Category: Infrastructure

Introduction

Critical infrastructure is defined as an asset, network, or system, either real or virtual, which is of crucial importance to the United States. The destruction of critical infrastructure may cause a devastating effect on the economic security, public safety, and health well-being of the citizens (Lewis, 2006).

The power that is used across the nation, water used in households, transportation used for mobility, and the system of communication used for connectivity all belongs to the existence of such critical infrastructures (Morton, 2012).

Technological advancement has facilitated interconnections of infrastructures in most countries, thus making them vulnerable to terrorist attacks. Since they are of very sensitive nature, their security is paramount, and thus precaution measures are needed to secure them.

Define Critical Infrastructure Protection and explain why it is important

Critical infrastructure protection (CIP) refers to a concept adopted by the US in 1998 in the fight against terrorism (Lopez, Setola & Wolthusen, 2012). The concept was launched by Bill Clinton, the then president of the US, under the PPD-63. The concept requires all the involved stakeholders to ensure that the infrastructure remains protected from terrorist attacks.

The US adopted the concept against the backdrop of the rising cases of cybercrimes directed to the nation’s cyber space (White, Boult, & Chow, 2014).President Bush added to the concept by launching the Homeland Security through the Presidential Directive HSPD-7. The Obama administration, through the PPD-21, altered the CIP further in 2013 in a bid to increase its effectiveness.

CIP initiatives aim at improving interoperability across communities coupled with improving collaboration with the federal government to detect, prevent, plan for, respond to, and recover from natural and human threats to telecommunications, water resources, oil and gas, government, transportation, emergency response, electric power, and health services infrastructure (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012).

As a collaborative effort, CIP is being conducted in coordination with federal, state, local government, commercial, and non-government Sponsors (De Bruijne, & Van Eeten, 2007).

DHS’s Mission

The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The DHS started its operations in 2003, and it was charged with critical infrastructure protection responsibilities and its goals and objectives are to prevent, protect, respond, and recover, as well as build in-security, ensure resilience, and facilitate customs and exchange (Lewis, 2006).

The DHS’ core mission entails five homeland security aspects, viz. “Prevent terrorism and enhance security, secure and manage American borders, enforce and administer immigration laws, safeguard and secure cyberspace, and ensure resilience to disasters” (Morton, 2012, p. 112). Failure to address the DHS’s mission effectively would have serious consequences for the American national and economic security.

The DHS’s Operations

With the passing of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the DHS was officially formed and as part of its remit, its aim was to co-ordinate and streamline efforts of the nation’s assorted security and federal agencies.

Ensuring the security of the cyberspace and other critical infrastructures is the only way that the US can deter terrorist attacks that have had an increasing trend over the past few decades (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012). The DHS incorporated twenty-two other agencies under its umbrella.

The DHS’s main objective is to ensure that the security of the US citizens is maintained at all cost. In a bid to achieve this objective, the DHS has to protect its waters and ports to prevent illegal entry of dangerous weapons such as nuclear bombs. The DHS has put in place viable strategies regarding the security of its territories.

The DHS’s Responsibilities

The DHS’ main objective is to detect and prevent terrorist attacks in the US (De Bruijne, & Van Eeten, 2007). The U.S Department of Homeland Security was established after the 9/11 attacks to counter terrorist activities towards the United States.

The concept of homeland security is formally described in the “National Strategy for Homeland Security as a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, cut down the nation’s susceptibility to terror attacks, curtail the harm, and recuperate from terrorist attacks that take place” (Morton, 2012, p. 128).

Why is Critical Infrastructure Protection Important?

Attacks on critical infrastructure are likely to cause significant disruption on the operations of the government and businesses at large (Lewis, 2006). Critical Infrastructures have become targets for terrorists, thus their protection is necessary if a nation has to remain secure. Such attack may result in mass destruction of properties and many death incidents (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012).

In the past, Critical Infrastructure Protection initiatives have successfully cut down incidences of terrorist attacks. CIP is important since it requires every industry, which is classified as a critical economic sector, to assess and develop strategies to eradicate vulnerabilities to cyber-attacks.

Some of the sectors identified as critical sectors under the program include banking and finance, transportation, power, information, and communications (Morton, 2012).

The importance of information and intelligence sharing and its impact on CIP

Information sharing amongst federal, state, and local agencies is a key element of the American government’s homeland security strategy. According to political analysts, the post-9/11 threat calls for a reliable partnership amongst federal and all other local authorities in order to facilitate information sharing.

All the security organs ought to work together and create conducive environment that would in turn increase information sharing and thus lead to a reduction in terrorist attacks (Lewis, 2006).

Federal departments and authorities have the responsibility of availing relevant security information to the Secretary of DHS and the national critical infrastructure centers. The information is necessary to support cross-sector analysis and inform the situational awareness capability for critical infrastructure (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012).

Critical infrastructure security is a function that requires interdependence of all the federal agencies. Listed below are some of the departments and agencies that are key departments to the critical infrastructure security.

The Department of State, in coordination with other relevant Federal departments and agencies, engages foreign governments to strengthen the security and resilience of critical infrastructure located outside the United States and facilitates the best methods and lessons learned for maintaining the security and resilience of critical infrastructure on which the United States depends upon (Morton, 2012).

The US has the best intelligence community in the world (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012). The intelligence community is charged with the responsibility of providing warnings to security agents of threats prior to their occurrence. The Director of National Intelligence (DNI) is mandated to use all the relevant departments and recourses to produce intelligence information.

The IC is composed of highly trained crime detectives with the ability to detect crime before it is accomplished. It is composed of both the military and civilians. The security officers in charge of providing global security rely greatly on the IC’s report to combat terrorism and to protect the citizens around the world.

All the intelligence departments are under the DoD and intelligence reports are submitted to the DoD, which in turn presents it to the president (Lewis, 2006). The report on intelligence is then submitted to the relevant security organs for execution. The intelligence report is important to a nation’s security since it warns the country of an attack before it is accomplished.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is mandated to offer licenses to eligible institutions, and for an institution to acquire such license, it must meet some set requirements.

The Federal Communications Commission, its authority and expertise on “identifying and prioritizing communications infrastructure, identifying communications sector vulnerabilities and working with industry to correct vulnerabilities, and coordinate with industry and engage foreign governments to increase the security and resilience of critical infrastructure within the communications sector on which the United States depends upon” (Morton, 2012, p. 126).

The Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) policies established by PPD-21

The PPD-21 created additional policies on critical infrastructure security and resilience created under the PPD- 63 by Bill Clinton in 1998 (Morton, 2012). The directive identified and specified various critical infrastructures and defined the role of each department involved. The key policies established by PPD-21 are explained below:

Defining and elucidating the functional relationships throughout the federal government

Under this strategy, the directive refines the structure of the CIP by creating two national critical infrastructure centers operated by DHS (White, Boult, & Chow, 2014). One department is responsible for security of the physical infrastructure while the other is responsible for the security of the cyber space.

The two departments work hand in hand to deter terrorism activities through the critical infrastructures. Responsibilities of each of the two departments is clearly defined and manned by experienced staff.

Enabling timely and effective information exchange

This strategy aims at increasing information exchange between all the federal departments involved (De Bruijne & Van Eeten, 2007). It is meant to enhance timely receipt of intelligence information to counter attacks. The policy establishes the standard requirements for data and information formats and accessibility while at the same time observing the privacy principles provided under the constitution (Lewis, 2006).

Creating an integration and analysis function

This final strategy is founded on the first two strategies and it establishes an integration and analysis function for critical infrastructure (Morton, 2012). The integration and analysis function for critical infrastructure is charged with the responsibility of analyzing incidences of attacks, prospective threats, as well as up-and-coming risks.

The department works in collaboration with other departments including the intelligence department, but the scope of each is clearly defined (Lopez, Setola, & Wolthusen, 2012). Therefore, the function of each department is well spelt to avoid conflicts.

Conclusion

The US Critical Infrastructure Protection was established by Bill Clinton in 1998 through the PPD-63. The directive identified key sectors and classified them as key infrastructures that needed to be secured at all costs. Since its establishment in 1998, it has received the support of the successive governments and the recent PPD-21 of 2013 refined the concept further. Protecting critical infrastructures is an important endeavor towards fighting terrorism that has had an increasing trend over the past decades.

References

De Bruijne, M., & Van Eeten, M. (2007). Systems that should have failed: critical infrastructure protection in an institutionally fragmented environment. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 15(1), 18-29.

Lewis, T. (2006). Critical infrastructure protection in homeland security: defending a networked nation. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Lopez, J., Setola, R., & Wolthusen, S. (2012). Critical Infrastructure Protection: Advances in Critical Infrastructure Protection: Information Infrastructure Models, Analysis, and Defense. New York, NY: Springer.

Morton, J. (2012). Next-Generation Homeland Security: Network Federalism and the Course to National Preparedness. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.

White, R., Boult, T., & Chow, E. (2014). A computational asset vulnerability model for the strategic protection of the critical infrastructure. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 7(3), 167-177.

Castlemaine’s Issues

Australia combines several regional areas that represent a lot of rural territories that vary depending on their purposes. Some of them are focused on land management, others on information gathering, etc. Castlemaine is one of the well-known regions in Victoria, Australia. This small city is prominent for its history of the rich gold rush. However, today gold mines are not operating, and this place starts to attract people with its growing reputation as an eclectic art scene and a producer of wines and fresh foods.

