Category: Infrastructure

Introduction

The lab referred to as the second network infrastructure lab lays its focus on the concept of a router, and more so, on its basic configuration. This lab aims at comprehending the concepts of Ethernet ports and serial around the router. It is said to cover areas such as file sharing, which is done via File Transfer Protocol and the Trivial File Transfer Protocol, the Telnet and also the Cisco Discovery Protocol.

The Registered Jack

The Registered Jack  45 (RJ-45) is the UTP Ethernet network cable that is mainly recommended to connect a personal computer with the aid of the console. Its features are telephone-like and hold up to eight wires hence making its wire connector wider than any other Ethernet connectors. This has made it the most suitable cable for connecting the PC to a local area network (LAN) because of its high speed in the connection. This cable has been recommended and favored over the other connectors due to its strong network that guarantees a strong connection to the success of the communication for the appropriate sockets.

Its maintenance is also lower compared to other cables as it is smaller with sufficient power. Its connectivity is also not limited as it has both male and female connectors. The connection is said to increase when other cables have been connected resulting in voltage area and a current that is relatively low. Recent research has indicated that the RJ-45 registered jack is commonly used in telecommunications firms hence being termed as the ever-present Ethernet connector. RJ-45 is, therefore, a vital part of the Ethernet and failure to integrate it in the connection can cause some adverse consequences. It can result to failure of PCs connection due to lack of the hard-line required to make the connection complete.

HyperTerminal

The functionality of the terminal evaluation and communication relies on a program known as HyperTerminal. The program uses the Windows 98 version and is offered as part of Microsoft operating systems enabling the usage of resources of any other PC by creating a link between the operating systems. HyperTerminal program has been defined as an application used to connect a computer to Telnet sites, online services, servers and bulletin board systems (remote systems).

The program has been configured to institute a console connection using a router. After connecting the consoler cable to the modem or router on the adjacent end of the terminal, one then connects the RJ-45 console serial cable to the terminal. Once the connection has been done, a Run option is selected from the start menu of the windows and in the run dialog box, the word hypertrm.exe is typed and click the enter button.

The HyperTerminal loads and its splash screen will appear. The program uses some router modes which include the Privileged Mode, Specific Configuration Mode, the Global Configuration Mode and the User Exec Mode. Some modes require one to have a password while some dont. The User Exec or the Privileged Modes password is set either during the router initial configuration or at a later stage. The Global Configuration Mode which configures the access lists, routing protocols and the interface further does not require any password to access. It is entered in the Privileged Mode.

Interface serial

Interface serial shows details such as line protocol, encapsulation, serial 0 and the internet address are highlighted in the command show.

• EXEC mode  Upon the establishment of a connection by the router, this basic EXEC mode is applied. The EXEC mode has been set as a default in the router once it connects to the computer.
• Privileged mode  it uses the enable command. It also has the capability of executing all the show commands from its mode.
• Global configuration mode  it uses the configure terminal command or the config t command. It has been established to achieve the highest level of access to the router during configuration.
• Ensures that the interface hardware is presently active.
• It further points out the hardware type in use.
• It determines the Internet address and subnet mask.

Ethernet 0

The line protocol, internet address, ARP type, encapsulation and the Queuing Strategy helps to display detailed information of the command show interface fast Ethernet 0.

• Helps the interface to achieve Maximum Transmission Unit.
• The interfaces bandwidth in kilobits is calculated per second.
• The delay of the interface is calculated by microseconds.

Routing

Routing helps to acquire information about neighboring network devices. Routing is defined as a means of choosing network paths used to send network traffics. Use of packet switching technology enables routing in electronic data. The passage process of the logical addresses packets which begin from the source to the last stage through the intermediate node is aided by certain devices. These devices include bridges, firewalls, gateways, switches and routers. Computers can also be used in the transition stage even though they are meant for general purposes. This leads to their performance being limited because they are not specialized.

The routing tables are used to store routes records and information forwarded in routing to be used for a range of network destinations. Information about neighboring devices can therefore be gotten through Routing. During routing, one does not regard its memory as the routing tables are stored here and thus acts as a very vital determinant to achieve efficient routing. One can choose to use algorithms on routing if its a single network path at a time and if there are many paths being used, a multipath is preferred. The basic step is therefore to point out the most appropriate path to be used as this is not an easy task.

Use of Metrics as a means to determine and assess the path to be used has highly been recommended and is commonly used. A metric is a tool used as a standard measure to determine optimal paths during routing. The data of the route relies on the type of the routing algorithms that has been chosen. The routing algorithms therefore play a key role as it initializes the routing tables. Routers are in constant communication with each other and use various messages to preserve the routing tables. The communication between the routers include analyzing updates from other routers, the ability to put up a detailed picture on a network typology and sending notifications to each other regarding the condition of the sender link.

A Telnet network

A Telnet network plays a key role as it serves as a connector to remote computers, also known as hosts, over a TCP/IP networks. To be able to connect to a telnet server such as a remote host, one nee to use a software called the telnet client software. The client automatically becomes an embedded terminal when the client connects to the remote host. The client is able to get contact with the computer remote host after this connection.

Operating systems such as Windows 95, 2000 and XP have in most cases in built telnet clients commands as telnet clients are present in most of the operating systems. The process protocol of incorporating the telnet clients in the command lines of the operating systems requires the particular command lines and then one enters the telnet host. The remote computer then replaces the telnet host that one want to be connected with.

To have access to a distant computer by following the terminal of a remote computer, one requires to follow the specific provided network protocol. The protocol enables the distant computer to function online by use of an interface which, is taken to be part of the local system of the user. Telnet has been preferred for various reasons, the key reason being that it does not limit one when logging as a regular user of the computer to view all the programs and data that has been installed and stored respectively. The protocol used is also important as it can be applied in technical support usage.

Telnet works in a simple manner. It uses software, also known as the telnet client which has already been installed in the computer and creates a link with a distant computer. The telnet client uses a command to send a request to the remote host which in turn replies by asking one to type a username and a password. If the request is accepted by the remote host, then the client connects with the host making the computer in use a virtual terminal. This allows one to have a full access to the hosts computer. It has been argued that with the command of the password and username, one needs to have a set up account on the distant host before sending a request. In some instances, the computers which have been installed with Telnet may allow restricted access by guests.

The Trivial File Transfer Protocol

The transfer of files with functions such as those of FTP basic for (TFTP SERVER, 2008) uses the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). The Trivial File Transfer Protocol requires a very minimal memory to be implemented and very vital when using computers that lacks any storage devices when booting its routers. When transferring minimal amounts of data or information, the transfer protocol is mostly preferred. The information is transferred between the operating system images or the IP Phone firmware and other network hosts.

The Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also used when loading a basic kernel during the initial stages of installation of various installation systems that depends on the network. The communication process in this protocol relies on port 69 and the protocol is unable to list content directory as it does not possess the encryption mechanisms of authentication.

The mail, netascii and the octet are the transfer modes supported by this protocol. The mail transfer mode has been considered obsolete and is hardly used. On the other hand, the netascii and the octet match up to the ASCI and also the image modes. This protocol lacks privacy and its security is wanting. It is not advisable to use it over open internet network but rather on private local networks. The size of the file is not limited when the server and the client are in favor of the block number wrap around. The UDP is hence used by the protocol when supplying its own session support and transport. The Trivial File Transfer Protocol can be able to access the remote server to be able to read and write files from the server.

The Trivial File Transfer Protocol however has its disadvantages. One of the disadvantages is that it does not have a direct visibility and validation. This acts as a hindrance when accessing the available files and directories.

Router configuration files by use of restore users are managed by theTrivial File Transfer Protocol. The files are very important incase the router or the switch fails completely. Back up of configuration data is very important when one needs to refer to them in future or even for purposes of documentation. This process of configuration requires one to copy the router configuration by using a copy of running-config TFTP or the copy startup-config command to a TFTP server so as to restore the configurations. The router configuration therefore running in the DRAM and configuration kept in the NVRAM is backed up by the process. The running-config command verifies the existing configuration in DRAM. After the existing configuration in DRAM has been verified, then it is copied to the NVRAM. Finally, it is copied to a TFTP server.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the lab is used to understand how to deal with Ethernet Ports and familiarizing oneself with Cisco Discovery Protocol. In addition, the router configuration has been made easy with the use of network lab.

