Theatre or play dates back to the medieval year during the time when playwrights like Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Aeschylus among others did their works. Analyzing the difference between the medieval playwriting and the Elizabethan, as well as Restoration plays, is pertinent in understanding the history of theatre.
Playwriting has undergone some changes. There are some noticeable differences. Plays including Meneachmi (Plautus and Riley 27), Phaedra, Tartuffe, and Henry V have remarkable changes. Their main structure is significantly influenced by medieval plays like Antigone (Sophocles 605) and Bacchae (Euripides 6). Aristotle, studying ancient plays, proposed some characteristics of these plays to help understand how they affect recent works.
Plot: Aristotle assigned huge importance to the plot. Ancient plays were mainly on myths but with a historical fact. For instance, Phaedra is the queen of Athens in the play Phaedra (Racine 3) while King Henry is the King of England in Henry V (Shakespeare 86). The plot develops from the chorus in ancient plays -Antigone (Sophocles 605) while in recent plays like Henry V; it is built from the character’s speech.
Thought: ancient plays (Antigone, Lysistrata, and Bacchae) communicated certain believes like a confrontation between gods, or gods and humans or humans against humans but with the influence of gods (Aristophanes 12). Recent plays like Henry V and Phaedra communicate political, societal, and religious messages even though some medieval ones do the same. Their messages were not the core themes of the play (Shakespeare 87; Racine 12).
Character: in Antigone, King Creon refuses to grant Antigone’s brother a decent burial (Sophocles 635). Phaedra falls in love with Hippolytus, the son of her husband. Antigone gives her life for the love of her brother while Phaedra threatens to kill herself when repulsed by Hippolytus, she offers him the kingdom later (Racine 32). These plays portray a psychoanalytical interpretation of issues.
Diction and Spectacle: the language used by plays in the medieval and Elizabethan eras is social, formal, and argumentative while some are more expressive and classicist (Aeschylus 3). Songs appear at varying levels in both ancient and recent plays.
The third millennium has definitely brought many innovations to enjoy, and the Internet has become by far the most valuable of them. However, in the online sphere, a number of ownership issues arises. Because of the seeming availability of the online information, the copyright infringements become highly likely to occur.
It can be assumed that in ten years from now, in 2023, only a reasonable legislation concerning the new types of media can help people retain their ownership of specific virtual property.
Concerning the Possible Ownership Issues in 2023: A Prospective Look
Despite the fact that ten years is enough for the world to change to the point where it becomes hardly recognizable, some issues concerning copyrighted information and ownership will remain in the same spot where they are now, in 2013. However, with the ten-year innovations, these problems can grow greatly.
Social networking and the accessible information
Because of the growing impossibility to control the content that the users upload in the blogosphere, it is highly likely that in the future, some users will simply copy a specific picture/video and use it further on without the author’s permission (McDowell).
Apple and its hardware policy: the wind of change
In contrast to the owners and users of blogospheres, hardware producing companies seem to have reinforced their ammunition against “pirates.” Therefore, it can be considered that in future, such companies as Apple will reduce the instances of ownership rights infringement.
Open hardware and the source code: future concerns
It is important to keep in mind that the more complicated the security system becomes, the more sophisticated the hacking tools turn.
The existing evidence shows that the “competence” of online hackers is growing and that the ownership issues are going to be very topical in 2023, especially in the light of the emergence of such sources of copyrighted content as torrents (Kravets).
Drones/guns: printing in 3-D and the associated problems
According to Harouni, 3-D printers have been around for a while, but people learned about them only abut thirty years from when the first concepts of these devices appeared. Therefore, 3-D printers are yet to be improved and marketed as a new facility.
However, even at the given stage of development, 3-D printers already pose an ownership dilemma. If these machines can reproduce certain products, the original creators and developers of the products will be left without their legitimate revenues (Harouni).
Pros and Cons of the Ownership Issue: By the Power of Copyright
As one might have already guessed, the key problem will concern tracing the copying of online information is hardly possible.
The case of Instagram: sharing as the key principle
On the one hand, in 2023, the internet users might consider the idea of copyright issues on the Internet absurd and enjoy knowledge and information sharing without any concern, as in Instagram.
On the other hand, in case of using one’s work of art, the rights of the owner will be infringed (Franzen). It is feared that in 2023, not only Instagram, but also a number of other services will work according to the given principle.
In Search for the Solution: The Rule of Thumb in Action
Despite the obvious obstacles, there are the ways to make sure that the rightful owners of online content will feel safe about their property in 2023.
Stallman and his four freedoms: taking responsibilities
Therefore, the key problem of online ownership in 2923 will concern the problem of drawing the line between knowledge sharing and private ownership.
However, with the help of Stallman’s idea of four freedoms, i.e., starting from the freedom to run the program any way the user wants to the ability to customize the program.
Cathedral and bazaar models of agencies
When considering the idea of online ownership in 2023, one will have to decide whether the content in question should be related to as the one belonging to the cathedral model, or to the bazaar one.
In the latter case, the content should be regarded as free to share all over the Internet; in the former, it is guarded by ownership laws. With such classification, the future of online content will be more or less save in 2023.
Cookie law: do-not-track policy
One can also expect that in 2023, the famous Cookie Law will provide a different perspective on the problem. It is a well-known fact that HTTP cookies are very simple to intercept and even modify as long as the Internet surfers do not use SSL services.
Thus, the policy that demands clients’ consent for placing their cookies on a certain website has been developed. A rather clever decision, it will probably help avoid the issue with copyright and privacy rights infringement in 2023.
Overcoming the Possible Obstacles: The Controversy
Because of the confusion of the ideas of shared information and the private content, the users of the Internet in 2023 might encounter considerable issues with ownership laws (Palmer).
It can be assumed that, with the help of a set of strict laws concerning ownership of online content, some of the issues may be resolved.
Conclusion: There Is Still Much to Think over
Therefore, the issue of ownership on the Internet will definitely grow more complicated in 2023. With the technological advances, pirating will become insultingly accessible.
Providing reasonable regulations concerning the copyright and ownership issues will not suffice – it will be necessary to help people develop conscious approach towards the use of online sources.
Works Cited
Franzen, C. Instagram Users Are Right to Be Worried, Copyright Experts Say. 2012. Web.
Harouni, L. A Primer on 3-D Printing. TED. 2012. Web.
The reading under evaluation is the chapter from the book “Panorama: World’s History from 1300,” written by Ross Dunn and Laura Mitchell. The chapter is entitled “Innovation, Revolution, and Global Crisis.” The chapter describes the increase in nations’ prosperity during the last decades of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.
Then, the chapter focuses on the increasing inequalities despite the great improvement of trade and prosperity. Finally, the authors of the reading under analysis describe the most devastating consequence of the crisis — the Great War.
The central Why question of the chapter under consideration is as follows: “Why did the increasing prosperity result in the global crisis of the twentieth century?”. The authors divide the reading into three sub-sections. All sub-sections are arranged in a manner that demonstrates the logical development of the problem.
The significance of the research question is predetermined by the fact that it addresses the controversial problem of the humankind and opens new perspectives of the vision of world history. The central argument of the paper refers to the statements that, despite the efficient world trade an immense gold deposits, urbanization, scientific and technological advances, global inequalities have grown drastically and resulted in the First World War.
