Category: Influenza

Influenza virus is one of the few viruses with capability and history of creating pandemics, having resultant deaths, hospitalizations and interruption of economic and societal activities. They have, hence, been a research interest overtime as to control measures to prevent and manage such outbreaks.

STRUCTURE AND PATHOGENESIS OF INFLUENZA

Influenza virus belongs to the orthomyxovirus family as it has segmented RNA genomes with 8 pieces. Its helical capsid is contained within an envelope, on which are 2 glycoproteins responsible for its antigenicity; namely: Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA). HA is responsible for cell surface receptor binding and NA provides entry into the cells of the respiratory epithelium as it degrades the protective layer of the mucus of the respiratory tract. In the respiratory tract, it has an incubation period of 24 – 48 hours, after which the cytokines moving in the blood causes systemic symptoms such as myalgia, fever, headaches, sore throat and cough. Complications can result from bacteria or influenza pneumonia.

CLASSIFICATION AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF INFLUENZA

Influenza virus is distinguished based on its internal nucleoplasm into types A, B and C. Influenza A has 16 types of HA and 9 types of NA found in aquatic birds but 3 types of HA and 2 types of NA in humans. However, Influenza B is only found in humans. Other animals like swine, horses have also been known to be sources of the Influenza virus so if an animal strain of the virus infects the same cell as a human strain, reassortment of segments of RNA genomes will occur, leading to a new variant of the RNA genomes, capable of causing epidemics in humans as pre-existing immunity of many individuals cannot handle the new variant. Influenza A can undergo antigenic shift hence can cause pandemics and yearly outbreaks. On the other hand, because Influenza B is only found in humans, it undergoes antigenic drifts and not shifts, causing outbreaks that are not as dramatic as Influenza A, occurring every 2-4 years. Influenza C is seen as sub clinical and occurs randomly, however, its research has not been conclusive.

TRENDS IN OUTBREAKS OF INFLUENZA VIRUSES

There has never been a systematic examination of the numerous reported possible outbreaks throughout history. Nonetheless, this study concisely details the events and trends in the occurrence of influenza as stated in various scientific and non-scientific sources. For clarity purposes the outbreaks will be subsequently explained based on the strains of Influenza that have caused human outbreaks.

H1NI INFLUENZA VIRUS

H1NI the cause of one of the fatal pandemics throughout history. The outbreaks caused by this strain has led to the death of more Americans than in the both World Wars and the Asian wars combined. This strain was the cause of the Spanish flu which occurred in 1918 till 1919, although it is uncertain where it originally originated from geographically. During this pandemic, about 500 million people worldwide were affected as well as people in the Arctic and remote Pacific Islands. About 50 million to 100 million people, which makes up at least 3-5% of the world population died, with British India having about 17 million deaths.

In 1977, the Russian flu epidemic was also caused by the H1N1 strain which affected mostly people under the age of 23. Most of the adults were exempt as there was previously a similar widespread strain in 1947 – 1957, which developed their immunity against the Russian flu.

The 2009 novel Swine Originated Influenza Virus (S-OIV) strain resulted into a widespread human Influenza outbreak beginning from Mexico and moving into the US and subsequently quickly spreading to 208 countries by the end of 2009. By this time, the WHO stated that the pandemic was the highest level – Level 6 as millions of cases were recorded worldwide, and the cases increased till they were no longer documented in many countries. There were 9596 deaths globally with 1445 recorded in the US. A decline started by August 2010 and was still declining by 2013. The strain, which did not occur amongst swine and is not transmitted by eating pork, affected majorly young people below 18 who comprised of 60% of all the cases. The symptoms were generally mild but low immunity people experienced fatal symptoms. Apparently, most people globally do not have protective antibodies against the glycoprotein on the envelope of the S-OIV, although they may have developed antibodies against the seasonal strain of H1N1 either any form of exposure to the virus or by immunization.

H2N2 INFLUENZA VIRUS

East Asia experienced a new Influenza A virus (H2N2) in February 1957 which prompted an Asian Flu pandemic. The virus was seen reported first at this time in Singapore and subsequently in Hong Kong in April of the same year as well as in some coasts in the US in mid-1957. The pandemic resulted in 1,100,000 deaths globally with a huge 10% occurring in the US. The death occurrences were a far cry from those caused by H1N1 virus. The H2N2 virus is made up of three genes from an H2N2 virus originating an Influenza A bird virus as well as the H2 Hemagglutinin and N2 Neuraminidase genes.

H3N2 INFLUENZA VIRUS

The Hong Kong Flu of 1968 was a H3N2 Influenza A virus which broke out globally after originating from China in July 1968 and lasting till 1970. This pandemic was the third 20th century Influenza A pandemic and it was 11 years after its predecessor, the 1957 Asian flu. It is believed that the H2N2 virus prompted the formation of the H3N2 through a process of antigenic shift, where the Hemagglutinin Antigen H2 on the outer surface of the virus mutated genetically and produced the H3. The Neuraminidase N2 was the same, hence the people that were exposed previously to the H2N2 retained immunity of the Hong Kong virus. The number of deaths caused by this H3N2 virus in the pandemic were one to four million, similar to the H2N2 death numbers. The illnesses caused by this virus were in various intensities in diverse places; it affected a few numbers of people in Japan but was more deadly and widespread in the US. It was highly contagious, and deaths occurred majorly amongst infants and the elderly. The H3N2 virus that caused the pandemic is still considered to be present today but is a strain of seasonal Influenza.