Introduction

Hydrocarbons have come to be the most common type of fuel, used in machines throughout the past century. Most machines have been designed to use the most efficient, and easy-to-get fuels available. On the same note, these hydrocarbons are also useful in domestic uses which include cooking.

Hydrocarbons have been the most preferred source of fuel, because of their availability, minimal effects to the environment, and safety associated with using them. Nowadays, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is preferred because of its chemical and physical properties, to other hydrocarbon fuels.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Chemical and Physical Properties

Liquefied natural gas is generally a colorless and odorless gas, which is changed into liquid form for easy transportation and use. However, in order to detect gas leaks, an odor substance is added at some point, when liquefying the gas. This ensures that any leakage can be detected easily through smelling (Tusian and Gordon 87). In addition, liquefied natural gas is not corrosive, is non-flammable as well as non-toxic.

It is important to note that, this type of fuel is a fossil fuel and is composed of hydrogen and carbon compounds; hence it is categorized as a hydrogen carbon fuel. Natural gas is a mixture of various compounds majorly propane, ethane, methane, and butane. Additionally, this type of fuel also contains some impurities and other heavier hydrocarbons including carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and sulphur compounds (Hazlehurst 451).

The boiling point of liquefied natural gas is usually -162^oC, though this depends on the compounds present in the mixture. When burned in sufficient air, liquefied natural gas produces carbon dioxide and water vapor. This is one quality that makes it non-toxic.

On the contrary, if air supply is limited the gas can produce carbon monoxide gas which is toxic. The density of LNG also varies with its components but is usually between 430kg/m³ and 470kg/m³. Its specific density is approximately 0.6 and is thus lighter than air. Liquefied natural gas has a very high ignition temperature, which is around 540^oC thus making it non-flammable, contrary to natural gas which is flammable (Tusian and Gordon 88).

Storage and Mode of Transport

In its liquid form, LNG occupies a very small volume compared to the gaseous status, which makes it economical and cost-effective to store it in a liquid state. Additionally, liquefied natural gas cannot burn without air, making it impossible for combustion to take place in the cylinder (Hazlehurst 37).

Therefore, LNG is commonly transported by way of intermodal tanks. It is important to note that, LNG is safe to use because besides the odor which ensures that any leakage is detected, it is not poisonous and does not produce poisonous products, during combustion.

Hazard scenario

If liquefied natural gas carried in a ship spills, it leads to a state known as localized overpressure. This is due to the fact that its boiling point is far much lower than earthly temperatures, and this causes a physical explosion when the liquid turns spontaneously into a gaseous state. This can be catastrophic at times because the pressure rating of the cargo is low.

Uses

Liquefied natural gas has been put into use, both domestically and commercially. Domestically, LNG is used for cooking as well as lighting while in industries, it is used as a source of heat for various processes (Hazlehurst 469).

Works Cited

Hazlehurst, John. Tolleys Basic Science and Practice of Gas Service. London: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Tusian, Michael, and Gordon Shearer. Lng: A Nontechnical Guide. Tulsa: Penn Well Books, 2007. Print.

Introduction

In ancient Europe, infrastructure was archaic and medieval. They were simple but even with their simplicity, the merchants, the soldiers, and the pilgrims of ancient Europe did use this infrastructure.

An analysis of todays infrastructure to the landscape of Europe shows that Europe has developed from such archaic infrastructure into modernized infrastructure. Thus, elements of todays Europe need to be well studied to well understand the whole aspect of infrastructure about the landscape. It should be understood that linear characteristics or features can be defined in terms of the elements that structure the landscape (Lamy, 2005).

A study of the history of structures in Europe has revealed that structure planning on the European landscape began a long time ago, close to one century. This means that as time has been moving on, the people on the European continent have been thinking of ways to restructure the infrastructure to match time requirements. It further means that they have a greater value in the linear structures such as roads and linkages. Todays infrastructure in Europe is characterized by modern roads and railways. Besides, distinct waterways for marine operations and transportation have developed, with many harbors and docking points developing (Wolfgang et al, 2011).

Todays railway lines are quite modern. The rails make such an important element of the infrastructure on the European landscape. Given that the landscape is partly mountainous, underground railway lines are characteristic of the European landscape. Thus, it means that the technology on the continent is now fully-fledged and its results are more evident in the development of the infrastructure that is not only hi-tech but also breath-taking. Glimpses at the modern roads show a technological skill that is in a class of its own. These roads, as elements of todays European infrastructure, are indeed modern- to suit the mountainous landscape. These landscape infrastructures create a perfect linkage between cities and towns of the European landmass.

Conclusion

It has been noted that the European landscape infrastructure has developed from archaic features as paths into modern infrastructures that are a show of modern technology. It was further realized that the landscape elements and linear features give a linkage between towns and cities, making human activities easier due to the ease with which transportation has become.

Thus, it was stated after a study of the modern European landscape infrastructure that roads, highways, and super-highways, modern railway lines that have underground passages and waterways are the features or elements of todays landscape infrastructure in Europe. These infrastructures have eased many human activities due to the ease with which transportation comes and the linkages created between towns and cities of Europe.

References

DeBlij, J and Muller, P. (2010). Geography  Realms, Regions, and Concepts, 14th edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Lamy, L. (2005). Cognizant  A European Infrastructure Newcomer. Dana: IDC Research.

Wolfgang, B., Bill, M., Chris, A., Connaughton, M & Grannan, M. Market Overview: European IT Infrastructure Outsourcing. Cambridge: Forrester Research Inc.

Introduction

Critical infrastructure vulnerability is a major issue that needs an appropriate level of protection from natural disasters and cyberattacks. The paper will primarily focus on the United States approach to critical infrastructure protection in order to thoroughly understand the essential elements of ensuring nationwide resilience. Both natural disasters and cybercrime are major threats to the critically important units of the US, which is why one needs to comprehend the evolution of the defensive strategies and current methods of minimizing the damage. Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of critical infrastructure units, determine essential sectors, identify key problems, and assess the implications through possible solutions in order to increase the nations resilience to natural disasters.

Critical Units

Background

The concepts of critical sectors, critical industries, and critical infrastructure appeared in the United States at the beginning of the last century and were used most often in the context of the proper organization and functioning of socially significant systems, including roads and channels. Although these concepts have already been widely used by politicians and experts, a unified approach to their definition at that time has not yet developed (Lewis, 2020). Nevertheless, critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure are vital to society. Any problems with them can be dangerous for people who often do not realize the importance of essential sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure.

The vital importance of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure becomes dramatically apparent to the public only during natural and man-made disasters, wars, and terrorist attacks. The most important component of the essence of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure is the fact that they are all in varying degrees of interdependence. Thus, the destruction or partial destruction of one segment, industry, or critical infrastructure leads to an immediate negative impact on the adjacent critical sector, industry, critical infrastructure, or its components.

Moreover, the stability of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure of nation-states is often determined only by internal determinants and instruments of state regulation, but also by external factors that are often outside the linear control of the nation-state. It is important to determine the importance of studying global approaches to the regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure in order to identify the most effective tools for such an impact. The United States, as a state, has traditionally been distinguished by a clear and consistent focus on its national economic and geopolitical interests (Viira, 2018). It has ensured the institutionalization of the most complex system of state regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, which has quite effective mechanisms, successfully adapted in one form or another by a number of other countries.

Regulation

The concept of regulating critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, categorizing infrastructure objects as objects of protection from the point of view of ensuring national security interests has evolved in the United States gradually, gaining its own characteristics and signs determined by decisions based on a number of objective reasons and factors. It is stated that natural disasters can lead to community-wide stress among post-disaster infrastructure, and thus proper regulations need to be integrated (Choi et al., 2016). A procedure was introduced for the creation and operation of a new structure, which is the Presidents Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection. The commission was composed of government officials, including the FBI, the CIA, National Intelligence, the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, the Department of Transportation (Baggett & Simpkins, 2018). These experts from various sectors and industries began to conduct a comprehensive analysis of all sectors and industries that are key to US security.