Unfortunately, today many regional areas in Australia require improvement because of the issues they face, and Castlemaine is not an exception. This city has rather high housing prices, which has an adverse effect on the population. Mainly, this problem is critical for the youth and elderly because they are the most vulnerable population that does not earn enough money to afford a house they want without any financial support provided by relatives. Those individuals who obtain low-income often turn out to be not able to afford even a modest house (Bryant & Pini 2009). However, they are bought by those who come from Melbourne and other bigger cities, which makes Castlemaine’s population even more deprived and priced out.

Another issue faced by this regional territory is the lack of sporting facilities. They are not considered as one of the top priorities, so people are not encouraged to participate in them. As a result, they do not know how to spend their free time, and many of them ended up being unemployed and addicted to drugs. In addition to that, many individuals have health issues that may be overcome or at least prevented for some period of time if they get engaged in sports. However, those sporting facilities that already exist in the city are claimed to be its disgrace. In the majority of cases, young people are affected by this problem, as they have a lot of energy but are not sure what to do with it.

Tourism used to provide the city with large amounts of money, but it is not that expended already. Many sightseeing attractions require refurbishing that is not yet maintained (Hinchliffe 2016).

Ways to Improve Current Situation

Taking into consideration the information discussed earlier, it becomes clear that there is a necessity to implement a range of initiatives in order to improve regional Australia, and Castlemaine, in particular. First of all, the government should pay attention to housing issues because they are extremely critical for the population. The representatives of the general public should be able to afford appropriate apartments so that the quality of their life improves. In this framework, it can be rather advantageous to encourage those people who work in mining towns, such as Castlemaine, to bring their families with them. In this way, the city is likely to streamline its development, and the citizens can become more active. As a result, the enhancement of their participation in the local decision-making process should be observed (O’Toole & Burdess 2005, p. 242). Such alteration will be beneficial for the population because they will improve relations with the government, which tend to have a positive influence on the implementation of initiatives that meet people’s demands and desires.

It is vital to make healthcare services easy to obtain so that the health condition of the city improves. Along with the increased activity of citizens, issues connected with drug use are likely to be resolved. What is more, initiatives can be implemented to enhance the awareness of health issues and mental illnesses among the schoolchildren. As a result, the population will have a better knowledge of different diseases and ways to prevent them. They will also know the sights of critical illnesses, so they will be able to consult a doctor before it is too late. Money should be allocated to the construction of swimming pools and gymnasiums that can be used by the general public. In this way, people will have more opportunities to get engaged in sports, which will also have a positive influence on their health (Blood 2016). In order to increase the number of health professionals, Castlemaine should become an attractive place for newcomers.

Tourism is significant for Castlemaine because the money obtained with its help are spent on different areas, including rural ones. It will be advantageous for the country to consider the construction of new attractions and renovation of those that already exist so that they become interesting for foreigners again. It is possible to consider the different population in this framework, and prepare some sights for dark and wild-life tourism as well (Dufty-Jones & Connell 2014). What is more, attention can be paid to festivals. Many people travel to different countries just to attend various festivals in community settings. Considering the improvement of the International Troia Festival’s program can be rather beneficial in this perspective (Duran 2013).

Social benefits can be provided to increase opportunities for various populations (Blood 2016). Being involved in competitive sports, people can share a sense of integrity regardless of the fact that they represent a diverse population. The opportunities for the youth are likely to increase, and women can obtain a chance to get leadership roles that are mainly occupied by men. If children have a decent place for play and sport, they are likely to increase Castlemaine’s changes to develop high performing athletes and become known to more people.

As life in Castlemaine becomes better, the increased number of tourists is likely to have a desire to stay in the city (Laing & Frost 2013). It is rather advantageous because new arrivals are likely to give Castlemaine a change to streamline its development and enhance performance (Carrington & Marshall 2008). Focus on agricultural opportunities and other areas that become influenced nowadays (including foods and beverages) is expected to give the city a great chance to take a step forward (Lockie & Bourke 2001). The initiative can start with educational alterations. For instance, urban students can be encouraged to come to rural Australia to obtain an education that is connected with the professions, which is significant for the area. They can be ensured of a high possibility to get employed right after graduation due to the lack of workforce. Similar to this initiative can be the idea of keeping teachers in the city (Atkins 2012). As it develops, more professionals are needed to meet the needs of the population. Thus, it is critical to have enough experienced educators who can work with local learners and those who came from foreign countries. In this way, the opportunities for immigrants to become a part of the regional workforce should increase.

Reference List

Atkins, J 2012, Nine ways to improve regional Australia for young people. Web.

Blood, G 2016, Sport in Rural and Regional Australia. Web.

Bryant, L & Pini, B 2009, ‘Gender, class and rurality: Australian case studies’, Journal of Rural Studies, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 48-57.

Carrington, K & Marshall, N 2008, ‘Building multicultural social capital in regional Australia’, Rural Society, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 117-130.

Dufty-Jones, R & Connell, J 2014, Rural change in Australia, Ashgate, Farnham.

Duran, E 2013, ‘A SWOT analysis on sustainability of festivals: the case of International Troia Festival’, The Journal of International Social Research, vol. 6, no. 28, pp. 72-80.

Hinchliffe, J 2016, Housing affordability, lack of sporting facilities among top priorities in Castlemaine ahead of federal election. Web.

Laing, J & Frost, W 2013, ‘Food, wine… Heritage, identity? Two case studies of Italian diaspora festivals in regional Victoria’, Tourism Analysis, vol. 18, pp. 323-334.

Lockie, S & Bourke, L 2001, Rurality bites, Pluto Press, London.

O’Toole, K & Burdess, N 2005, ‘Governance at community level: small towns in rural Victoria’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 239-254.

Introduction

This study is a proposal to investigate into the challenges of infrastructure modernization in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). KSA is a unique kingdom located in Middle East. KSA is best known as the world biggest oil producer. It is strongly found on Islamic culture, which dictates most of its activities (Blanchard, 2012). The Islamic traditions practiced in KSA have been attributed to shape the response of the people in this kingdom on matters of national interest. A documentary produced and directed by Mill (2008) reflecting on the Saudi Kingdom has been a good eye opener on understanding of the KSA.

Inside Saudi Kingdom documentary provides a penetration in the way KSA is wrestling with modernization and technology by trying to conserve its Islamic traditions. The documentary is about Prince Saud bin Abdul Mohsin bin Adul Aziz Al Saud, a governor of Hail province. The governor speaks of his ambitions and problems. Coupled with the Hail province people, a fascinating insight is revealed about this feudal country.

Currently, modernization is vital in every part of the world. The way this process is accepted is determined by people’s backgrounds and values. For instance, in KSA, modernization process is influenced by the country’s Islamic traditions. According to Mill (2008) British Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC) documentary, KSA is revealed to be not immune to vagaries of change. Interestingly, the kingdom is highly protected by the Saudi Religious Police, who are known to punish those who try to abandon the kingdom’s Islamic law. Adopting modernization process in KSA is challenging especially when the change is likely to contradict the Islamic tradition.

However, there are some infrastructures in which the KSA is willing to modernize. Specifically, KSA has made huge investments in its military infrastructures (Zuhur, 2005).

Thesis

Considering the point that Islamic tradition influences the kind of change adopted in the KSA, we agree with the idea that challenges of infrastructure modernization in KSA emerge from Islamic tradition or laws. Infrastructures are developed to suit the needs of the Islamic traditions.

Research Questions

To achieve its purpose, the study methodology will be designed to answer the following study questions:

Does KSA put emphasis on modernization of some infrastructures than others?

The study will examine the infrastructures that the KSA has put much effort in modernizing by adopting current technologies and standards. The emphasis will be determined by reviewing the amount of funding directed to infrastructure.

Why does the Islamic traditions in KSA influence the modernization of infrastructures?

Different infrastructures will be examined to determine how their developments are controlled by the Islamic laws.

Which infrastructures in KSA are highly affected by Islamic traditions or laws limiting their modernization?

Answering this question will help determine infrastructures that are highly challenged by the Islamic tradition in KSA affecting their adoption of current technologies and standards, which characterize modernization.

Research

There exist limited literatures on challenges of infrastructures modernization that specifically addresses the KSA case. However, there are numerous literatures, which can help one understand the challenges of infrastructure modernization in KSA.

A study by Alshehri, Drew, and Alfarraj (2012) identified cultural organization in KSA as one of the barriers in the adoption of e-government services infrastructures. The study was conducted in KSA. The researchers used a survey method to gather information on challenges and barriers to adoption of e-government services in KSA. The researchers surveyed 460 citizens in Saudi Arabia, which involved participants from information technology departments in the KSA public sector. The data was used to identify the challenges and barriers from a variety of perspectives. From the challenges identified, cultural organization was one of the challenges. According to Blanchard (2012), KSA culture is strongly based on Islamic laws.

