. This controversial decision by the Supreme Court gave corporations the green light to freely spend to support or oppose candidates for President or Congress. Now special interest money can sway politics in our nation and give large institutions like Wall Street, health care companies, and other power groups the ability to influence Washington D.C. and drown out the voice of the everyday constituent these political appointees are supposedly representing. An example of this is prevalent in the agricultural communities of US peanut, sugar, corn, and cotton growers who give generously to candidates, and magically in return, they receive federal subsidies to support their industry. The two industries that spend the most money are healthcare and financial industries that contribute to both parties and in return receive ample consideration for their agendas. This type of campaign transaction is relatively straight forward and easy to track and understand. There is another form of money transaction that is called soft money and it is more challenging to trace and understand where the money is really coming from.

Soft money is a contribution to a political party that is not accounted towards going to a particular candidate, thus avoiding various legal limitations. This is a form of indirectly transferring money to buy or gain influence while bypassing the legal guidelines for campaign donation regulation and other regulations that a pollical appointee must follow. In our political system in the United States, it is not required by law to publicly show where the campaign financing comes from for several reasons. First, we are Americans and we place a strong emphasis on freedom. The United States Supreme Court has interpreted the first amendment to include dollars as a form of free speech. Meaning a person or group can donate a lot of money towards something and it’s no one’s business how much or where the money came from. In this country, we view a political donation to a candidate or cause as a political statement and it doesn’t have to be reported. Second, some will say that our political campaigns in the United States are much longer and more expensive than anywhere else in the world. This can be the result of our weak decentralized parties and nominating system. I would equate the use of soft money as using a “cut out” to hide your true identity while spreading or gaining influence by establishing groups or funneling money to oppose your opposition. “For the longest time, campaign ads were almost exclusively produced by candidates and political parties, but in recent years outside issue groups have been getting in on the action. They often operate as so-called 527 committees (taking their name from the relevant section of the IRS tax code). Sometimes mysteriously named, these advocacy groups frequently have ties to labor, big business, and super-wealthy individuals. Unlike political committees, they can accept unlimited contributions from just about anyone, and they deploy that money in various ways to influence elections. Keep an eye on these shadowy groups here.” 5 Now you have a way to wage a war against the opposition and establish random new groups to clutter the field and hide your true identity. Some individuals and political action

The term Imagination implies a creative ability that allows us to explore the past and imagine the future. Imagination has been adopted by many spheres, especially by the sociology department. Charles Wright Mills (1959) is a famous American postwar radical thinker who was the one to acquaint society with the Sociological Imagination, which is relevant to the development of the Criminological Imagination. In this essay, the term Criminological Imagination will be used in its broadest sense to demonstrate why it is important for the future of criminology and criminal justice and how it could help humanity to understand it.

According to C. Wright Mills (1959), the Sociological Imagination is “a quality of mind that seems most dramatically to promise an understanding of the inmate realities of ourselves in connection with larger social realities and enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society…”. (Barton, Corteen, Scott, and Whyte, 2013, p.3) His way of describing the sociological imagination was the drive to ‘connect private troubles with public issues’. The same is true for the Criminological Imagination. It entails new means for concretizing ‘crime’ and its link between individual actions or reactions and wider social structures, events, or influences. Using your criminological imagination involves trying to think about criminological problems by considering how private troubles connect with public issues.