The main mission was to identify critical infrastructure in the context of analyzing possible threats to national security, identifying political and legal issues related to addressing national security interests. The most important task was to develop the concept of an appropriate comprehensive federal program aimed at creating the proper tools to ensure the protection of critical infrastructure facilities of the relevant sectors and industries with the mapping of all the specific solutions required.

Sectors Involved

Critical Infrastructure (CI) received special attention in connection with changes in the national investment policy of some countries, which in turn plays a large role in various national strategies to protect CI. Many states have plans to safeguard CI, and these plans define critical infrastructure as tangible or intangible assets, the destruction or disruption of which will seriously undermine public safety, order, and disrupt the work of the government. Such harm can be catastrophic and have great consequences. Sources of risks to critical infrastructure can be natural or man-made. Natural disasters include various natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, and others (Alcaraz & Zeadally, 2015). Technological ones are terrorist acts, sabotage, and military operations. In general, a risk management strategy includes measures such as recovery, response, preparedness, and prevention (Baggett & Simpkins, 2018). The policy related to critical infrastructure is trying to coordinate the role of private operators of such infrastructure, whether they are domestic or foreign, in order to protect critical infrastructure, covering a wide range of public interests. However, the role intended by investment policy in protecting critical infrastructure is changing. Many countries attach a minimal or minor role in investment policies (Viira, 2018). All sectors are tightly interconnected, and all this can result in a phenomenon called the cascade effect (Karagiannis et al., 2017). Therefore, there are a number of sectors that are included in the category of CI. The agricultural and food sector includes food, animal and animal products supply chains, crop production and supply chains for grain, fertilizers, and other necessary materials. It also involves everything essential at the stages of processing, production, packaging, storage, and distribution of products.

Furthermore, the Banking and Finance sector includes institutions involved in the provision of goods and services such as deposits, consumer loans and payment systems, credit and liquidity products, investment products, and transfer risk products, including insurance. The chemistry sector can be divided into five segments based on the final outcome of production. These are basic chemicals, specialty chemicals, agricultural chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and consumer products. The commercial property sector consists of eight segments, such as crowded facilities, sports leagues, housing, open-air events, entertainment and media, real estate, and retail locations. The communication sector includes such physical property as, for example, wire lines, wireless, satellite, cable infrastructure, as well as services such as the Internet, information services, and cable television networks. This particular categorys level of development can significantly mitigate the overall damage from natural disasters (Freeman & Hancock, 2016).

The critical manufacturing category includes manufacturers who design, manufacture, and distribute products not covered by other sectors. These are the initial metals, mechanical engineering, electrical equipment, and transport equipment, including aerospace engineering. Dams category is a sector that covers the assets, systems, networks, and functions associated with dike projects, navigation locks, storm surge barriers, reservoirs, or other similar means of controlling or containing water flows. This provides a wide range of economic, environmental, and social benefits, including hydropower, river navigation, water supply, wildlife habitat, waste management, flood control, and land reclamation. The defense industry sector is divided into segments that produce weapons systems, platforms, and components. The main sections include missiles, aircraft, space, combat vehicles, ammunition, weapons, information technology, shipbuilding, and electronics. Products include mechanical components and systems, structural and electrical components, and electronics.

Emergency services are a system of feedback and restoration of elements that form the first line of defense of the state and the prevention and mitigation of the consequences of a terrorist attack. This is a sector of trained and trusted personnel, plans, contracts, and covenants that ensure life safety through emergency response services, consisting of federal, regional, local, and private partners. Emergency response disciplines include emergency management, emergency medical services, fire and combat teams, law enforcement, tactical and assault teams, and search and rescue teams.

Energy sector infrastructure is divided into three interconnected segments, such as electricity, oil, and natural gas. It is stated that the given infrastructure can be highly important in reducing the damage from natural disasters (Freeman & Hancock, 2016). The category of state-owned enterprises includes a wide variety of buildings owned or rented by federal, state, provincial, territorial, or local governments located within the country or abroad. Many government enterprises are open to the public for business, business, or entertainment. Others, not open to the public, contain highly relevant information, materials, processes, and equipment. This category includes embassies, courthouses, state laboratories, general-purpose administrative buildings and special military installations, and structures that may contain critical systems, functions, networks, and equipment.

The health sector consists of state and local health departments, health clinics, psychological clinics, nursing homes, hospitals, blood supply services, laboratories, morgues, and pharmaceutical stores (Forzieri et al., 2018). The Information Technology category consists of virtual functions essential for providing IT products and services, including hardware, software, and IT systems. National monuments are a sector that consists of a diverse array of assets located in the country. These include monuments, physical structures, or objects that are recognized as national heritage, Tradition, and value with national cultural, religious, historical, or political significance. They also serve the purpose of perpetuating the memory or representing significant aspects of the national heritage, traditions, or values and serve as places of interest for visitors and educational activities.

The category of nuclear reactors, materials, and waste includes atomic power plants and nuclear reactors used for research, testing, and training. It also involves nuclear materials used for medical, industrial and academic purposes, nuclear fuel, shut down reactors, transportation, storage, and destruction of nuclear materials and waste. The sector of postal services and delivery services daily drives a huge number of messages, products, and financial transactions. The postal service and delivery service differentiates from general freight operations, as they focus on small and medium shipments and services. Sector-specific assets include large-volume automated processing facilities, local delivery units, a large number, and a wide range of collection, acceptance, and distribution operations. In addition, these include postal vehicles and information and communication networks. The category of transport systems covers all transport methods (Lu et al., 2019). It is an extensive, open, interdependent network system that moves millions of passengers and millions of goods every year. The last sector is water, which includes drinking water and water pipes (Forzieri et al., 2018). Therefore, each sector is considered to be critical infrastructure element, which requires the highest level of protection.

Key Issues

The key problems of critical sectors, industries, and their infrastructures are the exclusive and increasing dependence of all sectors and industries on information and communication systems, which, accordingly, require special protection. In addition, this is the manifestation of a significant part of the critical infrastructure facilities of critical sectors and industries in private ownership or operational management, the need for specific regulation and protection tools. It is important to understand that only the institutionalization of effective mechanisms of interaction between the state and the private sector can guarantee the security of critical areas and industries with their critical infrastructures for many years to come. The list of potential threats includes physical threats of destruction or damage, cyber threats with their various varieties, depending on the purpose of the alleged intervention, the risk of the Internet as a basic communication platform (Lewis, 2020). It also involves threats of interference in the tactical actions of the US armed forces when they conduct an information war as part of specific military operations.

Therefore, it is important to improve state regulation of critical infrastructure facilities and ensure that they are protected from the point of view of US national security interests. Critical infrastructure is a complex of interconnected networks and systems consisting of identified industries, management structures and distribution capacities that ensure the reliable flow of products and services vital to the protection and economic security of the United States, and the smooth functioning of the government at all levels and society as a whole. It is necessary to point out the increasing interdependence of the infrastructures of various critical sectors and industries and determine the interdependence factor as a separate element that requires special attention from the point of view of ensuring the interests of US national security.

It is necessary to present not only clearly reasoned conclusions about potential threats to US critical infrastructure but also to present detailed proposals for each sector to ensure adequate protection of these critical infrastructure facilities, accompanied by a list of specific measures. In general, the toolkit of the approach involves institutionalizing the key role of the federal government as a regulator of the status of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure. It also consists of the creation of mechanisms for continuous multifactorial interaction between government bodies and the private sector, in whose ownership or operational management are critical infrastructure facilities (Lewis, 2020). In addition, it is important to create the necessary institutions to ensure interaction between all federal government bodies responsible for both national platforms for providing national security of critical infrastructure and sectoral and industrial spheres.

Implications

The overall implications of the critical infrastructure protection across all sectors can be observed in current response measures of the United States. An important component is the provision of immediate response measures to the destruction or damage of critical infrastructure or part of it that has already occurred. It is necessary to create a fairly coherent concept of a system of federal bodies that can provide adequate protection for critical sectors, industries, and infrastructure in the context of ensuring US national security. However, it is also mandatory to immediately assess the nature and degree of danger of an emergency that has already arisen, regardless of its constitution, and, accordingly, take all necessary and sufficient measures to minimize its possible negative consequences. General recommendations are needed on the nature of regulation of critical sectors, industries, and critical infrastructure, specific proposals for each category and industry. They should contain separate sections on the algorithm for the practical implementation of such, including, including highly detailed projects.