A study by Shavit (2006), found that some citizens of KSA associate modernization with devilish. They perceive that adoption of modernization in KSA will ruin the identity of Muslim religion. In the study, the author was concerned with the origin of Al-Qaeda, which is portrayed as group that emerged to Islamize the KSA society. This group influence disregarded the contribution of western modernization in Saudi Arabia. The study cites that there are cases in which the political leaders differ with the clergy leaders on adoption of certain infrastructures. Specifically, the study cites an example in which the clergy disagreed with the political leaders in adoption of communication infrastructures terming them as devilish. However, in some cases, such objections have not prevented the adoption of such infrastructures.

Islamic traditions support the existence of Bureaucratic government, which is in control of public expenditures (Khatib, 2012). Khatib (2012) concluded that this is one of the reasons as to why the increased revenue from oil does not reflect a similar expenditure of the revenue in construction of infrastructures. In the study, the researcher explored the relationships that KSA oil revenue has with the government expenditures on infrastructures. The study aim was to find whether an increase in oil revenue led to a similar increase in development of infrastructures. The author conducted the exploration by examining the KSA oil revenue and expenditure between the periods of 1983 to 2007. The results revealed that increase in oil revenue did not guarantee an increase on the government spending more on infrastructures.

Use of internet, which is a tool of modernization, is limited in KSA. According to Teitelbaum (2002), using internet for modernization in Saudi Arabia will continue to be limited for years as long the control over its impacts on culture is under control. In the study, the author examined internet introduction in KSA and how this kingdom was trying to balance the information advantage with communications, economy, and business advantages. This was done in relation to the country’s conservative nature to Islamic traditions. From the study, the KSA government is willing to use internet to modernize and for business purpose, but it prevent its citizen from being affected by globalization, which is perceived to affect KSA mores. The study reveals that the modernization process in KSA should not compromise the Islamic tradition. Any form of modernization, which compromises the Islamic tradition is banned in KSA. For instance, Yahoo club site was banned in Saudi Arabia because it was seen to be sexual in nature (Teitelbaum, 2002).

Infrastructures that demand for gender equality appear to be highly affected with Islamic tradition. This has prevented modernization of such infrastructures. For instance, the education infrastructures in KSA are crawling toward modernization. A study by Hamdan (2005) explored challenges and successes that women have made in education in KSA. The study revealed a great disparity in the men and women achievement in Saudi Arabia education. Education infrastructures are not well modernized to cater for girl education in KSA. Girls are excluded from participating in public life. Most of the girls are educated in Islamic laws. Girls’ limited participation in education is associated with the status in the society, which is determined by the Islamic tradition. It can be said that modernization in education infrastructures is limited to help maintain the status valued in KSA society. Therefore, the Islamic regulations or traditions have made it hard to implement modernization in some infrastructures.

In summary, this chapter was a review of literatures relating to how the Islamic tradition influences infrastructure modernization in KSA. The next section is the methodology, which describes how the study will be conducted.

Methodology

This section describes the way the study will be conducted. The research design, method of data collection and data analysis, and participants are presented.

Research Design

The research will be consulted in KSA capital city, Riyadh. In this study quantitative research method will be used. The method includes survey interviews, which will be vital in interpreting the study. The interview questions are structured questions, which are known to be best for quantitative interviews for they do not need extra information from a respondent (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The research will use the face-to-face interviews, which will help in establishing a good rapport with the participants and win cooperation. In addition, it helps in clarification of ambiguity in answers and can provide information for follow-up. A reasonable sample will be selected to help obtain reliable information and cut on the cost of the study.

Participants, Sample and sampling

The study will use a sample of 18 respondents. The sample will be conducted through random sampling. Sampling will be done in Riyadh city in KSA in a selected university. University students are preferred for this study because it is assumed that university students and lecturers are more familiar with modernization compared to ordinary citizens (those who have not attained university education).

The interviews will be used to determine the challenges Islamic tradition has on modernization of infrastructures in KSA. The interview will determine the infrastructures, which are highly affected by the Islamic laws limiting their modernization advantage. This will be done in percentage. The infrastructure with highest percent will be categorized as the most affected and vice versa. Second, mode will be used to categorize the infrastructures mostly emphasized for modernization in KSA. Finally, on identified reasons as to why the Islamic laws influence KSA modernization, average will be used to categorize the reasons basing on the weight.

Procedure

At the beginning of the interview, the researchers will explain to the respondents the research purpose and its significance to the empirical world by the help of a translator. A respondent will be interviewed for a maximum of 10 minutes. The respondents for the study will be categorized as KSA residents under the Islamic regulation and have knowledge on different KSA infrastructures. The interview will begin by capturing a respondent’s demographic information such as educational background, age, and occupation. Second questions will be asked to determine how different infrastructures modernization is affected by Islamic traditions or laws. These questions will also help review specific infrastructures and how they are treated in KSA. They will include military, education, and communication infrastructures.

Interviews will be conducted in the mid-morning and immediately after afternoon. This is because KSA values and respects Islamic regulations and hence scheduling interviews at prayer time will be hard to meet the respondents. Data will be analyzed in percentage, mean and mode.

References

Alshehri, M., Drew, S., & Alfarraj, O. (2012). Challenges; E-government services; adoption; Saudi Arabia; Citizens perspective; IT employees. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications ( IJACSA ), 3(2), 1 – 6.

Blanchard, C. M. (2012). Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations. Web.

Hamdan, A. (2005). Women and Education in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and Achievements. International Education Journal, 6(1), 42-64.

Khatib, A.M. (2012). Oil and Infrastructure Expenditures in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 4(2), 72-76.

Leedy P.D., & Ormrod, J.E. (2005). Practical Research: planning and design. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Mill, L. (2008). Inside the Saudi Kingdom (BBC Documentary). Web.

Shavit, U. (2006). Al-Qaeda’s Saudi Origins: Islamist Ideology. The Middle East Quartely, 13(4), 3-13.

Teitelbaum, J. (2002). Dueling for Da‘wa: State vs. Society on the Saudi Internet. Middle East Journal, 56(2), 222-239.

Zuhur, S. (2005). Saudi Arabia: Islamic Threat, Political Reform, and the Global War on Terror. Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute.

Ok, Tedi Mining Limited scenario puts the question of whether investing in health and education infrastructure and services is a reasonable venture. Thus, it is imperative to evaluate the ethical dilemma faced by the management at Ok Tedi Mining Limited. It is also imperative to note that the development of health care facilities was largely influenced by the health problems accrued by villagers as a result of the Ok Tedi Mining activities.

As such, continued mining meant that people’s health would continue to suffer. On the other hand, while closing Ok Tedi Mining activities meant that such health concerns would be eliminated, there are bigger social-economic concerns. The local communities whose traditional means of livelihood had been irreparably destroyed, and thus would lose the only means of livelihood due to them. Additionally, the closure of mining means that health and education services due to the people would be discontinued.

While Tedi Mining Limited case smacks of corporate management malpractices, it also reveals the complex nature of the ethical dilemma facing corporate managers especially with regards to social accountability. Additionally, based on the outcomes of Tedi Mining Limited’s case, it is not entirely impossible to question the contribution of social accounting and reporting towards sustainable development in the long term. This argument is based on the fact that social accountability involves disclosing information about the negative effects of a company’s business practices to all stakeholders, including local communities (Crane et al, 2008, p. 35).

This is likely to have one, or both of the following implications. Pressurized by human rights groups, governments are likely to take sterner actions to protect less powerful stakeholders, such as the local communities. Additionally, corporate might be discouraged from undertaking socially risky investments, due to the social, environmental, and economic costs (Davis, 2003, p. 204). Yet, amidst these fears, it is imperative to note that social accounting is aimed at mitigating severe impacts of uncontrolled utilization of natural resources on earth’s survival (Holdaway 2005).

Holdaway (2005), Davis (2003), and Crane et al (2008) assertions should be considered alongside the knowledge that Ok Tedi Mining Limited made a significant contribution towards infrastructural development within and around the Ok Tedi area. These developments had primarily targeted health and education. Schools and hospitals developed within this region had significantly improved education and health standards for the locals and were perceived as one of the major socio-economic activities within the Ok Tedi area. However, there were concerns about the long-term sustainability of the project after the closure of mining activities, expected in 2010.

These fears are further compounded by the fact that the government in Papua New Guinea misappropriated over 46% of the developmental funds provided by Ok Tedi Mining Limited, much to the detriment of social development initiatives. While this intensified the conflict between the local communities on one side and the Ok Tedi Mining Limited and the government on the other, it also put the long term sustainability of such initiatives in jeopardy.

A social accounting matrix developed for BMW stipulates that the development of basic infrastructure goes beyond sustaining economic growth. A credible social accounting matrix overarches the improvement of the quality of life for those affected by the company’s business activities. Therefore, the development of social amenities such as hospitals and schools should not be perceived as basic CSR activities but an ethical responsibility for the lives of the local communities.

Thus the economic cost should be overlooked (Kinlen, 2003, p. 63). Based on Kinlen’s (2003, p. 63) assertions, the development of health and education services at the Ok Tedi area seems more relevant despite the ethical dilemma facing the managers at Ok Tedi Mining Limited regarding the implications of the company’s mining activities on health and education. Additionally, the fact that the sustainability of education and healthcare projects in the long term is dependent on the continuation of mining should not overlook the need to improve the quality of life for the villagers.