Three key ideas should be addressed to understand the argument:
Commerce, gold, urbanization, migration, technological and scientific progress were central factors that promoted the global economic growth;
Increasing inequalities (caused by a variety of factors) led to the outbreak of revolutionary movements around the world;
The Great War became the highest peak of the world’s crisis and resulted in massive destruction and losses.
The global prosperity was a result of the expansion of the industry. Thus, leading European countries financed the development of railway systems in neo-European countries. This initiative facilitated industry and production (Dunn & Mitchell, 2014). The influx of immigrants provided countries with the immense labor force.
Finally, scientific inventions (such as the telephone) also contributed drastically to the promotion of global business. The first key quote from the reading refers to the explanation of the second idea. Thus, “an irony of late-nineteenth-century economic expansion is its correlation to natural disasters that took millions of lives and worsened poverty in many lands” (Dunn & Mitchell, 2014, p. 703).
Severe outbreaks of plague, for instance, seem to appear in coastal regions. Thus, foreign traders could have brought the plague. At the same time, dissatisfactions in colonies arose and resulted in violent revolutionary movements (Dunn & Mitchell, 2014). It is impossible to define the exact reasons for war. A variety of prerequisites led to the conflict. The rivalry between countries and the increasing number of controversial ideologies were some of them.
The second key quote from the reading explains the nature and peculiarity of the Great War: “The major opposing states mustered numerous public institutions, private businesses, the entire economic infrastructure, and men and women of all classes and occupations to win the struggle, waging what historians call total war” (Dunn & Mitchell, 2014, p. 717).
Authors of the reading provide profound information concerning the connection between global inequalities and the outbreak of the Great War. However, two questions that derive from reading are rather controversial because exact answers cannot be found in Google or Bing, for example. The first question is, “Would it be possible to avoid WWI if there were no global inequalities?”. The second question — “What would be the world without WWI?”.
Reference
Dunn, R., & Mitchell, L. (2014). Panorama: World History from 1300. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education.
The readings Asian Studies/Global Studies: Transcending Area Studies and Social Sciences by John Lie and The Invention of Tradition by Eric Hobsbawm examine the place of tradition and innovation in the world of academic cognition. Thus, according to the article on Asian studies, the areas of learning are continuously extending its scope. Therefore, the author suggests the integration of global studies into academic programs of modern universities since it provides a sophisticated combination of knowledge and restricted experiences (Lie 2012, p1). Due to the assumption of the authors of “The invention of tradition,” traditions serve as the fundamental factors that direct modern schooling. Consequently, they discard the integration of separate histories into universal compilations of data since they believe that every area has to be discussed separately (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983, p12).
The paper that dwells on the globalization tendencies focuses on Asian studies as a precise example of an extending learning area. Thus, it is claimed that the subject can be one-dimensional since the tendencies of Oriental life are quite similar. However, the author argues that such an approach does not allow disclosing the particular cultural, political, and economic spheres of Asian life. Moreover, a traditional study model interferes with the understanding of international relations between Asia and the other world states. Therefore, the paper explains the fundamental differences between the nomothetic and idiographic area studies.
The theory of inventive traditions that are described by Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983) evolved from the idea of national marginalization. In contrast to globalization studies, the doctrine supports the process of academic customization. The examples of separate world histories are provided by the authors. The instances prove that maintenance of individual study features of separate countries is a guarantee of historical stability.
The discussions of two theories raise three fundamental questions that refer to the sphere of academic learning. First, it is crucial to investigate whether the inclusion of individual histories into complex sciences does not create some confusing contradictions in the content of the discipline. Second, one can argue that the theory of academic customization hinders the development of disciplines and education in general. Third, the fundamental question that concerns the doctrines is whether the tendencies of globalization can influence the individual histories that were shaped throughout many centuries.
Despite the opposing ideas that are advocated by the authors of two works, there is a straight correlation between the theories. Thus, both studies target history as a dominating sphere of shaping the future. However, while the first article promotes historical changes and interventions, the second one discards neo-traditional tendencies and supports the idea of keeping history in the scopes of stability. Moreover, both studies refer to social and academic mobility. Still, the authors demonstrate contrastive opinions of the concept, since John Lie regards it as an indicator of progressive science development while Hobsbawm and Ranger review the issue as a hindering factor that damages individual historical accounts.
Bibliography
Lie, John. Asian Studies/Global Studies: Transcending Area Studies and Social Sciences. Berkeley: University of California, 2012.
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
After reading chapters three and four of Imitation and Innovation by Eleanor Westney, it is deducible that during the Meiji period (1868- 1912), Japan’s modern history experienced remarkable social transformation. The Japanese took a very short time to adopt a wide range of phenomenal and new institutions, communications technologies, and classic manufacturing methods from the advanced Western countries in an effort to transform their nation into competent, modern state1.
With reference to Eleanor’s summary, it is clear that she investigated the influence of western culture on the traditional Japanese culture as well as the impact of evolution of organizational processes patterns on the new culture. Taking into account three cases namely the mass circulation of newspaper, the postal system, and the police, these chapters bring out a great deal of how people made and formulated decisions thus revealing how organizations shaped the country’s social context. This paper will seek to provide Eleanor’s main themes, arguments, and the way in which she develops them.
Since chapter three talks much about the extensive organizational revolution in terms of creating a coordination and control centre, the theme of imitation and changes is noticeable. Given the fact that the postal system plays an unchallenging and mundane role in state organization, revolutionizing the organizational and integral part of the system was necessary2. The telegraph and the post respectively are complementary as opposed to competitive. As such, organizational transition sought to use the telegraph for short and urgent messages and the post for less immediate and detailed communication since the latter was cheaper slower.
The theme of imitation traverses this chapter as indicated by the actions taken by Maejima Hisoka, “Japanese post father”. Having secured a position in the Ministry of Finance, the mission to England, due to his knowledge and expertise in English, he wasted no time as he tried to learn and investigate the postal system used by the British. Sources depict that he aimed at demonstrating and applying this information in Japan.
Another main theme expounded on by Eleanor is that of changes. Well, years before the entry of the westerners, the Japanese relied on traditional methods of transferring messages from one end to another. Nevertheless, when the transfer of western organizational patterns to Japan started, there were changes in the postal system3. People adopted and started using telegraphs and posts in transferring messages. Additionally, this country’s police force underwent serious changes.
Years before the Meiji period, Japan lacked organizational control system. Administrative services based on power rather than a set system of specialized governance. Nonetheless, this changed when the transfer of organizational patterns from the West started transferring to Japan4. As illustrated by Eleanor, the transfer brought about specialized administrative offices, which represented changes in the police force.
Agreeably, there are some arguments presented in Eleanor’s work. Critical analysis demonstrates that Eleanor’s work fails to shine light on or discuss the vitality of the National Shintoism or the emperor in depth. In her work, both ideology and nationalism of the Meiji period do not play a pivotal role in the analysis of the organizational changes5. Apart from that, Eleanor does not mention the underlying ideological and nationalistic aspect but goes ahead to consider these treaties as mere practical political concerns. Japan as well as many other Asian countries such as India, China, and Vietnam encountered takeovers by the western powers.