The Presidential Decision Directive 63 Critical Infrastructure Protection is a milestone of particular importance in the evolution of the critical infrastructure security concept and the development of critical infrastructure management tools. It contains a clearly formatted concept for managing critical infrastructures across sectors and industries. For example, Directive 62, along with provisions defining the tasks of a number of government agencies to protect the United States from terrorist threats, contains a separate regulation on the importance of minimizing the risks of possible attacks on critical infrastructure and cyber systems and developing all necessary measures to prevent attacks of any type on these objects and frameworks, and the quick and effective elimination of possible such effects (Hemme, 2015). The second part of the goal-setting is essential for understanding the new multi-component task of the regulator, recognizing the possibility of destruction of critical infrastructure.

Directive automatically dictates the need to expand the spectrum of regulatory impact, which should now include properly structured systems for assessing the nature and degree of danger of the threat, a warning system, as well as measures to restore the resilience of critical infrastructure and other necessary actions dictated by the regulatory protocols. The most important part of Directive 63 has become the definitions determining the departments and persons responsible for ensuring the protection of critical infrastructure, which is defined as the key objective (Hemme, 2015). It was in this document that new solutions were proposed for the structural configuration of the institutional platforms needed to protect critical infrastructure.

Thus, on the basis of Directive 63, the National Infrastructure Protection Center is created in the status of the FBI unit, whose tasks were to ensure the protection of computer and information systems that are critical for US infrastructure. In addition, the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office is formed in the Ministry of Commerce system, which is responsible for coordinating critical infrastructure security for critical sectors (Hemme, 2015). To ensure close interaction and cooperation with representatives of the private sector, which owned or managed critical infrastructure, the Information Sharing, and Analysis Center and the National Infrastructure Assurance Council were formed (Viira, 2018). The given measures ensured the multi-vector approach on conducting effective critical infrastructure protection.

Conclusion

In conclusion, interdependence is the main test for risk management in the theory of critical infrastructures due to the fact that the economy and society rely on the interconnectedness and interconnection of infrastructure subsystems. Its essence is that one destruction can be the cause of others that take place inside the processes and systems connected in the infrastructure. Due to this concept of addressing all threats, the protection of critical infrastructures involves the involvement of a wide range of different agencies and institutions, including government agencies at various levels and international organizations. Private CI operators are also an important part of protecting critical infrastructures.

References

Alcaraz, C., & Zeadally, S. (2015). Critical infrastructure protection: Requirements and challenges for the 21st century. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 8, 53-66.

Baggett, R. K., & Simpkins, B. K. (2018). Homeland security and critical infrastructure protection. Praeger.

Choi, J., Deshmukh, A., & Hastak, M. (2016). Increase in stress on infrastructure facilities due to natural disasters. International Journal of Urban Sciences, 20(1), 77-89.

Forzieri, G., Bianchi, A., Silva, F. B. E, Marin Herrera, M. A., Leblois, A., Lavalle, C., Aerts, J. C. J. H., & Feyen, L. (2018). Escalating impacts of climate extremes on critical infrastructures in Europe. Global Environmental Change, 48, 97-107.

Freeman, J., & Hancock, L. (2016). Energy and communication infrastructure for disaster resilience in rural and regional Australia. Regional Studies, 51(6), 933-944.

Hemme, K. (2015). Critical infrastructure protection: Maintenance is national security. Journal of Strategic Security, 8(3), 25-39.

Karagiannis, G., Chondrogiannis, S., Krausmann, E., & Turksezer, Z. (2017). Power grid recovery after natural hazard impact. European Commision. Web.

Lewis, T. G. (2020). Critical infrastructure protection in homeland security: Defending a networked nation. Wiley.

Lu, H., Chen, M., & Kuang, W. (2019). The impacts of abnormal weather and natural disasters on transport and strategies for enhancing ability for disaster prevention and mitigation. Transport Policy, 1-16.

Viira, T. (2018). Lessons learned: Critical information infrastructure protection: How to protect critical information infrastructure. IT Governance Publishing.

Public rail and road networks play a significant role in supporting economic development and transforming citizens lives. In the United States, the relevant agencies and departments continue to ignore the realities associated with the nations aging infrastructure system. This paper relies on the information presented in the video The Race to Rebuild Americas Infrastructure to analyze the issues surrounding this problem. It also provides evidence-based strategies for addressing the challenge and meeting citizens needs.

Personal Thoughts

The present situation is quite disappointing since the agencies supposed to review and rebuild this countrys infrastructure have failed to act swiftly. This delay has triggered numerous threats, such as increased costs of maintenance, reduced security, and health risks. Members of the community will eventually be unable to achieve their economic gains and lead poor lives (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). I think that the issue requires the coordination and involvement of all the relevant stakeholders to prioritize specific areas, offer timely decisions, and allocate adequate funds to support the delivery of positive results. The involved stakeholders need to examine all emerging problems and repair the countrys infrastructure systems to continue sustaining economic development.

Possible Consequences

The deteriorating American public infrastructure system is capable of triggering various consequences that have the potential to affect the lives of many citizens. For instance, bridges and roads in poor conditions damage tires and moving parts, thereby increasing repair costs. Individuals will take longer to travel from point A to B while using more funds to meet their gas needs (Mills, 2012). Damaged roads will increase the risk for accidents and make it harder for emergency responders to achieve their aims. Dilapidated infrastructure systems will also affect access to electricity, transportation services, and water. The end result is that more people will be compelled to pay increased costs for most of the available utilities (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). The government, citizens, and other agencies will incur additional expenses for vehicle repairs and living standards. Finally, the country will be unable to coordinate most of the initiatives intended to promote the level of security.

Actions to Address the Issue

The problem of financial resources explains the government has taken long to construct and improve the United States public infrastructure. A new strategy is needed to allow different agencies and stakeholders to cooperate and deliver new systems that can meet the demands of the greatest majority. Due to the financial challenges involved, the relevant departments can identify appropriate sources of resources, such as lenders and investors (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017). Such partners will offer the required capital investment and allow the agencies to repay within the stipulated period. Financial institutions, corporations, and private citizens are capable of providing such support to change the situation. Bonds issuers and capital market funders can ensure that positive results are recorded without increasing the countrys domestic debt above the 20 percent mark (Lee et al., 2013). The government will then oversee the construction of advanced infrastructure systems to support the social and economic goals of more citizens for the next five decades.

Conclusion

The above discussion has indicated that the American public infrastructure system is deteriorating. This predicament exposes many people to a wide range of problems, including poor health outcomes, safety concerns, security issues, and elevated repair costs. The consideration of effective actions will address this problem and make it easier for more people to lead high-quality lives.

References

American Society of Civil Engineers. (2017).2017: Infrastructure report card: A comprehensive assessment of Americas infrastructure (PDF document). Web.

Lee, R. D., Johnson, R. W., Joyce, P. G. (2013). Public budgeting systems (9^th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Mills, A. (2012). The race to rebuild Americas infrastructure [Video]. Web.

Book Summary

Authored by Pamela Collins and Ryan Baggett, the book Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection investigates the existing gaps in security systems, the various protection plans, and the projected viable options of ensuring that critical infrastructure of the US is safe and free from any hazard.

In the introductory chapters, precise arguments are made on the background of the US department of homeland security with an in-depth analysis of the process of evolution of the US security infrastructure.

This goal is accomplished through reviewing primary presidential directions in the effort to enhance security and/or maintain intelligence of the security apparatus, legislation, and methodologies of the safety of infrastructural assessment.

The second batch of chapters investigates social infrastructural sectors that have been identified as central to the enhancement of security of the United States. These sectors comprise the critical and essential infrastructure for driving economic and political prosperity of the United States.