In theory, Davis (2003, p. 45) asserts that the development of social amenities by firms operating in remote areas has an indirect contribution to a country’s GDP. This is attained through the provision of quality but cost-effective health and education services, which effectively empower the local communities. Companies should explore the most cost-effective ways to sustain such projects. However, the implementation cost should not overlook the desire to improve the quality of people’s life.

Therefore, it is imperative to note that the long term sustainability of both the health and educational services in the Ok Tedi area is seriously in doubt. However, amidst all the complications facing infrastructural development in the Ok Tedi area, the question is not whether the development of school and hospitals is a reasonable decision, but the most cost-effective way to sustain such a project. Therefore, the development of education and healthcare facilities in remote areas is a very reasonable decision, which should be undertaken in the most cost-effective way.

Reference List

Balachandran, V., & Alan, C. , V., 2009. Corporate governance and social responsibility. New Delhi: PHI Private Learning.

Blowfield, M., & Murray, A., 2003. Corporate responsibility: A critical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Crane, A., et al., 2008. The oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Davis, M., 2003. PNG presses for Ok Tedi tailings dam. Business Review Weekly. New York: Westpac.

Frost, G., & Wilmshurst, T., 1999. Corporate environmental reporting: A test of legitimacy theory. Newcastle: University of Newcastle.

Gibson, K., 2000. Accounting as a tool for Aboriginal dispossession: Then and now. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal. Vol. 13, issue 3, pp. 289-306.

Gray , R., 2001. Thirty years of social accounting, reporting and auditing: what (if anything) have we learnt?. Web.

Hess, D., 2008. The three pillars of corporate social reporting as new governance regulation: Disclosure, dialogue and development. Web.

Holdaway, M., 2005. Social accounting: Australian stories from a social accounting practitioner. Web.

Kinlen, L., 2003. The development of a regional social accounting matrix policy analysis system for the border, midland and western region of Ireland. Web.

Third World Network. n.d. Are universal social standards possible? Web.

United Nations. 2004. Disclosure of the impact of corporations on society current trends and issues. Web.

According to the information provided on the website, infrastructure is important for a country to run it smoothly. A well developed and maintained national infrastructure is good for business and normal life within a society. Infrastructure is the physical facility that any economy is dependent on.

ASCE estimates that $2.2 trillion is required to undertake a major upgrade of the nation’s infrastructure. The ASEC believes that the energy infrastructure is especially critical for the economy. The society has recommended the following measures to be taken to improve the situation, namely, the country should generate more power and expand transmission; electricity infrastructure should be expanded; there must be increased investment in power transmission infrastructure; and, finally, uptake of clean energy should be promoted.

For the state of Massachusetts, the key concerns are those connected with bridges, roads, and mass transit. Sustainability is emerging as an important aspect of infrastructure. From my findings, no planning or discussion of infrastructure is complete without consideration of sustainability issues.

ASCE decries the poor state of infrastructure in America today. America owes its prosperity and high standards of living to the continued maintenance and investment that improve the state of the infrastructure. American society makes the following suggestions to enhance the country’s infrastructure:

1. The federal leadership in infrastructure is required. Developing the country’s infrastructure requires a strong vision and fearless leadership. In the last 100 years, America has invested heavily in developing infrastructure, especially after the Great Depression. The current development efforts towards developing infrastructure are disorganized and not guided by the national vision. The federal government has not developed a national vision for the infrastructure which shows a lack of leadership.
2. America should promote sustainability and resilience. One of the pressing needs the world today is facing is sustainability. The country’s infrastructure needs to promote sustainability as opposed to harming the environment. The infrastructure should meet the following needs, in particular, natural needs, industrial needs, food needs, energy needs, as well as waste management among others. The infrastructure should meet the current as well as future challenges. Investing heavily in infrastructure without attempting to achieve sustainability will jeopardize future generations. The federal government should invest in searching for environmentally friendly building materials to use in improving the infrastructure.
3. Developing a plan for each state, and the country as a whole, in general. The ASCE points out that there is an urgent need for a plan of developing infrastructure. The plan should be tailored to meet the needs of each state. The infrastructure needs of New York are different from those of Massachusetts. Thus, the federal plan should capture the shared infrastructure needs of all states and develop a master plan to link up all the states. The plan should take cognizance of the need for rapid economic growth.
4. Address the problem of maintenance. One of the best strategies for maintaining infrastructure is undertaking life-cycle analysis. It allows prior planning for all the maintenance needs of an infrastructure project from the very beginning. The failure to carry out life cycle analysis is probably the cause of the current crisis the country’s infrastructure is facing.
5. Increased investment in infrastructure. Civil engineers in America believe that the parties tasked with developing and maintaining infrastructure are not investing enough resources in building a superior infrastructure. For that reason, they recommend an increased investment. The government as well as privately held entities have significant stakes in developing roads, rail, and energy infrastructure. Stakeholders should, therefore, spare no effort to raise the required funds for that purpose.

One useful update from the site is that the president is lobbying for more investment in infrastructure which is good news because it helps to understand that massive investment into infrastructure is required.

The proposed construction of a peripheral canal comes at considerable costs and the need for a cost-benefit analysis cannot be ignored. It is important to mention that a similar project had once been proposed but rejected by the voters. This move was however rejected by California voters at a time when the costs were only a meager $1.3 billion which is way below the $4 billion and $ 17 billion proposed by currently for the various construction options.

However, this is now price that needs to be paid to address the ever declining Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and also provide safe drinking water to the cities and farms in California (Piazza, 2012). These are costs proposed by the panel proposed by a panel formed to research and find ways of preserving the water and offer the much needed to the cities and farms.

However, there is also the issue of financial impact to the Northern California economy if most of the water is diverted to Sothern California and hence limiting access to fresh water by farmers. However, this has been addressed by the proposed construction of the two-way canal.

Financial Sources Analysis

Financial analysis of the proposed construction of the proposed two-way canal is important in ensuring there will be sufficient funds for construction and maintenance of the project (Weiser, 2010). It is fair to state that funds need to be availed for project operations, its maintenance, power needs, and payment of debts. A number of future contingency which may alter the financial structure of the project includes:

• Schedule variations with regard to construction processes
• Changing economic landscape such as rates of interest,
• Completion of transfer facilities
• Construction of extra resources not foreseen earlier
• Canal enlargements
• Pending law suit and future law suit outcomes
• Capital cost increments for additional conservation facilities during and after construction

Capital Financing

This water project will draw from three different sources of financing including Burns-Porter Act, revenue bonds, as well as capital resources. These funding will cater for all aspects of the project.

Burns-Porter Act

Burns-Porter Act financing option originates from selling of bonds from California Water Resources Development Bonds as well as the State Tideland Oil Revenues which were deposited. This was authorized by Burns-Porter Act. The Act authorized issuance of general state obligation bonds worth $1.75 billion paid by revenues obtained from contracts on water supply. The proceeds obtained from these sales are deposited in “California Water Resources Development Bond Fund-Bond Proceeds Account.” It is from here that funds are withdrawn and used in SWP facilities construction. It is worth pointing out that more than one-third of expenditure up to 1995 in construction as well as in Davis-Grunsky Act Program was financed by the general obligation bond (Massachusetts Infrastructure Investment Coalition, 2007).

Appropriation of funds deposited into California Water Fund is done in line with the provisions of Burns-Porter Act. The deposits also originate in part from State Tideland Oil Revenues based on continuous authorization; the legislation enacted in 1989 provides for the funds payment schedule in line with Burns-Porter Act (Massachusetts Infrastructure Investment Coalition, 2007).

Revenue Bonds

This financing option originates from revenue bond sales as provided for by the Central Valley Project Act. The authority of the department to issue revenue bonds was re-affirmed by the 1963 authorization from California Supreme Court (Weiser, 2010). The proceeds from such sales are deposited into the Central Valley Water Project Construction Fund. The money is then spent for purposes outlined in resolution authorizing which authorized the sale of each bond (Weiser, 2010). Other than payment for construction, planning and management of the right of way costs, they can also be used to fund Debt Service Reserve Account, bond interest payments, as well as payment of water system costs of operation within a specified duration.

Capital resources

This originates from payments and appropriations which are authorized via special contracts, cost-sharing arrangements, as well as acts of legislation relating to SWP. Also included are accrued interests from the mentioned funds.

Integration of recycled systems with pipe replacement/maintenance to reduce costs

The aim of every project is to lower costs. This is what is achieved if integrated with replacement/maintenance costs. It is important to mention that the recycled systems form part of a larger system which constitutes the entire project. Where each is independently done, they have cross-effect on each other and as such some costs can be incurred multiple times. However, when done side by side, scheduling ensure that double costs are not incurred in the same areas.

Financing desalination of plants where necessary

Interest in desalination of water has largely increased in the recent past with up to 17 plants proposed along the Californian coast. This process is however energy intensive implying costs are swollen by high energy costs. Nonetheless, during drought energy requirements are highly low due to the fact that most of evapotranspiration occurs as a result of solar energy. In addition, installation of solar plates during construction results into more energy sources during the process to aid energy related costs get lower and lower.