These takeovers aggravated a sense of further crisis in Japan in late 1850s, which then led to increased resentment and development of nationalism movement. The view of achieving parity with the Powers from the West gave rise to Meiji nationalism. Arguably, there is no way that one can discuss the social movement or organizational changes during the Meiji period without taking into account the theme of nationalism.
As explained herein, Eleanor constructs her work from a great historical perspective. The evidence provided in the fourth chapter paint a clear picture of intensity in her theme construction. As earlier aforementioned, her chapters show uniqueness in Meiji period, which is a coexisting and distinct factor or element constructing an argument6. She constructs her themes with a progressive and liberal sound, which at first glance seem contradictory. However, the presence of the corresponding ingredients provides moral and pragmatic bases for Meiji nationalism, which in turn matches the subjected goals and feelings.
In conclusion, it is agreeable that Eleanor’s work is persuasive mainly because, despite the huddles experienced during this period, the achieved culmination represented a symbolic figure of moral values that showed ways in which the country rallied7. Late development, by definition, talks about production of patterns that are uniform or common across a cluster of societies, which embark on industrialization during the same time.
Its effects make infinite variations since it has influences on behavior and organizations that are very unique to one of the societies but exert similar pulls on the others hence form convergences across all these industrial societies. This paper has offered specific insights into the themes, and arguments as well as ways in which Eleanor Westney constructs them.
Footnotes
Eleanor Westney, Imitation and Innovation: The transfer of western Organizational patterns to Meiji Japan (Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2002), 128.
Human history is full of interesting facts, which are studied by archaeologists. One of these is the transition from Neolithic rural life to more formalized urban settlements. One sign of this transition was agricultural innovation and the diversification of agricultural products. It was along with the increase of resources and the improvement of tools and methods of labor that the first urban settlements began to appear. Initially, these were semi-permanent or seasonal camps to which people returned more and more frequently, such as Star-Carr in Britain, dating from around the 9th millennium B.C. However, over time, the world’s first permanent settlements appeared during this period. An early example of this can be found at the Natufian Ain Mallah in the Levant, dating from about 12500 BC (Marciniak, 2018). People lived there permanently, relying on gazelle hunting along with the cultivation of wild wheat and barley.
In history, crises have often served as catalysts for underlying processes of change. Such crises could be internal or external. Before the innovations of agriculture in the Middle East, the world became much colder, leading to a return to the glacial conditions known as the Late Dryas. As the migration of herds and the growth of wild grasses became upset, the conventional way of life became no longer possible for many people. Some would indeed have died, and many would have had to return to a more mobile way of life. Nevertheless, the last changes that had gradually accumulated over the millennia were not lost. When people left declining settlements, they took their grains with them and sowed them in entirely new places. The creation of new crops and the greater emphasis of some communities on growing grains with flint sickles accelerated the process of natural and artificial selection. It eventually led to the emergence of fully cultivated wheat and, with it, the means of overcoming the limitations of the old hunter-gatherer settlements.
This process can be traced back to Abu Hureyra, in what is now Syria, where people responded to global cooling by intensive cultivation of wild rye. It was there that the oldest domesticated cereal crops were found, dating from about 10500 B.C (Marciniak, 2018). From about 9500 B.C., people in the Levant and Southeastern Turkey returned to sedentary life, but this time at a qualitatively higher level, based on domesticated cereals and domesticated animals such as sheep and goats, which were also transformed by the conscious intervention of human hunters who turned into herders. By about the 8th millennium B.C., this new way of life had spread throughout the Middle East and soon began to spread into Europe and South Asia (Marciniak, 2018). Sedentary agriculture also independently emerged elsewhere, including in China, parts of Africa, and the Americas.
Thus, agricultural innovations were, for the most part, provoked by changes in the environment of the people of the time. These changes spurred the expansion of the agricultural industry and changes in the means by which farming was wielded. In turn, the expansion of the agrarian sphere was one of the critical factors symbolizing the transition from entirely rural to urban settlements. Subsequently, the diversification of the agricultural industry and the means of cultivating the land would open the way for primitive people to enter the world of great industry. Thus, it becomes clear that the progress of the agricultural field of human activity will mark the progress of all other fields.
Reference
Marciniak, A. (2018). Placing animals in the Neolithic: Social zooarchaeology of prehistoric farming communities. Routledge. Web.
Scientists in the Middle Ages or natural philosophers as they were then called radically employed the authority of older traditions, including religious and scientific ideologies dating back to Plato, Aristotle, and Ptolemy. They were driven to utilize these traditions by their zeal for inquiry as well as reasoning.
Religious faith, instead of weakening scientific and technological innovations, actually strengthened their efforts to know better the natural world as it was, by and large, acknowledged that knowledge attained by way of reason would harmonize with religious beliefs. Whereas medieval science and technology did not seek to defeat the existing world views of the time, their activities did lay the ground for the scientific revolution as well as European global expansion of the early modem age.
Religion, medieval science, and technology, which were firmly based on Aristotelian explanations of the physical world, were able to be promulgated by the ancient Greeks. These technological innovations were later preserved and commented y the Middle Ages Muslim scholar.
Later they were able to be transmitted into Western Europe as that region began to experience growth and expansion around1100 CE. Medieval inquiries (Aristotle’s natural philosophy) were then given extended treatment since they provided an intellectual jumping-off point employed by everyone dealing with the character of the physical world during that period. From these medieval inquiries leading to innovations, specific disciplines of modern days sprouted such as Astronomy and Astrology, optics, chemistry and alchemy, zoology, geography as well as medicine.
Medieval technological innovations, such as mechanical clocks, firearms, and the blast furnace, profoundly altered the course of European and world history at large. Innovations harnessed during the medieval era helped to increase agricultural productivity. For instance development of the plow facilitated the clearing of forests of fertile northwest Europe. The plow could plow heavier and wetter soils, thus increasing not only agricultural production but also the population of certain areas where it was in the use of instance northwest Europe.
Middle ages innovations such as the clock (the Middle East and North Africa) led people to organize their time more efficiently. Mechanical clocks were first used in China. They were for astrological and astronomical purposes rather than for indicating time. As commended elsewhere about religion, Chinese clock building was influenced by Muslim How? After the Mongol conquest of China by Kublai Khan, the Chinese Mongol rulers employed Muslim astronomers who, in turn, improved astronomical instruments. During the modern ages, with the wide use of the clock, abstract time developed to be the medium of existence.
The use of iron and mining in the Middle Ages helped to improve agriculture as well as shaping modern technological advancements. Weaving and textile industry innovation saw the development of cloth making. This marked the occurrence of the first industrialization during the medieval age. The textile industry was dominated by wool, with linen lagging behind it.
Cotton manufacture was technology transferred from the Muslims after they conquered Spain and Sicily.
The development and diffusion of an innovation relied not only on its invention but also on the social, cultural climate in which it was invented. The impact of technology on society is interesting as technology always led to new technology.
However, in summary, the foundations of the present modern world owe their base on the innovations of the medieval age, for instance, universities, i.e., institutions for learning, industrial revolution, as well as capitalistic system.