Some of the discussed infrastructural elements include banking, agriculture, telecommunication, finance, food, and even transportation (Collins & Baggett, 2009). With a particular focus on the department of homeland security, the authors argue that the main objective or the noble mandate of homeland security is to ensure that infrastructure is free from any act of terrorism.

In this second batch of chapters, the authors also discuss the various methodologies of protection of the cited essential infrastructure.

Some of these methods include deployment of standard systems for enhancing security, maintenance of buffer zones, enhancing of intelligence, fostering information-sharing, partnership between public and the private sector, and putting of mechanisms of continued planning (Collins & Baggett, 2009).

Additionally, in this section of the book, the authors dwell and/or dig deep into the most dangerous and serious security problems that face particular infrastructural components. They also conduct an in-depth analysis of the current procedures of protecting such infrastructural elements. Finally, they offer their recommendation on the ways through which the infrastructure can be protected to guarantee the future security.

In the third section, the authors discuss the principal pillars that make the homeland security. These are recovery, prevention, preparedness, and response. This discussion is made even more relevant upon the discussion of the concepts of hazards and the mechanism of hazard prevention.

According to the authors, security hazards involve all situations or conditions that may put the security of citizens of the United States at risk (Collins & Baggett, 2009).

Thus, prevention measures constitute all activities that are deployed to ensure that the risk of attack does not occur. However, in the event of the occurrence, an appropriate response mechanism is required to restore normalcy in the shortest time possible. Another essential pillar discussed by the authors in details is hazard preparedness.

According to the authors, an effective disaster preparedness program needs to have cyclic ways of planning, organizing, equipping, evaluation training, and testing of disaster preparedness apparatus of the state (Collins & Baggett, 2009). The recovery pillar is based on the need to make decisions for the provision of immediate and urgent help to the affected persons and infrastructure in the event of occurrence of a security hazard.

The effort ensures that all the destroyed infrastructural elements are brought back to normal operation in the event of occurrence of an attack that seeps through the security agents and security intelligence systems. The book then sums up by providing a list of acronyms.

Strength and Weaknesses of the Book

Every scholarly work has its strength and weaknesses. In the realm of the strength of the book, Collins and Baggett provide incredible explanation of the background and historical roots of critical security infrastructure that requires protection together with the designated areas, which may be termed as the essential infrastructure that requires constant surveillance to keep the economy of the United States from being heralded by terrorists.

The book has a significant strength since it provides a comprehensive package for the military and other security agents of the US to develop an adequate understanding and assessment of the various threats that may face critical infrastructure, thus driving the financial, social, and political institutions of the US.

The book brings into details the infrastructure that may be viewed by people as secure and immune to terrorist attacks. This description helps to provide a thorough understanding of the capabilities of terrorists to make life impossible for the Americans.

For instance, the authors argue that water systems, electrical systems, and other installations, which support everyday life of the American citizens are some the most fragile infrastructural elements, which terrorists can capitalize on destroying to create suffering among the US citizens.

Unfortunately, people would only consider security threat an act that only comprises attacks such as the September 11 attacks. In this regard, the book offers an expanded view of critical infrastructure that requires protection.

Collins and Baggett define critical infrastructure as systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets will have a debilitating impact on the security, national economic security, national health or safety, or any combination of those matters (Collins & Baggett, 2009, p.65).

Borrowing from this definition, the authors are able to classify security threats into several categories. These categories can briefly be grouped into three main classes: physical, human, and cyber risks.

Conclusively, the book provides an in-depth analysis of all security threats that lie within the first two categories together with how the US department of homeland security has been responding to them. In case of the group of infrastructure that may be considered physical, the authors provide a comprehensive coverage of the various security issues and challenges affecting the efforts to ensure that such infrastructural elements are secure.

Physical infrastructure here refers to both tangible (products, components, animals, real estates, and facilities) and interminable properties. Through this discussion, a significant weakness of the book emerges since the authors do not give substantial evidence based on the ways of protecting the physical infrastructure considering that more than 85 percent of physical infrastructure is not owned by federal states.

Although the authors point out that protection of physical infrastructure may be enhanced by cooperation between the private sector and the government through the department of homeland security, the roles that the owners of the larger portion of physical infrastructure should play to enhance their security is not given magnificent attention.

Discussion of the roles of technology in enhancing security surveillance is a significant strength of the book.

While the authors explore valid ways in which technology through IT is deployed to increase security intelligence and information sharing within the department of homeland security is crucial, a weakness is introduced since there is no comprehensive discussion of the knowledge bases of the terrorists on the usage of information technology to enhance their terrorist activities.

The world is operating in an environment that is dominated by immense challenges of cyber threats. War against nations is shifting from being conducted on physical battlefields to the global network protocols through acts of cybercrimes such as offensive hacking.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Pamela Collins and Ryan Baggetts book Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection offers important explanations of the efforts and achievements of the US department of homeland security in ensuring that all US citizens remain free from acts of terrorist attacks. They offer a discussion of various infrastructural components that are considered critical and hence requiring adequate protection.

Amid this discussion, some weaknesses of the book have been identified in the paper. It is recommended that the authors consider integrating a detailed analysis of cybercrimes, their impacts on the security and infrastructural systems of the US, and/or how such crimes can be positively identified and/or responded before attacks are successfully implemented.

This recommendation is made in recognition of the fact that, amid technological developments of the United States, enemies are also well educated and constantly looking for loopholes for attacking the US information systems to destruct the capacity of the department of the homeland security to prevent, develop preparedness, and respond to emergency including terrorist attacks.

Opinion

The security of a nation is one of the most important functions of a government. For people who wish to know and gain insights into how national infrastructure can be protected cannot run away from reading Pamela Collins and Ryan Baggetts text Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection.

The book is also valuable to the department of homeland security. It identifies possible areas for improvement to enhance protection of critical infrastructural installations in the US as a primary mandate of the department of the US homeland security.

Reference

Collins, P., & Baggett, R. (2009). Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection. Westport: Praeger Security International.

Lebanon had been experiencing a dynamic economy, enjoying high growth rates, an increased inflow of foreign capital, as well as, a steady increase in the capita income. However, after the civil war, transportation system of Lebanon deteriorated to the extent that it does not comply with Mobility requirements and needs.

The country continues to operate under aging transportation facilities that were severely damaged during the civil war. Therefore, this can be seen as chaotic and unsustainable. This combines with the unusable railway system, an increased number of licensed automobiles, coupled with poor road network.

Road network in Lebanon constitutes primary and secondary roads and highways. The highways are classified according to their role and characteristics of the traffic they serve. An extensive network of roads covering over 4000 miles constituting serves Lebanon. Most roads, particularly within the Beirut area and most remote areas, the transportation system, have remained in a poor condition. An increased number of licensed automobiles have caused congestion in public roads.

In addition, the railway system has remained largely unutilized due to the effects of civil war. Other pubic infrastructures that were affected by the civil war cover the airports, the electrical power supply, and the Telecommunication services that were considerably damaged due to the aftermath of the civil war.

The existing road transportation system lacks a coherent organization of the public, since the public has become over reliant on the use of private cars and underutilized public transport relative to international standards. The public lacks coherent patterns to provide sound and sustainable alternatives to the automobile.

Furthermore, there is an inequitable distribution of the supply of the public transport over the market. Major markets such as Beirut and Tripoli have remained underserved, hence; experience severe competition among road transport operators. The Lebanese railway network began in 1980. However, the public infrastructures have been experiencing conflict in the struggle to provide citizens with an efficient mobility system.

Through history, it is possible to trace the establishment of the railway system that began in late 20th century. The railway system connects prime urban areas, as well as, neighboring countries such as Iraq, Turkey, and Syria. Due to socio-political struggles experienced in most countries in the Middle East, the developments of public utilities have become unimaginable.

The civil war and posttraumatic recovery in Lebanon led to uncertainty to the future of transportation infrastructure. The railway system that began in late 20th century was terminated because of political problems. Initially, the railway line was intended to connect Beirut and Damascus in order to provide Damascus with accessibility to the port. The Beirut Damascus railway line continued operating, and made travel possible from Europe to Africa without changing trains. In addition, the line served as an important means of transportation to people both from the South to North up to Syria.