Regulation

The constitution of California states as well as court decisions hold the opinion that land owners with property where underground aquifers pass can pump reasonable amounts of the water for as long as it is directed towards beneficial usage. Such may include irrigation and drinking water supply. However, over-pumping must be kept in check (Barringer, 2009). Aquifers may pass through many farms and if each would pump large volumes, then this could compromise flow of water upstream. It is vital to stress that it can also offer a source of funding. Beyond certain usage levels, a fee should be imposed and the fee used in maintenance.

Groundwater overdraft issues are known to result into lawsuits, and in many cases, courts have been forced to come in and play adjudication role in water rights. In such instances, a water master is mandated to determine the yield through regulation of pumping through pump taxation as well as other means which discourage excess use of water. It must be acknowledged that other than Texas, California is the only other state to have successfully undertaken comprehensive regulation of ground water resources.

Reduce water usage on a household level

Household water usage levels ultimately impact the plant operations and the costs incurred. Where households misuse waters, costs of water pumping and delivery marginally increases, needless to say it can cost other would be beneficiary from not being able to access the services. Household water levels can be reduced by introduction of tariffs which charge based on consumptions. In this respect, the tariffs should charge based on consumption where low consumers are rewarded with lower tariffs while high consumers are charged higher tariffs.

Extra taxes to gain money from excess water usage

While imposing extra taxes for extra water usage could potentially lower water usage and hence pumping costs, this offers an opportunity to earn more from the project’s investments and use them same for maintenance. It is important to mention that such effect can be implemented through the water management department, which oversees water use billing.

Incentivize recycling (subsidies)

Recycling is a sure way through which the environment is conserved and also lowering costs of service delivery. Offering incentives to people who recycle water encourages people to recycle water more.

Solutions

In general, the financing options available for the project include capital resources, revenue bonds, and Burns-Porter Act mandated funds. Most of the capital needs of the project will be financed by proceeds from the projected revenue bonds sale. A sizeable margin will further be financed through current bond revenues, capital revenues as well as transfer of excess funds not required for costs of operation, servicing of debts and repayment of the water fund used (Barringer, 2009).

Further, projected payments by contractors as well as various other revenues will offer sufficient funds to pay for annual operations, maintenance costs, power requirements, and replacement/maintenance costs (Barringer, 2009). Generally, project expenses to be catered for will include costs of operations maintenance, power costs, maintenance costs, replacement services deposits, expenditure on capital resources, and servicing of project debts.

Additionally, while huge investments are being directed towards implementation of the project that will see millions of people access water without compromising farmer’s access to quality farming water, measures must be put in place to minimize misuse of water. Additionally, extra-funds can be generated from regulatory measures such extra taxation for high water users and charging higher tariffs to people who use water beyond some levels (Poel & Royakkers, 2011). It should also be mentioned that initiating acts which promote recycling of water. This lowers the costs of distributing water. These constitute regulatory measures in generation of funds and lowering expenses.

Ethical analysis

Cost benefit analysis is considered on basis of the social benefits the project is likely to offer to the residents (Poel & Royakkers, 2011). Sacramento brings together divergent groups. Like other Americans, they deserve to enjoy the right to clean and safe drinking water, as well as for other functions. It is estimated that more than 150,000 reside in areas where water is toxic and no fit for consumption by humans. These are an economically deprived lot and have to drive for miles to purchase bottled water. This is quite an economic burden. Faming using contaminated water has also increased marginally the nitrate pollution with over 2.65 million people living in California County drinking water contaminated with nitrates. It is estimated that if this pollution is left to continue, more than 80% of the population might be drinking polluted water by 2050.

This project might change this and such the magnitude of social benefits the project presents to the society. Additionally, if such contaminated water is continuously used in farms, it will find way into the lakes and oceans, eventually having adverse effects beyond California (Forbes, 2012). Fresh water will always eliminated the risk of blue baby exposure, as thyroid cancer, skin rashes, and hair loss, all associated with nitrate contamination. Such can place enormous costs on national health. Forbes (2012) noted that in a few years’ time, it will cost between $20 and $35 million to offer clean water to the population. In essence, as the utilitarian theory would have it, the social benefits way exceed implementation costs.

References

Barringer, F. (2009). Rising Calls to Regulate California Groundwater. New York Times. Web.

Forbes, R. (2012). The problem is worse than we thought. Web.

Massachusetts Infrastructure Investment Coalition. (2007). Infrastructure Status Report: Massachusetts Drinking Water. Massachusetts Infrastructure Investment Coalition, 3 (1), pp.1-10

Piazza, T. (2012). The Peripheral Canal: What It Means for the Delta. Delta Winds. Web.

Poel, I. V. & Royakkers, L. (2011). Ethics, Technology, and Engineering: An Introduction. Washington DC: John Wiley & Sons

Weiser, M. (2010). The Delta debate: Resurrecting the canal. The Sacramento Bee on the Web. Web.

Introduction

Critical infrastructure vulnerability is a major issue that needs an appropriate level of protection from natural disasters and cyberattacks. The paper will primarily focus on the United States’ approach to critical infrastructure protection in order to thoroughly understand the essential elements of ensuring nationwide resilience. Both natural disasters and cybercrime are major threats to the critically important units of the US, which is why one needs to comprehend the evolution of the defensive strategies and current methods of minimizing the damage. Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of critical infrastructure units, determine essential sectors, identify key problems, and assess the implications through possible solutions in order to increase the nation’s resilience to natural disasters.

Critical Units

Background

The concepts of “critical sectors,” “critical industries,” and “critical infrastructure” appeared in the United States at the beginning of the last century and were used most often in the context of the proper organization and functioning of socially significant systems, including roads and channels. Although these concepts have already been widely used by politicians and experts, a unified approach to their definition at that time has not yet developed (Lewis, 2020). Nevertheless, critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure are vital to society. Any problems with them can be dangerous for people who often do not realize the importance of essential sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure.

The vital importance of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure becomes dramatically apparent to the public only during natural and man-made disasters, wars, and terrorist attacks. The most important component of the essence of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure is the fact that they are all in varying degrees of interdependence. Thus, the destruction or partial destruction of one segment, industry, or critical infrastructure leads to an immediate negative impact on the adjacent critical sector, industry, critical infrastructure, or its components.

Moreover, the stability of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure of nation-states is often determined only by internal determinants and instruments of state regulation, but also by external factors that are often outside the linear control of the nation-state. It is important to determine the importance of studying global approaches to the regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure in order to identify the most effective tools for such an impact. The United States, as a state, has traditionally been distinguished by a clear and consistent focus on its national economic and geopolitical interests (Viira, 2018). It has ensured the institutionalization of the most complex system of state regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, which has quite effective mechanisms, successfully adapted in one form or another by a number of other countries.

Regulation

The concept of regulating critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, categorizing infrastructure objects as objects of protection from the point of view of ensuring national security interests has evolved in the United States gradually, gaining its own characteristics and signs determined by decisions based on a number of objective reasons and factors. It is stated that natural disasters can lead to community-wide stress among post-disaster infrastructure, and thus proper regulations need to be integrated (Choi et al., 2016). A procedure was introduced for the creation and operation of a new structure, which is the President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection. The commission was composed of government officials, including the FBI, the CIA, National Intelligence, the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, the Department of Transportation (Baggett & Simpkins, 2018). These experts from various sectors and industries began to conduct a comprehensive analysis of all sectors and industries that are key to US security.

The main mission was to identify critical infrastructure in the context of analyzing possible threats to national security, identifying political and legal issues related to addressing national security interests. The most important task was to develop the concept of an appropriate comprehensive federal program aimed at creating the proper tools to ensure the protection of critical infrastructure facilities of the relevant sectors and industries with the mapping of all the specific solutions required.

Sectors Involved

Critical Infrastructure (CI) received special attention in connection with changes in the national investment policy of some countries, which in turn plays a large role in various national strategies to protect CI. Many states have plans to safeguard CI, and these plans define critical infrastructure as tangible or intangible assets, the destruction or disruption of which will seriously undermine public safety, order, and disrupt the work of the government. Such harm can be catastrophic and have great consequences. Sources of risks to critical infrastructure can be natural or man-made. Natural disasters include various natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, and others (Alcaraz & Zeadally, 2015). Technological ones are terrorist acts, sabotage, and military operations. In general, a risk management strategy includes measures such as recovery, response, preparedness, and prevention (Baggett & Simpkins, 2018). The policy related to critical infrastructure is trying to coordinate the role of private operators of such infrastructure, whether they are domestic or foreign, in order to protect critical infrastructure, covering a wide range of public interests. However, the role intended by investment policy in protecting critical infrastructure is changing. Many countries attach a minimal or minor role in investment policies (Viira, 2018). All sectors are tightly interconnected, and all this can result in a phenomenon called the cascade effect (Karagiannis et al., 2017). Therefore, there are a number of sectors that are included in the category of CI. The agricultural and food sector includes food, animal and animal products supply chains, crop production and supply chains for grain, fertilizers, and other necessary materials. It also involves everything essential at the stages of processing, production, packaging, storage, and distribution of products.