Reference
Author(s): Unknown. History of World Societies. 7th Edition (2006): Houghton Mifflin ISBN 0618610944.
Philip F. Riley (2005) The Global Experience: Readings in World History to 1550, Volume 1 (5th Edition) (Global Experience) ISBN 0131178172.
The public sector constitutes a critical component in a country’s health intervention, biomedical research, and development. Therefore, the sector accounts for a significant proportion of the total pharmaceutical expenditure. The importance of the public healthcare sector underscores the importance of an effective organization. Amongst the most important elements that should be considered in promoting the effectiveness and efficiency of the pharmaceutical industry is innovation. The significance of innovation arises from the fact that it contributes to new product development1. This aspect improves the effectiveness of the industry in dealing with emerging medical challenges. In order to support innovation, it is imperative for governments to support industry players’ research and development efforts.
One of the approaches that governments should consider entails the integration of Intellectual Property Rights [IPRs] such as patents. The significance of patents in the pharmaceutical industry arises from the capital-intensive nature of the process. A substantial amount of resources is involved in discovering, developing, and achieving regulatory approval by the relevant authorities2. Moreover, the lack of or ineffective integration of IP in the pharmaceutical sector can cripple the industry due to imitation and free-riding by unapproved parties. Policymakers have “the duty to ensure that they design a system in which production is organized to maximize the societal benefit from such public investment.”3
Over the years, the Canadian government, through the Canadian Intellectual Property Council has affirmed its commitment to making IP rights as one of its public policy priorities. However, minimal action has been undertaken so far.
In spite of the extensive investment in research and development in the Canadian pharmaceutical industry, considerable gaps exist with reference to patenting. The current patenting system in Canada has led to the distortion of pharmaceutical innovation. Thus, the country’s current patenting system does not lead to the attainment of socially beneficial outcomes. Therefore, it is imperative for the Canadian government to take the required steps and make the necessary reforms.
Analysis
The patenting system in the Canadian pharmaceutical industry
Pharmaceutical innovations constitute a critical component in the Canadian health care system. Its relevance arises from the fact that it promotes the wellbeing of the general population. Investment in research and development has promoted pharmaceutical innovation, hence the country’s ability to deal with diseases that were considered a threat to the country’s population, such as polio, measles, diabetes, tuberculosis, and asthma, among other illnesses. Despite its past efforts, Canada ranks noticeably low with reference to innovation4. A study undertaken by the Conference Board of Canada assigned a D grade with reference to innovation within the pharmaceutical industry.5 Some of the countries that lead with reference to innovation within the pharmaceutical industry include the US, Switzerland, and Ireland6.
During the past decade, Canada has implemented a number of measures in an effort to stimulate the development of the pharmaceutical industry. One of the most notable changes entails the implementation of the Patent Act. The Act has undergone a number of amendments over the years, which has culminated in increased investment in research and development by the research-based pharmaceutical companies7.
In order to support pharmaceutical innovation efforts, it is imperative for governments to integrate effective intellectual property rights. However, the Canadian pharmaceutical industry is heterogeneous in nature. Some of the industry players operate based on extensive IPRs. These companies mainly include innovative research-based firms. Conversely, some pharmaceutical companies do not appreciate the importance of IPRs8. Thus, the industry players are categorized into research-based and generic companies. The research-based companies mainly engage in the development new drugs while the generic companies engage in the replication of the newly developed medicines.
The generic companies undertake the replication process at a relatively low cost. Due to their low cost of operation, the generic companies are not focused on recouping the cost of R&D. Consequently, they are in a position to maximize their profitability by offering drugs at competitive market price. Canada leads with reference to the countries characterized by high prices of generic drugs in the world. In 2006, the price of generic drugs in Canada was 115% higher as compared to the price in the US9. Moreover, the ability of the generic companies to maximize profitability arises from the fact that there is no law that controls the price of generic drugs like in the case of innovative drugs.
Moreover, the intellectual property rights in Canada do not recognize the capital-intense nature of research-based pharmaceutical companies. It is estimated that the development and introduction of a new drug into the market take approximately 10 years. During the development and trial period, the new drugs do not generate any revenue. The table below illustrates the difference associated with the development of new drugs by the two company groups10.
Phase of Drug development
Generic Companies
Innovative Companies
Research and development
6 months to 1 year
2 to 6.5 years
Test and trial on drug
3 to 6 months at a cost of 1 million
7 years at a cost of 60% of the total cost
Duration from laboratory to market
2.25 to 6.5 years
11 to 13 years
Total cost [estimated]
$ 4 million
$ 897 million
Time to recoup investment
no limit of time
7 to 9 years
The above table illustrates the existence of a considerable difference in the development of new drugs between the generic and innovative or the research-based companies. It is estimated that the generic companies incur over 200 times the cost incurred by the generic companies in their drug development process. These differentials underscore the need to assist the research-based pharmaceutical companies in recouping the cost of R&D. However, failure by the Canadian government to protect such investment leads to an ineffective pharmaceutical industry. These aspects highlight the extent to which the prevailing legal system in the Canadian pharmaceutical industry is skewed11.
In order to improve the contribution of the country’s pharmaceutical industry, the Canadian government should consider the formulation and integration of effective IPRs as an absolute necessity. Canada has entered different economic agreements, for example the World Trade Organization [WTO], agreement on the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights [TRIPS], and the North American Free Trade Agreement [NAFTA]. These agreements have led to a remarkable improvement in the Canada’s attractiveness to pharmaceutical companies. However, failure to protect such investment and promoting fair market exclusivity will affect the attractiveness of the pharmaceutical industry to local and foreign investors.
The ultimate effect is that the Canadian pharmaceutical industry will be dominated by generic companies, which from the analysis above are largely driven by profit maximization as opposed to being beneficial to society. On the other hand, research-based pharmaceutical companies are very conscious of a country’s IPRs. Thus, the ineffectiveness of the Canadian IPR system will limit the entry of such companies, hence affecting the creation of high-paying job opportunities12.
The Canadian Intellectual Property laws can be defined as relatively ineffective and stringent as opposed to other countries such as the European Union, the US, Korea, and Japan. The Canadian IP system provides data exclusivity to companies in the country’s pharmaceutical industry for 8 years as opposed to that of the US, which offers data exclusivity for a period of 10 years. Furthermore, the Canadian government does not provide the industry players with an opportunity for extension. Data protection constitutes a fundamental element in a country’s public health care system. Therefore, it is imperative for governments to develop effective IP laws in order to improve the effectiveness of their countries’ pharmaceutical industry. However, it is imperative for governments to ensure that the data associated with the pharmaceutical products meet certain standards. Some of the critical data sets that should be provided to the relevant authorities related to toxicity and efficacy of the drugs.13
Moreover, the Canadian intellectual property law does not provide the industry players with an opportunity for patent term restoration. Countries such as the US and the European Union members have integrated this aspect in their IP laws. For example, in the European Union, firms in the pharmaceutical industry are provided with a maximum of 5 years in addition to the data exclusivity period. This aspect shows that the patent term restoration has a considerable duration of 15 years. On the other hand, countries in the United States have a patent term restoration period of 5 years in addition to the data exclusivity period of extra 5 years.