The aftermath of the Lebanese Civil war led to a considerable damage to the rail network and interfered with the transportation system that gradually ceased. The failure of the rail network causes congestion on roads that led to difficulties in mobility to distant areas. Statistics pertaining to transportation patterns in Lebanon began recently, during the civil war, there were unreliable public transportation system.

Thus, there is a need to upgrade the transportation system by reviving the rail network. Hence, the Lebanese government should do more research on the possibility of reviving the rail network since; it will provide an opportunity to make Beirut affordable and have efficient connections with neighboring cities that are on the Mediterranean and beyond.

The population of Lebanon is unevenly distributed with more than 90% of the Lebanese staying in urban areas. A large majority of the population are concentrated within the coastal areas such as Beirut and Sidon. This uneven distribution of the population has led to regional disparities.

There is mobility of many people into and out of Beirut; however, they experience transportation problems. The government, as well as, transportation experts have made substantial efforts to combat this issue, but have faced many problems including financial constrains to implement the projects. Lebanon experiences a large per capita public debt that has made publicly funded projects not to be possible.

The Lebanese government has made emphasis on privatization to ensure that the damaged public utilities are restored. In addition, the government has made pledges apply proceed of sales in order to minimize public debt and the budget deficit. There have been reforms made towards ensuring that qualified technocrats are involved to address fundamental economic programs, and make reviews on further savings that can be achieved through reforms of the income tax system.

The war made transportation system to be silenced whereas private transportation companies ensured a short term-term solution to the issue. However, private bus and taxi operators suffered due to the monopolization of the bus depots by independent companies. This had contributed to a sectarian struggle that has contributed to the division in Lebanon today.

Lebanese government has spent large sums of money to reconstruct and maintain the roads by paving and improving the road quality. However, the country still experiences inadequate capacity due to budget deficits in the allocation of funds channeled for road construction and maintenance. Economic development has been hugely uneven in Lebanon which has made the government fail in reducing economic and social inequalities in various communities.

However, the President has made efforts to reduce the inequalities by pursuing development projects in various societies, in the north and south that had been traditionally neglected. The status of public infrastructure is poor. There are poor facilities on roads for pedestrian crossing on highways. This is coupled with insufficient public lighting, poor quality road surface, absent road markings, as well as, particularly curvy and small roads. These have contributed to congestion on roads.

Thus, the years of civil war in Lebanon and post-traumatic recovery have contributed to uncertainty for the future of the public transportation system. Three key developments have taken shape in Lebanon. These includes the Cola transport hub, the Charles Helou Bus station, and the Dora transportation hub that have embodied the existing failures and conflicts in Lebanon.

Since Cola and Dora transportation hubs are located underneath populated highway bridges, they operate as productive intersections. The cross roads are used for social interactions and economic growth. Most travelers would move to these hubs remarkably early in the morning to conduct their businesses, while mini-buses and taxis transport commuters between the shores.

The residential areas surrounding the hubs make the roundabouts provide a layered activity. They were removed from statically enforced characteristics of infrastructure thus providing a platform enabling the operation of private transport companies.

In conclusion, Lebanese civil war devastated the economic infrastructure and significantly affected the countrys national output and its ranking in the Middle East. In the post-traumatic years, Lebanon has made substantial improvements undo some of the damages through assistance from both bilateral and multilateral donors by renewing the efforts to bring about sustainable development and economic growth.

Based on the information gathered from this study, it is evident that Lebanese economic developments have been slowed due to poor basic services and public utilities, such as infrastructure, water and power supply, communication. In order to sustain a rebound in economic growth, the government should put a lot of effort in upgrading public utilities especially mainly, transport, communication, water, and power supply.

For example, under an orderly planning and implementation of road maintenance through sufficient budgetary allocations, transportation system can be improved to a pint that decreases production and distribution costs of other economic activities.

In addition, the government should reconcile plans to ensure a substantial increase in infrastructure with the aim of maintaining macro-economic stability, as well as, reducing the countrys net burden. The country should be stable politically, and put in place growth enhancing policies that are necessary to achieve sustainable expansion in economic growth. Furthermore, the government should aim at reducing the high debts that should remain to be a medium term-priority. The thriving financial sector should work under a continued strong supervision and regulation.

Therefore, in order to sustain economic growth, and translate economic expansion into a broader social gain, the government of Lebanon must strengthen public finances, make efforts to upgrade public infrastructure, in order to improve the business environment. These conditions will ensure that Lebanon gains exceptional resilience in the face of financial crisis, as well as, a capacity to rebound and thrive.

Bibliography

Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House, 1992.

Kunstler, H. James. The Geography of Nowhere: the rise and decline of Americas man-made landscape. New York: Free Press, 1994.

Lambeth, S. Benjamin. Air Operations in Israels War Against Hezbollah. New York: Rand Corporation, 2011.

Niasari, Nora. Under the Bridge: The consequences of the Lebanese Civil War in Beiruts public transportation. MAS CONTEXT. Web.

Introduction

Development based on the pursuit of progress to achieve high and clear goals is a meaningful process in any sphere of life. When applied to a society where people communicate and interact with one another constantly, planning changes to improve living standards and expand personal capabilities can lead to effective outcomes. In turn, the absence of any steps towards development is a regression and is fraught with stagnation in views and actions.

Based on the analysis of the post presented by the Editorial Board, the formation and current achievements of the city of Chicago as one of the American megalopolises and important cultural centers will be considered. Experts analyze the position of Daniel Burnham, the famous architect, regarding the development of the city and its historic formation. According to the town planner, no one should make little plans, and it is essential to strive for high goals all the time to amaze descendants (Editorial Board). Such an opinion may seem presumptuous and too bold; nevertheless, Chicago needs an effective transformative plan since many problems exist at the moment, and an intervention to improve the citys well-being is relevant.

Reasons for Introducing a Transformative Plan

Over the past years of the development of Chicago, the local authorities have managed to do enough to make the city an important cultural, economic, and political state object. However, according to Editorial Board, Chicago suffers plenty of problems that demand more than incremental solutions, and additional attention should be paid to moving forward rather than preserving achievements. Despite significant prospects and opportunities, not enough valuable decisions regarding infrastructure improvement are made, which slows down the natural process of civilization and restrains innovations.

As Lazzeretti and Oliva note, cities are not only the centers of economic life but also the places of attracting people with different cultural backgrounds, and space for innovations is one of the driving forces (1856). In addition to the natural changes that occur, for instance, the provision of social services and control over the execution of federal orders, additional interventions aimed at improving the appearance of the city may be relevant. Therefore, based on Burnhams ideas, it is crucial to provide an effective plan for the reorganization of thinking in terms of engaging resources and establishing a progressive and convenient city with high and clean goals.

Evidence of the Need for Changes

Moving towards Chicagos progress is an urgent task for the authorities because current development results cannot be viewed in terms of compliance with the innovation program. Based on Burnhams thoughts that were practical rather than poetic, the importance of development is due to responsibility to descendants and the natural need to grow in the conditions of available opportunities (Editorial Board).

The mark in the history that the citizens of the city can leave is a springboard to innovations, and new projects are the logical outcome of the developmental work. As Mendizabal et al. argue, the degree of adaptability to transformations characterizes any city as a dynamic structure, and the lack of progress, on the contrary, indicates instability and problems (412). Those government programs that are implemented in most major cities of the country are used in Chicago. However, according to Editorial Board, city leaders need to mobilize not only readily available resources but also additional reserves to prove to citizens that the only acceptable direction to move is forward. At the moment, weak attempts are made, and the need for changes is warranted.

Warrants

In the conditions of life at the present stage, many changes are required to ensure sustainable and successful movement towards improving urban infrastructure. As Filion et al. remark, the organization of social institutions does not always allow for proper urban development trajectories, and much effort is needed to ensure total control over transformations (217). Obviously, in an environment where changes are acceptable and desirable, there should be a solid background for interventions aimed at achieving progressive and relevant solutions. Accordingly, as a city with a highly developed economy, Chicago may afford to implement necessary transformative plans.

Under the influence of modern trends, it is not always easy to achieve quick and effective changes. Lazzeretti and Oliva argue that economic transformation is inextricably linked with cultural and creative resources, which may be the result of a certain ideology (1860). Today, in the USA, the infrastructure of many large cities is the pride of the authorities and the result of many years of investments.