Furthermore, the Banking and Finance sector includes institutions involved in the provision of goods and services such as deposits, consumer loans and payment systems, credit and liquidity products, investment products, and transfer risk products, including insurance. The chemistry sector can be divided into five segments based on the final outcome of production. These are basic chemicals, specialty chemicals, agricultural chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and consumer products. The commercial property sector consists of eight segments, such as crowded facilities, sports leagues, housing, open-air events, entertainment and media, real estate, and retail locations. The communication sector includes such physical property as, for example, wire lines, wireless, satellite, cable infrastructure, as well as services such as the Internet, information services, and cable television networks. This particular category’s level of development can significantly mitigate the overall damage from natural disasters (Freeman & Hancock, 2016).

The critical manufacturing category includes manufacturers who design, manufacture, and distribute products not covered by other sectors. These are the initial metals, mechanical engineering, electrical equipment, and transport equipment, including aerospace engineering. Dams category is a sector that covers the assets, systems, networks, and functions associated with dike projects, navigation locks, storm surge barriers, reservoirs, or other similar means of controlling or containing water flows. This provides a wide range of economic, environmental, and social benefits, including hydropower, river navigation, water supply, wildlife habitat, waste management, flood control, and land reclamation. The defense industry sector is divided into segments that produce weapons systems, platforms, and components. The main sections include missiles, aircraft, space, combat vehicles, ammunition, weapons, information technology, shipbuilding, and electronics. Products include mechanical components and systems, structural and electrical components, and electronics.

Emergency services are a system of feedback and restoration of elements that form the first line of defense of the state and the prevention and mitigation of the consequences of a terrorist attack. This is a sector of trained and trusted personnel, plans, contracts, and covenants that ensure life safety through emergency response services, consisting of federal, regional, local, and private partners. Emergency response disciplines include emergency management, emergency medical services, fire and combat teams, law enforcement, tactical and assault teams, and search and rescue teams.

Energy sector infrastructure is divided into three interconnected segments, such as electricity, oil, and natural gas. It is stated that the given infrastructure can be highly important in reducing the damage from natural disasters (Freeman & Hancock, 2016). The category of state-owned enterprises includes a wide variety of buildings owned or rented by federal, state, provincial, territorial, or local governments located within the country or abroad. Many government enterprises are open to the public for business, business, or entertainment. Others, not open to the public, contain highly relevant information, materials, processes, and equipment. This category includes embassies, courthouses, state laboratories, general-purpose administrative buildings and special military installations, and structures that may contain critical systems, functions, networks, and equipment.

The health sector consists of state and local health departments, health clinics, psychological clinics, nursing homes, hospitals, blood supply services, laboratories, morgues, and pharmaceutical stores (Forzieri et al., 2018). The Information Technology category consists of virtual functions essential for providing IT products and services, including hardware, software, and IT systems. National monuments are a sector that consists of a diverse array of assets located in the country. These include monuments, physical structures, or objects that are recognized as national heritage, Tradition, and value with national cultural, religious, historical, or political significance. They also serve the purpose of perpetuating the memory or representing significant aspects of the national heritage, traditions, or values ​​and serve as places of interest for visitors and educational activities.

The category of nuclear reactors, materials, and waste includes atomic power plants and nuclear reactors used for research, testing, and training. It also involves nuclear materials used for medical, industrial and academic purposes, nuclear fuel, shut down reactors, transportation, storage, and destruction of nuclear materials and waste. The sector of postal services and delivery services daily drives a huge number of messages, products, and financial transactions. The postal service and delivery service differentiates from general freight operations, as they focus on small and medium shipments and services. Sector-specific assets include large-volume automated processing facilities, local delivery units, a large number, and a wide range of collection, acceptance, and distribution operations. In addition, these include postal vehicles and information and communication networks. The category of transport systems covers all transport methods (Lu et al., 2019). It is an extensive, open, interdependent network system that moves millions of passengers and millions of goods every year. The last sector is water, which includes drinking water and water pipes (Forzieri et al., 2018). Therefore, each sector is considered to be critical infrastructure element, which requires the highest level of protection.

Key Issues

The key problems of critical sectors, industries, and their infrastructures are the exclusive and increasing dependence of all sectors and industries on information and communication systems, which, accordingly, require special protection. In addition, this is the manifestation of a significant part of the critical infrastructure facilities of critical sectors and industries in private ownership or operational management, the need for specific regulation and protection tools. It is important to understand that only the institutionalization of effective mechanisms of interaction between the state and the private sector can guarantee the security of critical areas and industries with their critical infrastructures for many years to come. The list of potential threats includes physical threats of destruction or damage, cyber threats with their various varieties, depending on the purpose of the alleged intervention, the risk of the Internet as a basic communication platform (Lewis, 2020). It also involves threats of interference in the tactical actions of the US armed forces when they conduct an information war as part of specific military operations.

Therefore, it is important to improve state regulation of critical infrastructure facilities and ensure that they are protected from the point of view of US national security interests. Critical infrastructure is a complex of interconnected networks and systems consisting of identified industries, management structures and distribution capacities that ensure the reliable flow of products and services vital to the protection and economic security of the United States, and the smooth functioning of the government at all levels and society as a whole. It is necessary to point out the increasing interdependence of the infrastructures of various critical sectors and industries and determine the interdependence factor as a separate element that requires special attention from the point of view of ensuring the interests of US national security.

It is necessary to present not only clearly reasoned conclusions about potential threats to US critical infrastructure but also to present detailed proposals for each sector to ensure adequate protection of these critical infrastructure facilities, accompanied by a list of specific measures. In general, the toolkit of the approach involves institutionalizing the key role of the federal government as a regulator of the status of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure. It also consists of the creation of mechanisms for continuous multifactorial interaction between government bodies and the private sector, in whose ownership or operational management are critical infrastructure facilities (Lewis, 2020). In addition, it is important to create the necessary institutions to ensure interaction between all federal government bodies responsible for both national platforms for providing national security of critical infrastructure and sectoral and industrial spheres.

Implications

The overall implications of the critical infrastructure protection across all sectors can be observed in current response measures of the United States. An important component is the provision of immediate response measures to the destruction or damage of critical infrastructure or part of it that has already occurred. It is necessary to create a fairly coherent concept of a system of federal bodies that can provide adequate protection for critical sectors, industries, and infrastructure in the context of ensuring US national security. However, it is also mandatory to immediately assess the nature and degree of danger of an emergency that has already arisen, regardless of its constitution, and, accordingly, take all necessary and sufficient measures to minimize its possible negative consequences. General recommendations are needed on the nature of regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, specific proposals for each category and industry. They should contain separate sections on the algorithm for the practical implementation of such, including, including highly detailed projects.

The Presidential Decision Directive 63 “Critical Infrastructure Protection” is a milestone of particular importance in the evolution of the critical infrastructure security concept and the development of critical infrastructure management tools. It contains a clearly formatted concept for managing critical infrastructures across sectors and industries. For example, Directive 62, along with provisions defining the tasks of a number of government agencies to protect the United States from terrorist threats, contains a separate regulation on the importance of minimizing the risks of possible attacks on critical infrastructure and cyber systems and developing all necessary measures to prevent attacks of any type on these objects and frameworks, and the quick and effective elimination of possible such effects (Hemme, 2015). The second part of the goal-setting is essential for understanding the new multi-component task of the regulator, recognizing the possibility of destruction of critical infrastructure.

Directive automatically dictates the need to expand the spectrum of regulatory impact, which should now include properly structured systems for assessing the nature and degree of danger of the threat, a warning system, as well as measures to restore the resilience of critical infrastructure and other necessary actions dictated by the regulatory protocols. The most important part of Directive 63 has become the definitions determining the departments and persons responsible for ensuring the protection of critical infrastructure, which is defined as the key objective (Hemme, 2015). It was in this document that new solutions were proposed for the structural configuration of the institutional platforms needed to protect critical infrastructure.

Thus, on the basis of Directive 63, the National Infrastructure Protection Center is created in the status of the FBI unit, whose tasks were to ensure the protection of computer and information systems that are critical for US infrastructure. In addition, the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office is formed in the Ministry of Commerce system, which is responsible for coordinating critical infrastructure security for critical sectors (Hemme, 2015). To ensure close interaction and cooperation with representatives of the private sector, which owned or managed critical infrastructure, the Information Sharing, and Analysis Center and the National Infrastructure Assurance Council were formed (Viira, 2018). The given measures ensured the multi-vector approach on conducting effective critical infrastructure protection.

Conclusion

In conclusion, interdependence is the main test for risk management in the theory of critical infrastructures due to the fact that the economy and society rely on the interconnectedness and interconnection of infrastructure subsystems. Its essence is that one destruction can be the cause of others that take place inside the processes and systems connected in the infrastructure. Due to this concept of addressing all threats, the protection of critical infrastructures involves the involvement of a wide range of different agencies and institutions, including government agencies at various levels and international organizations. Private CI operators are also an important part of protecting critical infrastructures.

References

Alcaraz, C., & Zeadally, S. (2015). Critical infrastructure protection: Requirements and challenges for the 21st century. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 8, 53-66.

Baggett, R. K., & Simpkins, B. K. (2018). Homeland security and critical infrastructure protection. Praeger.

Choi, J., Deshmukh, A., & Hastak, M. (2016). Increase in stress on infrastructure facilities due to natural disasters. International Journal of Urban Sciences, 20(1), 77-89.