Proposal for reforms
Intellectual Property rights comprise a vital element in any society. First, effective IP contribute to adequate protection of a country’s investment climate. This goal is attained by protecting the existing and potential investors from unfair competition. Consequently, the IP rights contribute to the effective establishment of a market-based reward system, hence compensating the high cost incurred during the innovation process.
The lack of or a poor IP system hinders companies’ ability to compete by reselling their innovation efforts, which drives their economic profit to zero. If investors anticipate the existence of an unfair competitive environment, they are not likely to enter such an industry due to difficulties in recouping the cost incurred in undertaking the research and development processes. The IP rights enable companies in selling their products by limiting the intensity of competition in marketing patented products. Past studies show that the implementation of effective IP rights have played a fundamental role in providing customers with diverse products that contribute to the improvement of the society’s welfare such as saving lives and promoting the citizen’s quality of life.
The above analysis illustrates the existence of significant gaps in the Canadian pharmaceutical industry with reference to patent. If this environment prevails in the future, the attractiveness of the country’s pharmaceutical industry to domestic and foreign investors will be affected adversely. Thus, it is imperative for the Canadian government to undertake a number of reforms with reference to the Intellectual Property Rights, viz. patenting. Some of the issues that the government should consider are evaluated herein.
Right of appeal
The Canadian government should consider the possibility of giving the pharmaceutical companies, which hold intellectual property rights, an opportunity to appeal any decision that is linked to the patent. Currently, the prevailing IP system underestimates the significance of IP rights to firms in the pharmaceutical industry as opposed to firms or investors in other economic sectors. One of the aspects that the Canadian government should consider entails providing the right to file a lawsuit against possible patent infringement.14
Patent term restoration
The Canadian government should formulate a system through which firms in the pharmaceutical industry can extend the pharmaceutical paten term. This move will provide the research-based organizations with a substantial amount of time to recoup the cost incurred in obtaining approval of their pharmaceutical product such as drugs by the relevant authorities. This approach will give the research-based companies an opportunity to market their products. Increasing the patent restoration period will further improve the effectiveness with which the pharmaceutical innovation efforts are socially beneficial. For example, the approach will improve the pharmaceutical companies’ investment in research and development. The ultimate effect is that the country’s research and development industry will experience a remarkable growth, hence translating into indirect economic benefits.
Growth in the research and development segment will lead to the creation of sustainable job opportunities, hence increasing the consumers’ disposable income and purchasing power. Furthermore, taking into consideration the patent term restoration period will improve the country’s effectiveness in dealing with counterfeit products within the pharmaceutical market segment. Counterfeiting in the pharmaceutical industry has been a major threat not only to sustainability of a country’s economic performance, but also the citizen’s health. The existence of counterfeit products in the market has been cited as one of the major causes of health risk faced by different countries. Through this move, Canada will be in a position to ensure that firms in the generic pharmaceutical market segment are not only focused on profit maximization by increasing the sales revenue15.
Data exclusivity
In its quest to improve the attractiveness of the pharmaceutical industry to investors, the Canadian government should give the research-based pharmaceutical companies enough data exclusivity period. This approach will ensure that investors within the industry are protected adequately. Moreover, this perception will lead to the development of the Canadian pharmaceutical industry through the entry of new investors.
Despite the significance of data exclusivity to the country’s pharmaceutical industry, the Canadian government should be cautious with reference to the time applicable to patents. The Canadian government should not assign extremely long durations to the patent period. Limiting the time applicable to patent will make the country’s pharmaceutical industry competitive by eliminating monopolistic practices by the large research-based pharmaceutical companies. The capital-intensive nature of the research-based pharmaceutical companies can lead to the development of monopolistic practices. For example, the companies might collude in their research, development, and price determination processes. These aspects might lead to unfair market prices, hence limiting the likelihood of consumers accessing social benefits.16
The available empirical evidence affirms that the integration of strong IP rights in the pharmaceutical industry increases the level of investment in R&D. This aspect translates into significant improvements in strengthening the competitiveness of a particular industry due to the ability to cope with emerging medical challenges. Limiting the time applicable to data exclusivity will make it possible for generic investors to venture into the industry successfully.
The entry of generic firms’ will increase the intensity of competition faced by the research-based companies. This assertion means that the price of the pharmaceutical products will be reduced considerably. The price of drugs tends to be relatively low in markets characterized by competition. This aspect shows that fair competition leads to pricing benefits that are difficult to achieve under monopolistic market conditions. The ultimate effect is that the patent system will be socially beneficial.
In the course of reforming the data exclusivity period applicable to firms in the pharmaceutical industry, it is imperative for the Canadian government to undertake extensive market research. The research should be aimed at understanding the approaches adopted by governments in the emerging economies. Through cross-country comparison, Canada will be in a position to develop attractive patent regimes that improve the environment for future innovation. Consequently, the Canadian pharmaceutical industry will become highly attractive to local and foreign investors.
Conclusion
The pharmaceutical industry in Canada is essential to the country’s economic development. Over the past decades, the Canadian government has been focused on promoting growth of the pharmaceutical industry. The government intends to achieve this goal by improving the attractiveness of the industry to local and foreign investors. One of the aspects that the Canadian government considers as critical in its pursuit for this goal relates to the formulation of effective Intellectual Property Rights. In line with this goal, the Canadian government has adopted a Patent Act, which guides investors within the industry. The patent mainly targets two main categories of investors, viz. the generic and the research-based companies.
Despite the efforts by the government to improve the country’s pharmaceutical industry, the current patenting system is characterized by considerable gaps. First, the patenting system does not provide adequate protection to the research-based companies. One of the most notable gaps relates to the failure of the patents to enhance fair competitive practices. Currently, the patenting system does not protect the research-based companies adequately. For example, the existing patenting system offers the generic companies within the pharmaceutical industry a shorter period within which their products move from the laboratory to market as compared to the research-based companies. This aspect highlights the fact that the patenting system in Canada promotes unfair competitive practices.
The existence of such patenting system within the country may limit the attractiveness of the industry to local and foreign investors. However, the Canadian government should make the necessary adjustment to the patenting system. Some of the issues that the Canadian government should consider in reforming the country’s patenting system include providing the research-based companies long patent term restoration period, right of appeal, and data exclusivity.
However, it is imperative for the Canadian government to ensure that the reforms do not have gaps that can lead to the emergence of monopolistic practices amongst the research-based pharmaceutical companies. One of the issues that the government should observe relates to limiting the applicable duration with reference to the data exclusivity period. By taking considering these elements, the Canadian government will be in a position to improve the extent to which the patenting system in the country’s pharmaceutical industry translates into socially beneficial outcomes. The industry will become highly attractive to investors, hence creating new jobs. Moreover, investment by new pharmaceutical companies will improve the country’s ability to cope with emerging health care challenges, which will further make the patenting system beneficial to society.
Bibliography
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DiMasi, Joseph, and Henry Grabowski. R&D costs and returns: Handbook of Pharmaceuticals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Web.
Gendreau, Ysolde. An emerging intellectual property paradigm; perspectives from Canada. Cheltenham: Northampton Press, 2008. Web.