However, when the reorganization is influenced by such trends, it is hard enough to find the necessary sources to enable all planned innovations to be realized. According to Editorial Board, people rarely think about the future and seek to improve the present, thereby slowing progress. However, changes based on big plans imply more global changes when both current issues are touched upon and upcoming tasks are also taken into account. Accordingly, in the context of the policy of innovations and movement towards progress, it is essential to engage as many creative people with proper cultural priorities as possible. This measure will provide an opportunity to implement the development program effectively and will allow achieving high-performance work.

Rebuttals

Chicagos transformational efforts and hard work on innovations can be made more difficult by the overly complex and lengthy process of changes. When global innovations are planned, engaging all possible resources may require the significant reorganization of not only the citys infrastructure but also individual social institutions. According to Filion et al., the diversity of human associations, for instance, enterprises, governments and their agencies, as well as nonbusiness and non-governmental common-purpose organizations should be engaged (204). As a result, orientational transformational work is hampered by the necessity to control the activities of all these stakeholders and to allocate resources by constantly changing trends and needs.

In addition, significant challenges may arise while reasoning the evidence of the relevance of particular transformative plan implementation. Despite Burnhams view of high and clear goals regarding the citys development policy, Chicagos authorities may not approve of the set of measures that may be required for a complex reorganizational policy. Experts from Editorial Board note that at the moment, large-scale construction campaigns are planned in the city, for instance, the expansion of Steppenwolf Theater. Therefore, the total transformative plan may be costly both from the point of view of financial investments and about the complexity of the whole process.

Backing

Contrary to the complexity and costs of innovations, transformations are necessary for Chicago to develop sustainably and successfully. The effective cooperation of individual social institutions may help strengthen unity and achieve high goals. According to Linnenluecke et al., stakeholders working in one direction can co-create future plans and generate value, with an external focus of planning (3223).

This, in turn, is necessary to not only improve the condition of the city and its infrastructure but also achieve a successful future for the sake of descendants. This goal justifies the challenges that may arise during the implementation of a transformative plan and is the result of deliberate and coordinated actions.

An opportunity to understand current shortcomings and mobilize resources to achieve high goals is determined by the desire for improvements. Despite some steps in this direction, Chicago still needs innovations as a natural step towards progress. Activities aimed at adapting to the constant search for new possibilities should be part of civilian thinking so that all planned changes could have a positive outcome. As a result of the assessment made by the Editorial Board, the dreams of tomorrow can become a reality if enough efforts are put in. Therefore, moving towards transformations should be part of the citys development program.

Conclusion

Despite the potential challenges and costs of implementing a transformative plan for the development of Chicago and its infrastructure, the need for changes is relevant to achieve high goals. Burnhams ideas regarding the value of innovations in terms of their importance for posterity may be applied to involve all the necessary resources and stakeholders. The movement in this direction may be complicated by the time-consuming process of transition to the new model of the organization of life in the city. However, based on the findings in the reviewed academic sources, it can be concluded that such measures are accessible due to the cumulative participation of citizens in solving the current issues.

Works Cited

Editorial Board. A Chicago Tale: Why Were Happy to Erase the Asterisk from Daniel Burnhams Make No Little Plans*. Chicago Tribune. 2019. Web.

Filion, Pierre, et al. Planners Perspectives on Obstacles to Sustainable Urban Development: Implications for Transformative Planning Strategies. Planning Practice and Research, vol. 30, no. 2, 2015, pp. 202-221.

Lazzeretti, Luciana, and Stefania Oliva. Rethinking City Transformation: Florence from Art City to Creative Fashion City. European Planning Studies, vol. 26, no. 9, 2018, pp. 1856-1873.

Linnenluecke, Martina K., et al. A Review of Collaborative Planning Approaches for Transformative Change Towards a Sustainable Future. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 142, 2017, pp. 3212-3224.

Mendizabal, Maddalen, et al. Stimulating Urban Transition and Transformation to Achieve Sustainable and Resilient Cities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 94, 2018, pp. 410-418.

Purpose of Inclusion of Performance Measures in MAP-21

Including performance measures in the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) has been done to ensure the effective risk-based management of available assets and the decision-making associated with the improvement of infrastructural quality. Performance measures linked to pavement and bridge infrastructure can allow the key decision-makers to establish quality improvement objectives, identify the existing gaps in performance, and develop investment strategies. For assessing the effectiveness of the introduced performance measures, frequent evaluations are put in place. Such evaluations based on performance measures lead to the development of reasonable alternatives for improving roads, highways, or bridges that require repair and reconstruction activities from emergency events (Federal Highway Administration).

Bridge Performance Measures Adopted in 2017

The two key performance measures of 2017 adopted about bridges were Pavement and Bridge Condition for the National Highway Performance Program and the National Highway Performance Program Final Rule (published on January 18, 2017, and effective on May 20, 2017) (FHWA, National Performance Management Measures). The measures were established for State departments of transportation to carry out the National Highway Performance Programs alongside with assessing the state of pavements on bridges, Interstate Systems, on- and off-ramps, and the National Highway Systems overall (NHS) (FHWA, Two Performance Management Final Rules Take Effect).

NHS Bridges in the United States

If to consider the total number of bridges in the United States, there are approximately 610,749 bridges, 23% of which belong to the National Highway System that covers 58% of the total deck area of the country (U.S. Government Accountability Office). Based on the data provided by the Federal Highway Administration (U.S. Department of transportation), there were 144,610 of NHS bridges in the United States as of 2016, with the number increasing with the expansion of the National Highway Systems (FHWA, Deficient Bridges by Highway System 2016). It is important to mention several states with the largest numbers of deficient NHS bridges; for instance, there are 17,000 of such bridges in Texas, 5,325 in Florida, 5,136 in the state of New York, 5,071 in Ohio, and 5,858 in Pennsylvania. Delaware (323), District of Columbia (154), Rhode Island (414), and Alaska (400) are among the areas with the lowest numbers of NHS bridges (FHWA, Deficient Bridges by Highway System 2016).

Deficient Bridges

It has been established that in the case of states showing the same or increasing rate of deficient NHS bridges (10% and more), the total deck areas to which the bridges belong would be considered Structurally Deficient, forcing states to invest in appropriate quality improvement projects. The statistics show that the rates of deficient bridges are decreasing. As of now, the gap between the desired 10% and the recent rates of deficient bridges is not large, as mentioned in the USA Today report prepared by Jansen. As found by the U.S. Government Accountability Office, the number of structurally deficient NHS bridges decreased by 20% (between 2005 and 2012) and functionally obsolete NHS bridges decreased by 2%.

The barriers associated with decreasing the number of deficient bridges is associated with the slow pace of investment, the low purchasing power of local governments, tax increases, the lack of federal government support, and the slowing down of the major projects initiated by state departments of transportation.

Works Cited

Federal Highway Administration. MAP-21 National Highway Performance Program. ACPA. 2015, Web.

FHWA. Deficient Bridges by Highway System 2016. FHWA. 2016, Web.

FHWA. National Performance Management Measures: Pavement and Bridge Condition to Assess the National Highway Performance Program. FHWA, 2017, Web.

FHWA. Two Performance Management Final Rules take Effect. FHWA. 2017, Web.

Jansen, Bart. Study: 58,000 U.S. Bridges Found to be Structurally Deficient. USA Today. 2018, Web.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. Transportation Infrastructure: Information on Bridge Conditions. GAO. 2015, Web.

The vulnerability of critical infrastructure in the United States post experiences of 9/11 and natural disasters like Hurricane Katrina have generated intense debate amongst the academia, government circles, and the media. This essay examines the vulnerabilities in US critical infrastructure.

The government has a National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) that lists 18 core areas identified as critical infrastructure, namely: Agriculture and food; defense industrial base; energy; healthcare and public health; national monuments and icons; banking and finance; water; chemical; commercial facilities; critical manufacturing; communications; dams; emergency services; nuclear reactors, materials, and waste; information technology; postal and shipping; transportation systems, and government facilities (DHS, 2009, p. 3). These 18 core areas have 12 different lead agencies in charge, which leads to difficulty in coordination and turf wars.