Forzieri, G., Bianchi, A., Silva, F. B. E, Marin Herrera, M. A., Leblois, A., Lavalle, C., Aerts, J. C. J. H., & Feyen, L. (2018). Escalating impacts of climate extremes on critical infrastructures in Europe. Global Environmental Change, 48, 97-107.

Freeman, J., & Hancock, L. (2016). Energy and communication infrastructure for disaster resilience in rural and regional Australia. Regional Studies, 51(6), 933-944.

Hemme, K. (2015). Critical infrastructure protection: Maintenance is national security. Journal of Strategic Security, 8(3), 25-39.

Karagiannis, G., Chondrogiannis, S., Krausmann, E., & Turksezer, Z. (2017). Power grid recovery after natural hazard impact. European Commision. Web.

Lewis, T. G. (2020). Critical infrastructure protection in homeland security: Defending a networked nation. Wiley.

Lu, H., Chen, M., & Kuang, W. (2019). The impacts of abnormal weather and natural disasters on transport and strategies for enhancing ability for disaster prevention and mitigation. Transport Policy, 1-16.

Viira, T. (2018). Lessons learned: Critical information infrastructure protection: How to protect critical information infrastructure. IT Governance Publishing.

Public rail and road networks play a significant role in supporting economic development and transforming citizens’ lives. In the United States, the relevant agencies and departments continue to ignore the realities associated with the nation’s aging infrastructure system. This paper relies on the information presented in the video “The Race to Rebuild America’s Infrastructure” to analyze the issues surrounding this problem. It also provides evidence-based strategies for addressing the challenge and meeting citizens’ needs.

Personal Thoughts

The present situation is quite disappointing since the agencies supposed to review and rebuild this country’s infrastructure have failed to act swiftly. This delay has triggered numerous threats, such as increased costs of maintenance, reduced security, and health risks. Members of the community will eventually be unable to achieve their economic gains and lead poor lives (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). I think that the issue requires the coordination and involvement of all the relevant stakeholders to prioritize specific areas, offer timely decisions, and allocate adequate funds to support the delivery of positive results. The involved stakeholders need to examine all emerging problems and repair the country’s infrastructure systems to continue sustaining economic development.

Possible Consequences

The deteriorating American public infrastructure system is capable of triggering various consequences that have the potential to affect the lives of many citizens. For instance, bridges and roads in poor conditions damage tires and moving parts, thereby increasing repair costs. Individuals will take longer to travel from point A to B while using more funds to meet their gas needs (Mills, 2012). Damaged roads will increase the risk for accidents and make it harder for emergency responders to achieve their aims. Dilapidated infrastructure systems will also affect access to electricity, transportation services, and water. The end result is that more people will be compelled to pay increased costs for most of the available utilities (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). The government, citizens, and other agencies will incur additional expenses for vehicle repairs and living standards. Finally, the country will be unable to coordinate most of the initiatives intended to promote the level of security.

Actions to Address the Issue

The problem of financial resources explains the government has taken long to construct and improve the United States’ public infrastructure. A new strategy is needed to allow different agencies and stakeholders to cooperate and deliver new systems that can meet the demands of the greatest majority. Due to the financial challenges involved, the relevant departments can identify appropriate sources of resources, such as lenders and investors (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). Such partners will offer the required capital investment and allow the agencies to repay within the stipulated period. Financial institutions, corporations, and private citizens are capable of providing such support to change the situation. Bonds issuers and capital market funders can ensure that positive results are recorded without increasing the country’s domestic debt above the 20 percent mark (Lee et al., 2013). The government will then oversee the construction of advanced infrastructure systems to support the social and economic goals of more citizens for the next five decades.

Conclusion

The above discussion has indicated that the American public infrastructure system is deteriorating. This predicament exposes many people to a wide range of problems, including poor health outcomes, safety concerns, security issues, and elevated repair costs. The consideration of effective actions will address this problem and make it easier for more people to lead high-quality lives.

References

American Society of Civil Engineers. (2017).2017: Infrastructure report card: A comprehensive assessment of America’s infrastructure (PDF document). Web.

Lee, R. D., Johnson, R. W., Joyce, P. G. (2013). Public budgeting systems (9^th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Mills, A. (2012). The race to rebuild America’s infrastructure [Video]. Web.

Introduction

It is important to note that critical infrastructure is a set of functional units and organizations, which are essential for the proper function of an inhabited region or state. One of such branches of critical infrastructure is the emergency services sector, which plays a vital role in ensuring that many emergency situations are properly and promptly responded to under all conditions. The given analysis will primarily focus on providing key information about the role, need, and importance of the emergency service sector of critical infrastructure. The main emphasis will be put on the fact that the emergency service sector plays a vital role in critical infrastructure.

Why Was the Emergency Service Sector Created?

Prevention

The core objective of emergency service units is to ensure that the vast majority of societal problems, such as crime or acute medical complication, is responded to with the intention of preventing the further worsening of the situation. The emergency services sector is comprised of “organizations and individuals, equipment and technology, deployed to save lives and property through prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts” (Bryan, 2017, para. 3).

The preventative element in the emergency service sector is of paramount importance since such an approach is the most effective and least costly compared to other functional aspects. In other words, preliminary interventions are the most desired in terms of yielding the highest degree of positive outcomes. For example, preventing the occurrence of a crime, such as murder or theft, is more appealing than dealing with the consequences of such activities since only one entity is required to do so rather than involving other parties.

Preparedness

Another highly critical functional element of the emergency service sector is preparedness for potential threats and emergency situations. Being well-equipped and prepared for possible and sometimes inevitable emergencies can make a substantial difference in minimizing the amount of damage and negative outcome. The given sector is designed to be ready for dangerous occurrences with an emphasis on eliminating the source of these threats both promptly and timely as well as with minimal casualties.

The factor of preparedness requires sustenance and maintenance of key structural elements for a response, which, in turn, need constant support with resources and the workforce. Therefore, a high degree of preparedness mandates the use of all instruments available to train the emergency services sector personnel during non-emergency situations, which also requires a significant level of investment.

Response

The response is the most critical part of the functional chain of the emergency services sector since effective measures require timely arrival at the point of interest and elimination of the threat. It can be considered impossible to fully prevent any potential emergencies, which is why response operations need to be executed with a high degree of competence and professional effectiveness. For instance, fire departments’ response speed makes a difference between minor property damages and lives lost.

Without a properly developed and maintained infrastructure, the emergency services sector units cannot ensure timely arrival and threat elimination (Radvanovsky & McDougall, 2019). Although some units or departments put a greater deal of emphasis on either preparedness or prevention, a response is inevitably the core functional element of the given sector of interest.

Recovery

It is important to note that since emergencies and related damages are unavoidable, recovery plays a critical role in the functional chain of operations of the emergency services sector units. Minimizing the impact of such situations means that one has to prioritize certain factors over others in order to deliberately and precisely save them, such as human lives and essential property. It should be noted that the element of recovery is comprised of a wide range of multifaceted activities designed to manage stabilization efforts and restore key functions of a community. In most cases, the given phase takes place right after the immediate risk to human life is removed from the situation, where the efforts are redirected to other crucial objectives, such as property.

The Five Distinct Disciplines That Make Up the Emergency Services

It is important to understand that the emergencies services sector is comprised of several key functional units, where each one has a specific goal and focuses on a particular threat. It is stated that it is “the Nation’s first line of defense in the prevention and mitigation of risk from both intentional and unintentional manmade incidents, as well as from natural disasters” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 1). In other words, its functionality is reliant on professionals, facilities, and equipment. There are five distinct disciplines of the emergency services sector, which are law enforcement, fire and rescue services, public works, emergency management, and emergency medical services.

Law Enforcement

In accordance with an official source, law enforcement can be defined as “individuals and agencies responsible for enforcing laws and maintaining public order and public safety. LE includes the prevention, detection, and investigation of crimes and the apprehension and detention of individuals suspected of law violation” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 3). In other words, law enforcement is an essential branch of the emergency services sector, which preserves order and law through a series of critical measures.

In the case of the specificities of law enforcement, it is important to understand its functional elements and structure. There are three main categories, which are federal law enforcement agencies, state or territorial law enforcement agencies, and private security sector companies (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017). The vast majority of full-time law enforcement officers in federal agencies are employed by either the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Justice, where approximately 95% operate within the executive branch of the United States government (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017).

State law enforcement agencies employ eight times more officers, which is around 850000 (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017). However, the private security sector employs the highest number of an employee of the law enforcement branch of the emergencies service sector.

Fire and Rescue

Another important branch of the emergency services sector is fire and rescue services. It is defined as “any organization in any State consisting of personnel, apparatus, and equipment which has as its purpose protecting property and maintaining the safety and welfare of the public from the dangers of fire” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 2). The overall personnel size is around 1 million, and there are 50000 fire stations in total in the United States (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017). The specialized services delivered by fire departments include fire inspection, ambulance transport, advanced and basic life support, fireboat, aviation, public education, and others.

Emergency Management

In the case of emergency management discipline of the emergency services sector, it is responsible for “creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 7). In other words, the functions can involve managing specialized programs, ensuring mitigation, and coordinating response measures. There are almost 10000 emergency management directors in total in the United States, who are mostly employed by the local governments (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017).