Guler, Isin, and Atul Nerkar. The impact of global and local cohesion on innovation in the pharmaceutical industry. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Web.
Grabowski, Henry. “Patents, innovation and access to new pharmaceuticals.” Journal of International Economic Law 5, no.4 (2002): 849-860. Web.
Grabowski, Henry. “Evolution of the pharmaceutical industry over the past 50 years; a personal reflection.” International Journal of the Economics of Business 18, no. 2 (2011): 161-176. Web.
Iacobucci, Edward. “Innovation for a better tomorrow; a critique.” University of Toronto. Web.
“Innovation for a better tomorrow; closing Canada’s intellectual property gap in the pharmaceutical sector.” CIPC. 2014. Web.
Keon, Jim. “Canada’s patent laws promote genuine medical innovation.” Canadian Generic Pharmaceutical Association. Web.
Lechleiter, John. “How lax patent rules in Canada are suffocating life-saving innovation.” Forbes. Web.
Lilico, Andrew. Six issues in pharmaceutical industries: pharmaceuticals and government policy. New York: Cengage Learning, 2006.
Stigliz, Joseph, and Arjun Jayadev. “Medicine for tomorrow; some alternative proposals to promote socially beneficial research and development pharmaceuticals.” Columbia University. Web.
Footnotes
1 Christopher Adams and Vu Branter, “Spending on new drug development,” Health Economics 19, no. 2 (2009): 130-141.
2 Henry Grabowski, “Evolution of the pharmaceutical industry over the past 50 years; a personal reflection,” International Journal of the Economics of Business 18, no. 2(2011): 161-176.
3 Andrew Lilico, Six issues in pharmaceutical industries: pharmaceuticals and government policy (New York: Cengage Learning, 2006), 42.
4 Joseph DiMasi and Henry Grabowski, R&D costs, and returns: Handbook of Pharmaceuticals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 38.
5 Ysolde Gendreau, An emerging intellectual property paradigm; perspectives from Canada (Cheltenham, UK: Northampton Press, 2008), 145.
6 Ibid, 147.
7 Cynthia Ho, “Patent distortion; do patents promote pharmaceutical innovation,” University of Chicago. Web.
8 Isin Guler and Atul Nerkar, The impact of global and local cohesion on innovation in the pharmaceutical industry (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), 540.
9 Ibid, 112.
10“Innovation for a better tomorrow; closing Canada’s intellectual property gap in the pharmaceutical sector,” CIPC. Web.
11 Josh Fass, Arjun Athreya, Jackie Niu, Yanzhi Yang, and Yong Wu, “Managing innovation: a social benefit analysis of patents and alternatives,” University of Virginia. Web.
12 John Lechleiter, ‘How lax patent rules in Canada are suffocating life-saving innovation,’ Forbes. Web.
13 Edward Iacobucci, “Innovation for a better tomorrow; a critique,” University of Toronto. Web.
14 Jim Keon, “Canada’s patent laws promote genuine medical innovation,” Canadian Generic Pharmaceutical Association. Web.
15 Joseph Stigliz and Arjun Jayadev, “Medicine for tomorrow; some alternative proposals to promote socially beneficial research and development pharmaceuticals,” Columbia University. Web.
16 Henry Grabowski, “Patents, innovation and access to new pharmaceuticals,” Journal of International Economic Law 5, no.4 (2002): 849-860.
With Medicare introduced in the US in the early 1960’s, the insurance industry recorded its ever-largest change in the entire history. This was because of the advent by economists that the introduction of Medicare would result into inventions within the pharmaceutical industry. This would as a result add onto the mortality rates reduction of the citizens.
The new inventions are regarded as saviors in terms of reduction in the cost of medication; prolonged life hence a longer life expectancy accompanied with lowered mortality rates. It is therefore prudent to do an investigation on whether Medicare introduction made way for the inventions in the pharmaceutical industries.
Furthermore, a thorough assessment and judgment is conducted to establish a proof of the well-intended intentions of the pharmaceutical innovation products concerning extending lifespan. Invention of new technology through all the fields had proved to prolong life since it presents a new outlook to peoples’ view towards life hence a bust in the living standards.
This is explained in the article alongside the value and impact it has on the socio-economic sphere. As a result, “Can we live forever?” is a question that is tackled all around in details and with all the relevant proofs and disapprovals presented. Author and the article The author of the article is a professor at York University in Toronto.
The article is the latest dated 2010 and originally sourced from the Social Science & Medicine 2010. (70). The author has received several awards ranging from; Dean’s award for established researchers in 2008 from York University, Research excellence award from the University of Toronto in 2004 to SWAB award in 2004 again.
The article is a highly informative one; it is about the most modern inventions in the therapeutic field and their relevance to the new molecular entities and GDP combined. This is in conjunction to their impacts on life expectancy and mortality rates. The content is derived from the rich experience that the author has gained from consultancy about pharmaceutical issues for several governments and institutions such as the world health organization (WHO).
The author also has vast research interests on approval systems and the population apart from his field of the pharmaceuticals. Striking or memorable factual evidence The first factual evidence is about all the new molecular enterprises (NME’s), the main issues behind them is their prospects advancing as time and new inventions occur.
The striking and astonishing bit is that they become even more weaker as new inventions are realized e.g. the recently invented angiotensin converting enzyme(ACE) inhibitor has shown more efficiency as compared to the latest series of the same enzyme. This conclusion is made after finding out about the benefits presented by the former in the last 40 years. Secondly, the most recent inventions do not add onto the life expectancy; they are mere inventions in sectors that are not relevant to either mortality rates or life expectancy.
This is from the previously mentioned irrelevant inventions such as those directed towards treatments of toenails and those to minimize baldness, which do not at any cost relate to facilitating favorable mortality rates and life expectancy. An example of an older invention that still facilitates mortality is the aspirin; it decreases mortality from cardio and cerebrovascular disease.
Challenge from the article As shown in the data by Schnittker and Karandinos indicating mortality to be greater in the age bracket 15-19 years. The major challenge comes in explaining the causes of mortality in this age bracket, a further challenge comes in explaining the causes identified. From this article; either causes are identified and categorized as identifiable causes or unidentifiable, some of these causes can be avoided while a majority cannot be prevented hence very costly.
Prevention and control of these diseases to facilitate mortality and life expectancy is another challenge that remains a mystery. This is due to the fact of the difficulties posed in terms of resource constraints. Therefore, this has rendered research in the field useless since it provides less to death minimization. Contribution of the article to the field of knowledge The article was meant to answer the hypothesis of whether life can be prolonged as a result of inventions.
The article has therefore added into the field of knowledge by trying to explain the relationship that exists between the inventions in the field of medicine and life expectancy. It has also inputted positively by giving an explanation on how the GDP is related to mortality rates. The article explains that the more inventions we have on drugs, the more life we are likely to have. Drugs are as a result vital and the world population therefore needs advance in the field of medicine more.
The article stresses the need of encouraging more inventions and innovations. This is despite the fact that life can never be there forever. The article has also presented the view by economists supporting the introduction of Medicare, its facilitation for pharmaceutical inventions hence an impetus for the development of the current drugs which further extend into life expectancy.