Critical vulnerabilities of the food and agricultural sector stem from the possibility of Agro-terrorism that can disrupt the nations food supply chain, including attempts to introduce poisons in packaged foods and liquids by terrorists (US Food and Drug Administration, 2007) as also bio-terrorism and bio-infestation due to introduction of incompatible foreign origin flora and fauna into the nations biosphere. It could also include the deliberate introduction of diseases into animals or plants and thereon into the human food chain (Monke, 2004, p. 1). Since livestock are usually concentrated in specific locations such as a pig farm or a poultry farm, the deliberately introduced disease can quickly infect the entire livestock. Livestock is moved from place to place through modern means of mass transportation; thus, the animal disease can quickly spread to the entire country. The other vulnerability is that foreign pathogens introduced may not be detected by their own medical fraternity, which may not have the wherewithal to tackle an outbreak of foreign disease. Lastly, there are numerically more types of such pathogens that affect plants and animals than humans, and these are easily available outside the country for terrorists to acquire. Vulnerability to the US food and agricultural sector could then stem from the loss of confidence in the populace regarding the safety of the food being produced and also the possibility of other countries then banning US produce from entering their markets.

The defense industrial base is vulnerable to terrorist attacks, defense industrial espionage either through hackers or through an insider job. The concentration of defense industries in one geographical area is also a vulnerability that can be exploited by an adversary. For example, Over 31% of U.S. naval shipbuilding and repair capacity is in and around Norfolk, VA (Parfomak, 2008, p. 5). US electrical grid depends upon network system for control and monitoring. There exists a danger of spies penetrating the US electrical grid network, and Intelligence officials worry about cyber attackers taking control of electrical facilities, a nuclear power plant or financial networks via the Internet (Gorman, 2009). Defense Industries dealing with fuels and explosives are especially sensitive targets because any successful attack on these can cause huge explosions that would not only cause primary damage in the vicinity of the plant but can also affect the outlying areas and towns by spewing toxic and corrosive gases, causing thousands of casualties. The vulnerability of such industries stems from the fact that exploding ammunition can trigger secondary or sympathetic detonations, and thus even a single attack can result in horrendous damage.

Healthcare and public health have critical vulnerabilities of reach and inadequate facilities and their equitable geographic distribution. Approximately 25% of U.S. pharmaceuticals are manufactured in Puerto Rico, primarily in the San Juan metropolitan area (Parfomak, 2008, p. 5). So should San Juan metropolitan area be put out of action due to human mischief or a natural disaster, America would face a sudden shortage of medicines in the market. Dangers from infectious diseases such as SARS and Avian Flu can spread into the public and from them to infect workers working in critical infrastructure industries (Parfomak, p. 7).

The main vulnerability of National Monuments and Icons (NMI) is that they are like a magnet for terrorists because the terrorists perceive NMI assets as internationally recognized symbols of American power, culture, and democratic tradition (DHS, 2007, p. 14). National monuments and icons are difficult to protect against terrorist strikes as these attract visitors and tourists who have to be provided access. Secure access control is a difficult task as the authorities have to balance the stringency of the controls versus the inconvenience caused to genuine visitors. Another vulnerability of icons and monuments is that because they are famous, even an unsuccessful or partially successful attempt would be considered as a success by the terrorists as it would achieve the purpose of symbolism and gather the much-needed media attention. For example, if a small explosive-laden model airplane was to fly into the White House complex and explode, killing no one, the very act would achieve the tremendous psychological and symbolic effect and the attendant media coverage.

The main vulnerability that came to the fore in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina was the poor state of Americas emergency services to cope with natural disasters. This was not surprising considering the fact that emergency services as a critical infrastructure had ranked 7th and 5th under the Clinton and Bush administration, respectively. That too, the focus had remained excessively on terrorism. The other vulnerabilities of critical infrastructure in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina were also numerous. Nobody had paid attention to the fact that the earth around New Orleans was sinking at a rate of 3 feet every year (Palser, 2006, p. 19) which therefore had required the up-gradation of the citys levee system. Critical infrastructure such as electricity, telecommunication, backup generators, and evacuation points too required to be elevated above a possible storm surge level. Suitable transportation, namely rubber boats, and dinghies were not available. Mass care such as housing and human services was nonexistent in the aftermath of the disaster. Restoration services were also woefully inadequate. Oil-producing platforms and associated industries in the Gulf of Mexico were geographically concentrated and were put out of action by Katrina, pointing to a need for dispersal of vital assets.

Nuclear reactors and waste products are prone to cyber attacks, physical intrusion, insider jobs, and the possibility of nuclear waste being smuggled out to construct a dirty bomb. Out of these, vulnerabilities from cyberattacks are more worrisome as physical security around nuclear plants is usually quite stringent, and waste disposal is regulated by extremely stringent guidelines. Cyber attackers can take control of a reactor and set the nuclear chain reaction of the reactor out of control and explode, releasing radiation into the atmosphere, a sort of a Three Mile Island or Chernobyl accident committed deliberately.

Critical vulnerabilities of the banking and finance sectors lie in their requirement for seamless and uninterrupted communication networks. These require protection from physical disruption due to human actions or from natural disasters as also from cyber attacks carried out by hackers or adversaries to either bring down the network or steal wealth and information. Post current economic depression, another critical vulnerability of the banking and finance sector that has come to light has been the concentration of far too much capital in a few core banks, leading to a domino effect when the core banks fail, pointing to a need for diversification.

The prime vulnerability of the shipping and maritime sector arises from the sheer volume and traffic of shipping that arrives at U.S. ports daily, which makes it physically impossible to scan each and every container entering U.S. ports. Only 5.2% of the containers reaching American ports on ships are screened with X-ray and gamma-ray devices (Richardson, 2004), which makes the ports vulnerable to a possible dirty bomb being smuggled into the U Sport and being exploded by terrorists. Also, terrorists can be smuggled into the United States by hiding in an undetected shipping container, disembarking stealthily to attack vital installations or soft targets. Vulnerabilities of monitoring and tracking merchant ships stem from the nature of seas being the common heritage of mankind. This means that even if a ship leaves a known destination such as Singapore, it can call port at some Yemeni ports (known to be infested with Al Qaeda) and then arrive at a U.S. port. The International Maritime Organization has made it mandatory for sea-going ships of over 300 tons to be fitted with an Automated Identification System (AIS) so that ships can be tracked automatically through globally designated monitoring posts. However, the system can be switched off manually by the crew, and rogue elements can resort to AIS spoofing that can generate false identities. Vulnerabilities to the shipping and maritime sector have been identified by the US Coastguard as 12 possible attack modes against 50 different types of target for example, & boat loaded with explosives exploding alongside a docked tank vessel (Moteff, 2004, p. 7)

A terrorist attack on a mass transportation system such as the subway can result in massive casualties not only due to the explosive device used but because of the stampede that is natural to ensue. So the vulnerability of subway systems lies in the funneling effect of the various exits from the enclosed area as also the design of the vents and the exhausts to channelize out a blast effect of an explosion.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the 18 critical infrastructures as declared in the NIPP have many vulnerabilities. Most of these stem from physical disruption and cyber disruption of human origin and natural disasters as also structural weaknesses and geographical concentration of facilities that require greater efforts at mitigation, including seamless interagency coordination between multiple agencies.

Works Cited

DHS. (2009). National Infrastructure Protection Plan.

DHS. (2007). National Monuments & Icons.

Gorman, S. (2009). Electricity Grid in U.S. Penetrated By Spies.

Monke, J. (2004). Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness.

Moteff, J. (2004). Risk Management and Critical Infrastructure Protection:Assessing, Integrating, and ManagingThreats, Vulnerabilities and Consequences.

Palser, B. (2006). Hurricane Katrina. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books.

Parfomak, P. (2008). Vulnerability of Concentrated Critical Infrastructure: Background and Policy Options.

Richardson, M. (2004). Growing Vulnerability of Seaports from Terror Attacks. Web.

US Food and Drug Administration. (2007). Federal Efforts to Mitigate Vulnerabilities in the Food Supply Chain.