The groups within this category are fusion centers, national guard, public safety answering points, hazardous materials response units, public safety dive teams, public safety bomb disposal teams, search and rescue units, and tactical teams (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017). The given branch of the sector focuses on a wide range of threats, unlike other ones.

Public Works

In regards to public works discipline, it is defined as “the combination of physical assets, management practices, policies, and personnel necessary for government to provide and sustain structures and services essential to the welfare and acceptable quality of life for its citizens” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 6). Therefore, public works are comprised of units with the goal of ensuring the safety and security of areas, such as transportation, utility systems, public facilities, drainage and flood control systems, and communication facilities (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017). It is a critical part of emergency response efforts and related planning.

Emergency Medical Services

Lastly, emergency medical services play a vital role as one of the five core disciplines of the emergency services sector. It is defined as “a system of coordinated response, involving multiple people and agencies that provide prehospital emergency medical care” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2017, p. 5). In order to effectively perform these functions, it deploys paramedics, advanced emergency medical technicians or AEMTs, and emergency medical responders or EMRs.

Emergency Service Sector Plan

Research Process

It should be noted that the emergency services sector has a sector-specific plan comprised of goals and priorities, risk management preparedness, and measurement effectiveness, and overviews. In the case of the research process, it is stated that “R&D plays a critical role in enabling homeland security partners to develop knowledge and technologies that more

effectively reduce risk to the ESS. New and innovative technologies are required in order to maintain a strategic position in preventing and mitigating the potential effects of current and future dangers” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2015, p. 22). In other words, the key emphasis is made on ensuring the overall effectiveness of risk reduction and elimination, which is of paramount importance since it is a top priority objective of the research process of the emergency services sector’s operations. In addition, the research can improve the preventative aspect of emergency management by identified vulnerabilities and threats.

Analysis Process

Although research is critical due to its focus on new opportunities at risk reduction, the analytical aspect of emergency management is equally relevant. It is stated that “the risk assessment is the cornerstone of the risk management framework, and the ESS utilizes a variety of assessment methodologies to implement the framework” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2015, p. 22). In other words, assessments enable timely and prompt identification of potential dangers and sources of risks. In order to properly conduct such functions, the agencies utilize a wide range of tools, which need to follow strict guidelines. Risk assessment measures need to be defensible, reproducible, and documented, which makes the key factors logically integrated, well-synthesized, and the impact of subjective judgments minimized.

Response and Recovery

Resource Allocation

In order to function effectively, the emergency services sector needs to be prepared and ready to respond to emergency situations. Such a state is achieved by resource allocation, which is manifested in the constant use of resources in the form of full-time employment, equipment upgrades, facility maintenances, and other expenditures. The resources are reallocated in accordance with the key priorities, such as recovery and reconstitution, protection and prevention, situational awareness, and partnership engagement (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2015). It should be noted that the majority of agencies and departments of the emergency services sector are funded by the local and federal governments. However, the branch of the private security field is primarily reliant on the organization’s internal resources.

Risk Management

The current functional framework of the emergencies services sector emphasizes risk management. In accordance with official documents, the risk is defined as “s the potential for an adverse outcome from an event, determined by the event’s likelihood—a function of the specific threats and vulnerabilities—and associated consequences if the event occurs” (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2015, p 20).

Therefore, risk management is conducted with four efforts, such as information sharing, integration of risk management activities, analysis and assessment of risks, and infrastructure identification (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2015). All these areas of approaches enable a comprehensive risk management operation, which directly reduces or eliminates potential threats and dangers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the emergency service sector plays a vital role in critical infrastructure. It is important to understand that the emergency services sector operates with four phases in mind, which are prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. In addition, there are five essential disciplines or branches of the given sector, which include public works, law enforcement, emergency medical services, fire and rescue services, and emergency management.

Each category covers a specific set of risks, which enables a more direct and precise response. The emergency services sector plan is a comprehensive document, which prioritizes research and analysis as key functional elements of all units since they are designed to effectively reduce the rate of emergency situations.

References

Bryan, W. N. (2017). Critical infrastructure: Focus on emergency services. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Web.

Radvanovsky, R. S., & McDougall, A. (2019). Critical infrastructure. CRC Press.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2015). Emergency services sector-specific plan. Web.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2017). Emergency services sector profile. Web.

In general, the national infrastructure sector includes various systems, facilities, cites, networks, processes, information, and people that provide the country’s functioning. At the same time, there are the national infrastructure’s parts that may be regarded as critical – in other words, without them, functioning will be substantially limited or even discontinued. Thus, critical national infrastructure (CNI) refers to systems, networks, facilities, and cites that ensure the provision of critical services essential for citizens, such as water supply, energy, transportation, telecommunication, and finance. Moreover, CNI includes systems, buildings, and networks that are not involved in the maintenance of these services, however, their disruption may lead to serious negative consequences for national security and the state’s functioning. For this paper, two assets are chosen from transportation infrastructure – Mussafah Bridge and Sheikh Zayed Bridge. In particular, the work addresses assets’ profiles in order to justify their belonging to CNI and identifies potential threats and hazards that may cause their disruption.

CNI Assets Profile

Mussafah Bridge is one of the main bridges of Abu Dhabi, located in Al Khaleej Al Arabi

Street that connects the island and mainland parts of the city from the south. The bridge has ten lanes, five on each side, and modern infrastructure, such as the improved system of lightning for public safety and the meeting of aesthetic standards (Karimi, 2021). Another bridge with the same functions is Sheikh Zayed Bridge, constructed in 2003-2010 by prominent architect Zaha Hadid (“Zaha Hadid and the world’s most intricately designed bridge,” 2020). Characterized by an unusual and futuristic design, a 64-meter-high and 842-meter-long bridge with eight lanes located in Al Salam Street is currently regarded as the city’s international symbol.

Both assets may be regarded as critical; in addition, both of them belong to national infrastructure and contribute to the community services’ functioning. First of all, both of these constructions connect the island and mainland parts of Abu Dhabi, such as Al Raha, Khalifa City, Bain Al Jessrain, and multiple industrial suburbs, carrying the main streets of the city. Along with the Maqta Bridge, Mussafah Bridge was Abu Dhabi’s first bridge, and without it, transportation within the city and the connection of its part with other areas of the country would be impossible. In turn, Sheikh Zayed Bridge aims to facilitate city transportation allowing “16,000 vehicles to pass per hour, cutting travel time by 15 minutes from the international airport to downtown Abu Dhabi” (“Zaha Hadid and the world’s most intricately designed bridge,” 2020, para. 10). In addition, the national importance of these facilities is determined by the fact that Abu Dhabi is the capital of the United Arab Emirates, the main city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and the Abu Dhabi Metropolitan Area’s center. In this case, by providing public, commercial, and industrial transportation, both bridges contribute not only to the city’s well-being but to the whole country’s economic development and society’s welfare.

Threats and Hazards Identification

Due to its strategic importance, CNI assets may be targeted by terrorists, cyber criminals, and hostile states for espionage, disruption, and political, economic, financial, commercial, or military gain. In addition, there are natural disasters, such as severe storms, winds, and flooding, that may impact the daily functioning of CNI and lead to its disruption as well (Cabinet Office, 2017). Finally, there are social factors, including societal pressure, social unrest, staff absence, and public disorder, caused by political and economic challenges that may cause assets’ reduced capacity and temporary closures.

For bridges as CNI assets, all potential hazards may be divided into construction-related and exploitation-related threats. Thus, in the construction stage, hazards include poor quality of work, structural failure, unprofessional design, and the theft of materials that may cause destruction in the future. In turn, the exploitation-related period may be complicated by natural disasters and severe social instability. For Mussafah Bridge and Sheikh Zayed Bridge, the main threats are predominantly environmental. For instance, Sheikh Zayed Bridge “was designed to withstand temperatures from 0 to 60 degrees Celsius (32 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit), gusts of wind up to 160 km/h (99 mph), and strong earthquakes” (“Zaha Hadid and the world’s most intricately designed bridge,” 2020, para. 7). Moreover, the possibility of the destruction of bridges due to terrorist attacks cannot be excluded as well.

At the same time, it is possible to say that other CNIs and the country’s almost all communities will be affected by the disruption of these assets. First of all, they ensure the transportation of people, materials, and sources to other critical infrastructure facilities. In addition, in the case of these bridges’ limited capacity, the exploitation of other bridges will increase along with the limitation of urban transportation’s efficiency, which may lead to social tension.

Assets Critical Infrastructure Information (CII)

As previously mentioned, the manmade disruption of bridges may occur as a result of a terrorist attack. This possibility is justified by the city’s location in the Middle East, characterized by substantial terrorist activity. The first type of CII terrorists may use for these assets’ disruption is their technological characteristics. In other words, knowing the sizes of construction parts, perpetrators may evaluate the most appropriate place for the explosion that will lead to as massive destruction as possible. Another type of information that may be used is related to assets’ capacity. Thus, knowing when bridges are occupied by vehicles during the day allows terrorists to calculate to most suitable time to increase the number of victims.

References

Cabinet Office. (2017). Public summary of sector security and resilience plans [PDF document]. Web.

Karimi, J. (2021). New lighting system for Mussafah Bridge in Abu Dhabi. LinkedIn. Web.

Zaha Hadid and the world’s most intricately designed bridge. (2020). Web.