Success or failure of implementation of innovation in healthcare depends on many factors which determine the efficiency of government healthcare policy. When it comes to large and nation-scale projects of reform and renovation, the government and its policies have a direct influence on whether or not these reforms will work or not while on a micro-scale factors such as a compatibility, observability, complexity, and relative advantage for particular innovations determine their success. A comprehensive approach is required to make an innovation last. In the paper at hand, the Three Box Solution is used to review the existing innovations based on their effectiveness at the present moment and their sustainability in the future.
The innovations around various issues in healthcare as outlined in the robotic surgery reveal that government policy plays a pivotal role in the process. A review of the London HASU units indicates that government policy is critical in establishing funding and also providing the expertise required for monitoring and evaluating innovations in healthcare. The review of the American Health Reforms and the Brazilian Government handling of the HIV pandemic reveals that government commitment as established through its policy initiatives can lead to the success or failure of healthcare innovations.
Healthcare Innovation and Government Policy
Modern medicine is a scientific field that is considered to be driven by innovation.
Healthcare personnel are well versed with the rigours of research and as a result, they have created a pool of ideas that can be applied to drive the innovation agenda in health to greater heights. However, even with the increasingly growing number of resources that could facilitate the initiation of both small-scale and large-scale healthcare innovations, there is still a delay in the implementation of strategies to drive innovation. Bureaucratic processes and elaborate need for verification procedures to ensure the safety of the innovations stand out as the main hindrances to the process of innovation in healthcare. Lack of adequate financing is another obstacle that the researchers typically have to overcome concerning healthcare innovations, a situation that is dependent on government policies.
At the centre of these two main challenges are government operations driven by the policies that it rolls out concerning healthcare innovation. One of the fundamental roles that policies play is to create a path for the distribution of funds and allocation of budget money towards its numerous branches, including healthcare. Even when the government does not have direct control over healthcare organizations and facilities, it still has the power to introduce laws and policies that have the potential to either inhibit or promote innovation. As a result, government action or inaction based on its policy decisions can either promote innovation in healthcare or stifle any progress in this area. The goal of this paper is to analyze the extent to which different innovations in healthcare can be nurtured through government policy.
Healthcare Innovations
Innovations in healthcare constitute changes in ideas, products, processes and procedures that are introduced to benefit the patients, society at large as well as the staff in the industry. As a result, healthcare innovations can be broadly classified as new services, new technology and new ways of working. Healthcare innovations lead to the provision of quality services that leads to better health and reduced suffering from the patient’s perspective. From an organizational perspective, the benefits obtained include enhancing operational efficiency and improved quality of healthcare delivery.
Once an innovation in healthcare has been identified, several factors determine its implementation and adoption within the associated organizations. Almost every innovation offers some kind of improvement or an advantage over the existing practices, be it in reductions in costs or increase of effectiveness. The complexity of innovation has a large impact regarding its adoption and implementation within healthcare organizations. Given that difficulty could arise from staff inexperience with the new technology or limitations that said innovations impose, most healthcare personnel are keen on ensuring that innovations are not complex before implementing them in their organizations. The compatibility of healthcare innovations based on the alteration of the existing patterns is easier to adopt. Innovations that have visible results based on their level of the existing medium of observation are more likely to impress both the healthcare practitioners and their patients. The best approach of reviewing is through the use of the Three Box Solution with each box defining a specific criterion as outlined in the table below:
Box
Innovation Focus
Box 1
Keep the current business going
Box 2
Selectively forget the past
Box 3
Create the future
Table 1: Three Box Solution.
The Government and Healthcare Innovation
In most countries, governments are large, hierarchical, democratic organizations. Governments are comprised of different positions of varying importance and occupied by individuals with different backgrounds, education, and social and political views. While every official within the government structure is allowed a certain degree of independence, all the important decisions involving all improvement and innovation are taken collectively. There is always a board of professionals that has to assess any potential innovation, its feasibility, its evidence, its costs, and ethical aspects. For example, any widespread initiative regarding abortions is going to be met with resistance from either pro-life or pro-choice groups within a particular commission.
Government serves as an instrument of public control over medicine and healthcare. This is especially true in countries where healthcare is fully funded by taxpayers. The extra layer of responsibility puts an additional inhibition on any potential innovation, as they need to pass scrutiny in order even to have a chance of being considered. The government boards have to sort out between numerous researches and innovation proposals. Evidence-based medicine practices promote individual research. The government cannot support them all at once, which creates a queue. How quickly innovation is implemented depends on many factors, ranging from the importance of the study to its findings, its practicality, and the authority of the researchers involved.
Another pivotal role that the government plays regarding healthcare innovations is to regulate the funding of different research activities. The primary challenge under this role is based on the fact that the government does not have the funds to support all healthcare research. As a result, to acquire support the limited funds that are available the researchers must show clear benefits in research as well as a high probability of success. Government interests based on their political manifesto also has a bearing regarding how the innovations are facilitated. For example, when a government is supportive of the innovation in question, it is capable of removing obstacles in the path of progress and ensuring that it is implemented statewide. Based on this realization, it can be concluded that the government’s role in implementing and promoting innovation in healthcare is twofold. It can create obstacles with the bureaucracy but at the same time can significantly widen the scopes and hasten the implementation of innovation and reforms.
Innovations in Robotic Surgery
Use of robotics in surgery has been theorized since the early 1980s. However, despite advances in computer technology, telemonitoring, telepresence, and robotics, robotic surgery still employs 19th-century techniques. Based on the criterion that is outlined in the first box, the technology is not efficient and the techniques involved are relatively complex. As evidenced in the literature, a successful robotic surgery requires experienced surgeons to be able to operate using internal cameras and telemonitoring. The efficiency of the technology also lacks given that it has been shown to lack relative advantage based on the increased costs associated with its implementation.
The technology also fails to meet the second evaluation criterion which indicates that a healthcare innovation should seek to facilitate the drop of older practices and facilitate the adoption of new processes. The literature on robotic surgery demonstrates that the majority of the surgeons have no experience with the new technology and would require ample instructions and re-education. The documentations in literature based on the practices surrounding the use of robotic surgery innovation indicate the uses technology that was developed in the 19th century despite the advances that have been achieved following the growth of the computers related innovations.
Government involvement in the case of advancing the adoption of robotic surgery as a helpful innovation in healthcare could be influential in the realization of the desired outcomes. Policy approaches can create room for the allocation of the funds to facilitate healthcare personnel to meet the educational needs required to enable them to use the technology that is required for robotic surgery to be successful. The literature on the determinants of innovation within healthcare organization indicates that the extent to which the involved technology agrees with the existing legislation and rules is fundamental in achieving the full implementation. Based on this construct, the government has a pivotal role to play in the process of developing robotic surgery as a standard innovation in the healthcare industry. For example, the literature indicates that in most places across the globe, robotic surgery has only been approved for limited surgical processes hence stifling the need to continually innovate in this area. The lack of insurance coverage in most jurisdictions is also an indication of the socio-political goodwill to facilitate the development of the innovation around robotic surgery used as a major approach in the delivery of quality care.