One of the examples of a current issue in criminal justice that could be understood through criminological imagination is graffiti. Graffiti is writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public place. It is a creative way to express yourself or to tell a story about people, politics, culture, art, places, and society in general. Some forms of graffiti are viewed as ‘street art’, which can be illegal or legal. Some commentators have specifically claimed that street art should be seen as a form of subcultural activity that is defined as unsanctioned visual art developed and/or practiced in public spaces’ (Alpaslan, 2012, p. 53). By this definition, street art is characterized both by its illegal nature and artistic form (Hundertmark, 2003). It is thus differentiated from graffiti that is less easily defined as ‘artistic’, such as some forms of territorial graffiti, which is when different groups claim different urban spaces with tags or logos, vandalism, or commissioned corporate street painting. So what might an act of graffiti tell us about ‘public issues’ when it is seen as an individual act of resistance, in other words as a ‘private trouble’? To create graffiti requires placing one’s body in risky places at precarious hours – at night time. Women in most cities are still far more vulnerable than men, especially in certain places and at night. Women graffiti artists experience street harassment by men, including sexual harassment by police officers. Indeed, the women who create graffiti face more challenging situations, making their graffiti more significant to urban spaces. Moreover, the images and texts that many of these female artists create have an important social message. Putting themselves at risk to produce art (much of it political) is a claim to the right to the city: a demand to be safe and to be able to engage in producing urban space. Yet, there are many great female graffiti artists, and the number is growing. In 2010, several women from Nicaragua and Costa Rica formed to create Las Destructoras (or Ladies Destroying Crew). These grafiteras have painted graffiti in Managua, San José, and several other cities. Most of their work has comprised tagging words, such as mujeres libres, fuertes, belas (free, strong, beautiful women), and female figures, along with their tag names. For women, making graffiti – being in public (usually in groups) – is a rebellious act that disrupts the usual perception of young men transforming city spaces. It provides a sense of power over the city, their bodies, and the public in relaying messages. In Nicaragua, the group has given workshops on graffiti to women in Managua and other cities. That graffiti art in many cities is dominated by men means that even within marginalized productions of urban space, women’s art and voices remain side-lined and out of the public view. In this regard, the growing number of women graffiti artists is a positive force within communities. These women are helping make urban spaces, especially public and street spaces safer by making their own presence visible – not only by putting their bodies physically in these spaces when they create the art, but also through the female images and messages they leave behind. Such messages may help to generate discussions about street safety, harassment, and women’s roles in public art. Allowing young women to engage in graffiti may also help build confidence. The workshops that Ladies Destroying Crew has given on graffiti are one way to cultivate a culture of women and graffiti. Perhaps there are other ways that communities, organizations, and cities can use graffiti as a way to bring about more gender equity in urban spaces.

Taking graffiti as an example, it becomes a little clearer that criminological imagination helps to look at the issue from different perspectives. Graffiti is a social activity that attracts widely differing public opinions on how it should be understood or responded to and whether it should be controlled and punished or embraced and celebrated. Thinking about the different ways graffiti can be thought about and understood opens up questions about what is and isn’t defined as a crime and how public opinion can differ on what should or shouldn’t be deemed illegal.  

In a task group the most important thing is progress therefore the manager has to ensure that progress is certain by assigning tasks to the group members. For example, on a peanut butter industry (Mchuzi in Masasa), progress is timed therefore to meet the target every member has to be aware of their duties.

Group behaviour can be defined as stated as a course of action two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives. A group can be a group takes as a family. Therefore, group behaviour in organizations tends to follow the organizational norms and rules wherein the employees are expected to be disciplined, follow orders, and work to the requirements of the organization rather than their own whims and fancies. Since humans are unpredictable there is need to control the way they think, this is done by organising various activities that may facilitate bonding within the group, one reason many organizations use retreats and ice-breaking exercises to get their members to work together(Delta beverages Zimbabwe organises sporting activities for its workers occasionally).

Groups don’t just emerge but they are inspired by a number of reasons which can be personal, social or economic in order to fulfil their basic needs. These reasons include companionship in which relationships give an individual, who earlier felt lonely and miserable, recognition and his work life pleasant and comfortable. Other people join groups for the sake of acquiring information. The informal group to which a member belongs is a source of communication or information to him. A piece of information available to one member will nearly reach all the members in a short span of time. An individual comes to know about what is happening in an organisation even if he has been on leave or is otherwise away. Security can also one of the reasons why others join groups. By joining a group, a person can reduce his insecurity; he feels stronger, has lesser self-doubts and is more resistant to threats. A person always derive reassurance from interacting with others and being part of a group. Due to a variety of differences in group behaviours different types of groups are seen to emanate.

There are various types of groups that can be formed to fit any scenario. The first type of group is a command group. A command group comprises subordinates who report to a section leader. The group members also get their tasks to be done by their group leader. These are also similar to managed groups. Groups may be formed under a named manager, even though they may not necessarily work together with a great deal. The main thing they have in common, at least the manager and perhaps a similar type of work. Managed groups in Zimbabwe engineering sector are widely available. These help with efficient task execution. A Task Group is the second type of group. This is an interdisciplinary group which is established to accomplish a specific task. Another group type is an interest Group. An interest group comprises people who come together to achieve a particular objective although they are not organizationally aligned for example a trade union for Zimbabwean manufacturing industry. Friendship Groups also exist. These types of groups are for social grouping, formed on an informal basis. People tend to make acquaintances in such groups. In a Zimbabwean engineering scenario, a friendship group arises where people socializing together meet up during work breaks or even during working hours keeping themselves entertained.