London’s HASU (Hyper Acute Stroke Units)
The developments of the innovations around London’s HASU Units were as a response to the increasing number of mortalities from a stroke. The literature indicates that the implementation of methods of treatment is largely regulated making it increasingly slow but the innovations and transformations within the parameters of the existing systems are much quicker to be adopted by the respective healthcare institutions. A background check on the local hospitals in London revealed that they were often unequipped to properly deal with stroke patients, forcing them to be transferred to hospitals located in London’s centre, which took time and diminished the chances of survival. The reform, proposed by Professor Ara Darzi, suggested the creation of eight HASU centres around the city, where stroke patients were to be delivered.
Based on the first criterion, the innovation proved to be efficient given that the medical personnel that specialize in strokes will not have to significantly alter their procedures as the strategies involved required the redesigning of the existing processes. The techniques involved in the implementation of the innovation were efficient requiring minimal use of resources. Based on the second criterion, the proposed innovation had no major flaws as it sort to establish a method to deal with the current practices such as transporting patients to the major centres in London.
By doing so, the innovation was responding to the existing need which could create value for the patients as they would be in a position to access care in their local areas hence reducing the costs involved in the process. The results from the centres met the criteria of observability given that in three months after the implementation of HASU units, death rates from stroke fell by 25% compared to the previous levels. The innovation also had a relative advantage as the reformed HASU units offered quality stroke care for lower prices. The establishment of the HASU units was futuristic in its implementation as it required that the establishment of new centres would remain for a longer period to serve the clients.
The government role in ensuring the innovation of the HASU units was evident. First, the proposal was based on a body that had been established to oversee the review of health service provision in London. Policy role of the government, in this case, was evident given that it facilitated the process of conducting the review. Government’s financial support has been enlisted as one of the main factors that can facilitate the establishment of innovations in healthcare. For example, in the case of HASU innovation, the government allocated approximately $30 million in funding which was critical in the development of the enhanced payment tariffs to meet the costs of providing the required level of service quality.
Other than providing the facilitation in the initiation of a healthcare project, the government can also influence the success of this innovation through the provision of resources to monitor the impact of the established healthcare innovations as seen in the case of the HASU units. Government involvement in the HASU project was also evident in the reconfiguration of the National Health System operations to accommodate the new model of healthcare delivery hence ensuring the success of the initiative.
American Healthcare Reform
The reform of the American healthcare system launched under President Obama in 2010 was perhaps one of the most controversial healthcare innovations in the recent past. The innovation failed not only due to certain flaws in its implementation and design but also due to the government’s influence in defining the processes involved. First, the government failed to take a monolithic position during the American Healthcare Reform as it should have done to ensure that success of the process. The Affordable Healthcare Act, also known as Obamacare, was largely supported by the Democratic Party and opposed by the Republicans.
An evaluation of the initiative based on the 3 box model reveals that there was some ineptness on the part of the government in the implantation of the innovation. However, based on the principles outlined in the first box, the reform of healthcare suggested many improvements be implemented in public healthcare, to improve methods of distribution and accessibility, lowering the number of people without health insurance, improving the quality of service and health outcomes, and upgrading the financial, technological, and clinical base of the system. As such the innovation around the delivery of care as proposed by Obamacare was relatively strategic and would result in increased efficiencies.
With no side having a definite advantage in the Congress or Senate, the government was split in half in regards to whether they should go through with the reforms or not. In Florida, Texas, Alabama, Arizona, Oklahoma, and Missouri refused to implement certain proposals of the healthcare act. Non-cooperation movements became widespread and completely halted the implementation of the system. Based on the evaluation of the criteria outlined in the second box, Obamacare represents a situation where the government policy does not promote innovation but hinders it instead. For example, the Affordable Care Act introduces hefty taxes on innovations that would lead to the development of new drugs essentially making branded drugs a mirage for most patients.
Despite the seeming unpopular components of the Obamacare, the involvement of the government in the process of its development and implementation is testimony towards the role that a government can play to facilitate the healthcare innovations whether they are deemed as good or bad. For example, based on the government conviction that the innovation would be beneficial, there was increased lobbying to ensure that it was well established. As outlined in the literature, when a government seeks to support a particular innovation, it allocates a considerable amount of funds which as evidenced in the case of Obamacare the amount was spent in political lobbying and also carrying out extensive research to determine the approaches that were to be included in the Act.
Brazilian Response to the HIV Epidemic
Following the reporting of the first case of HIV in Brazil back in 1982, the country was struck by a wave of the HIV epidemic. Therefore an urgent response and innovative social and healthcare strategy were required to prevent the epidemic from spreading on a nation-wide scale. The newly formed government following a period of military dictatorship was keen on ensuring that it resolved the emerging crisis as soon as they were detected. The model adopted by the government to stop the spread of infection and keep it within manageable parameters was highly innovative and implemented numerous innovative policies in healthcare and the social spheres to promote awareness about the new disease and encourage the use of protection.
How the government dealt with the HIV pandemic in Brazil is an outright representation of an innovation that satisfies the criteria innovation evaluation criterion. The innovation fulfils the first box criterion given that it sort to introduce universal anti-retrovirus drugs, which significantly helped reduce the total amount of potential HIV-infected, up to 20% by some popular estimates. Based on the second criterion, the innovation was critical in that it allowed the introduction of new approaches to the practice of managing HIV pandemic. For example, the strategies sort to launch an aggressive information campaign against HIV while at the same time seeking the promotion of the use of condoms and other measures that increased safe sex. The innovation met the principles in the third box of looking into the future to ensure that it was sustainable. The Brazilian government focused its efforts on the vulnerable population groups, such as the poor and the homeless. These people were most likely to suffer from HIV due to lack of knowledge. The government-subsidized producers of contraceptives and managed to drop the prices for condoms by about half the original price.
The manner, in which the movement was engaged in managing the scourge resulting from the HIV pandemic in Brazil, is a good example of how government involvement can facilitate the innovations in healthcare. First, the Brazilian government launched fundraising approaches that were effective to support the process. The Brazilian government raised funds domestically and took out loans from the World Bank. Given that the project had received the support of the government, there was increased policy support to ensure that the approach in solving the pandemic was carried out in a multiagency manner. The existing literature indicates that the use of multiagency in solving healthcare issues is largely dependent on the existing laws as they are a critical component in enhancing healthcare cooperation. The Brazilian government managed to involve its existing NGOs such as the International Red Cross Organization and other local bodies to assist them in fighting the epidemic.
Conclusion
Government through its policies is critical in the facilitation of healthcare innovations. As evidenced in the literature, the government plays a critical role in either stifling the adoption of innovations in healthcare or facilitating their adoption. A review of the case of the issue surrounding robotic surgery reveals that the lack of clear regulations on how the processes should be integrated into the current healthcare models has led to the slow growth of the innovations required. The case of the London based HASU units has demonstrated that government support healthcare innovations through the creation of bodies that can develop new projects and also create new avenues for funding. Base on the review of Obamacare the literature demonstrates that when a government is convinced that a particular innovation would be beneficial, it is likely to institute measures to establish the required political lobbying. The Brazilian government response to the HIV pandemic in the country was an indication of the role of government initiatives through policy to ensure that an environment for multi-agency cooperation is established to finance and operationalize healthcare innovations.
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