Formal groups are created to achieve specific organizational objectives in Zimbabwean engineering or manufacturing. Usually, they are concerned with the coordination of work activities. Goals are identified by management and short and rules relationships and norms of behaviour established. Formal groups have a permanent structure, although there may be changes in actual membership. However temporary formal groups may also be created by management, for example, the use of project teams in a matrix organization.

Informal group are another type that is in existence. Within the formal structure of the organization, there will always be an informal structure. Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of group’s members than on defined role relationships. They serve to satisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to be undertaken. Groups may devise ways of attempting to satisfy members’ affiliations and other social motivations that are lacing in the work situation, especially in industrial organizations.

The manager should have a detailed understanding of the group’s behaviour and the transition or stage of formation as the group matures. This helps managers to know how to approach certain situations from time to time. Managers in engineering sections at Air Zimbabwe knows the most efficient practical certified ways of doing their tasks faster than the traditional theorised ways therefore they teach new engineering staff to adapt those techniques than treating them as if they should be knowing them. This cultivates group oneness and confidence among members. The first stage of group development is the forming stage. The forming stage involves a period of orientation and getting acquainted. This stage presents a time where the group is just starting to come together and is described with anxiety and uncertainty. In this stage, most team members are positive and polite. Some anxious, as they haven’t fully understood what the team will do. Others are simply excited about the task ahead. Members are discreet with their behaviour, which is driven by their desire to be accepted by all members of the group. Conflict, controversy, misunderstanding and personal opinions are avoided even though members are starting to form impressions of each other and gain an understanding of what the group will do together.

A self-reflection essay about what i have done, my contribution to the group and what i have learned

This module has been very insightful and has exposed me to rare areas in the application of AIData Science and the ethical issues that arises. The use of AIData Science has been widely adopted in many organizations and in different disciplines both by private companies and by the government of different nations. During the lectures and tutorials, different examples and case studies have been captured and presented on the application of AIData Science at the enterprise level by companies and by government regulators. key ethical issues that arise in the cause of applying AIData Science have also been critically analysed.

At the onset, the class was divided into different teams having a maximum of five members. Each team was to select a topic and conduct research on the application of AIData Science and its underlining ethical concern in their chosen areas, which is to be presented and discussed to the large class.

In my team, our focus was to research the application of artificial intelligence in finance and the ethical concerns applicable. As a team member, I was saddled with the responsibility of discussing and presenting the application of AI in preventing fraudulent transactions and combating financial crime. In order to effectively deliver on this topic, I conducted a critical review of different relevant articles both academic and from adversaryconsulting companies (Deloitte, KPMG, etc). I also looked into the regulatory and ethical concern using the EU General Data Protection Regulation standard that arises from the use of artificial intelligence in preventing financial crime. My findings were shared with members of my team and also presented to the class.

During the cause of my research, I came across some interesting findings on the kind of machine learning algorithms applied by organisations in preventing fraud which is basically the supervised learning model. This is because the issues of finance and crime have great legal implications and as such must be handled within a controlled technology. I realize that the responsibility of mitigating fraudulent transactions using AI in financial institutions cannot simply be left to the technology functions of the organisation alone. Also, creativity, compassion, and broad ethical judgment are critical attributes to harnessing responsible and useful applications for AI and broad governance is critically needed.

In conclusion, the Artificial Intelligence and Ethics Application module has been a very helpful class in learning about a wide variety of topics about AIData Science application across sectors and the ethical concerns that hinder its adoption. Through the weekly classes and lab sessions, I have grasped a great deal about the use of AI in cities (smart cities) health, retail, and finance. Most importantly the ethical concerns that arise from the application of artificial intelligence in these sectors. I now have a good knowledge of how AIData Science is applied in finance to prevent fraud and combat money laundry. I have also been exposed to key research methodology and how to review articles. Also, from the feedback gotten from the mock presentation conducted, my presentation skills have been greatly improved. No doubt I have acquired good transferable skills which will be applied in other endeavours both academically and professionally.