H5N1 INFLUENZA VIRUS

The H5N1 strain of Influenza A virus first occurred in 1997 causing the avian influenza or bird flu resulted in a severe form of human influenza with some deaths in Hong Kong and 254 globally. The infection moved directly from chickens to 408 humans between 2003 and early 2009, passing from the respiratory secretions of the chickens to the chicken guano. In mid-2003 to 2004, the outbreak caused the death of thousands of chickens in many Asian territories. Many chickens were killed in order to curb the outspread. The H5N1 strain hardly moves from person to person but it is of concern because it results in more serious fatality if it gets human transmitted.

H7N9 INFLUENZA VIRUS

2013 recorded an outbreak of influenza caused by H7N9 virus strain. Before 2013, the strain has affected only birds, mostly about 695 chickens. As of July of the same year, 133 people were reported to have Influenza caused by this H7N9 virus, resulting in the death of 43 people, mostly in Taiwan and China. This type of virus does not spread from one person to another. The genes of this virus originate from birds with H7 from ducks and N9 from wild birds and the remaining genes from bramblings in Europe and Asia. It is relatively not as widespread, but it has a mortality rate of 32%.

In summary, the Influenza viruses are of great concern to humans as they are known for causing outbreaks and largely deadly pandemics that occur from time to time. Hence it is constantly a subject of medical studies and discussions.

REFERENCES

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Introduction:

The Influenza Song of 1918, also known as “I Had a Little Bird,” was a popular song during the devastating influenza pandemic that swept across the world. This essay aims to provide an analytical exploration of the significance of the Influenza Song 1918, delving into its historical context, themes, and the impact it had on society during that time.

Body:

Historical Context:

The Influenza Song 1918 emerged during one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, the Spanish flu. The song was written and sung by children who were directly affected by the pandemic. It became a way for people, particularly children, to cope with the fear, loss, and uncertainty that surrounded them. The song serves as a cultural artifact that reflects the experiences of individuals during a time of crisis and sheds light on the impact of the pandemic on society.

Themes:

The Influenza Song 1918 addresses various themes that were relevant during the pandemic. One prominent theme is the fear of illness and death. The lyrics of the song mention the bird’s demise due to the flu, symbolizing the loss of loved ones and the widespread fear of the disease. The song captures the somber atmosphere and the sense of helplessness that permeated society during the pandemic.

Another theme explored in the song is the impact of the pandemic on social interactions. The lyrics highlight the need for isolation and caution, with lines such as “He died in the spring, and I’ll die in the fall.” This emphasizes the importance of quarantine measures and the fear of contagion. The song reflects the disrupted social dynamics, as people had to stay away from one another to prevent the spread of the disease.

Societal Impact:

The Influenza Song 1918 had a significant impact on society during the pandemic. Firstly, it provided a means of expression and comfort for those affected by the flu. By singing the song, people were able to find solace and solidarity in the shared experiences of loss and fear. It became a way to cope with the emotional turmoil caused by the pandemic.

Furthermore, the Influenza Song 1918 played a role in raising awareness about the importance of preventive measures. The lyrics explicitly mention the need for handwashing, a practice that was promoted during the pandemic to limit the spread of the virus. By incorporating such preventive messages, the song served as an educational tool, helping to disseminate vital information to the public.

Conclusion:

The Influenza Song 1918 holds immense analytical significance as a cultural artifact from the Spanish flu pandemic. It provides insight into the historical context, themes, and societal impact of the time. The song encapsulates the fear and uncertainty experienced by individuals, while also serving as a means of comfort and expression. Furthermore, it played a role in promoting public health awareness and educating people about preventive measures.

Analyzing the Influenza Song 1918 allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the human experience during a global health crisis. It serves as a reminder of the resilience and creativity of individuals in times of adversity. By studying cultural artifacts such as this song, we can better comprehend the impact of historical events and draw valuable lessons for the present and future.

As a child, we all remember going to checkups with our family medicine physician. The familiar vile and needle are things that have defined the meaning of immunity across many generations of the human race, all developed with the first vaccination. Research shows that vaccinations are the best way to protect people from diseases that are spread through daily activities. The modern vaccine is changing from its predecessors because a disease has many strains, and each strain mutates rapidly. This means that there is a bright future for vaccine developers unless the opposite of vaccines increases. With growing opposition to vaccines, the future of humanity could be in danger. Vaccines are a “second armor” for humanity, but due to beliefs and concerns about them doing more harm than good, more people are shying away from them. This is leading to the resurgence of once-eradicated diseases, and with no official vaccination laws passed by the U.S. government, people are not required to have vaccinations. This has left Americans with a major question, to vax, or not to vax? Vaccines are scientifically proven to prevent disease in the human body, but certain diseases are making a resurgence due to those who oppose vaccines or, anti-vaxxers. Therefore, vaccinations should be made compulsory for every individual to protect society.

Vaccines have a very interesting history. The word Vaccine comes from the Latin word, Vacca, meaning cow. The practice of inoculating humans stems from early practices in the eastern hemispheres, primarily in China and India. Buddhists would tear cowpox-infected skin to smear on themselves to inoculate them from cowpox diseases. However, modern scientists credit a man by the name of Edward Jenner, as the father of vaccination. He achieved the first recorded and recounted inoculators events when he vaccinated a thirteen year-old-boy with the cowpox virus. As expected, the boy fell ill, but later adapted to the virus and was later immune to the smallpox virus (“Vaccine History”). Louis Pasteur’s developments in vaccination led to the development of cholera and anthrax vaccines respectively. In more recent history, the biggest event is the creation of the polio vaccine (“Brief History”). Dr. Jonas Salk’s work with the viral tissue culture of the inactive polio vaccine led to the creation of the mass polio vaccination and the eventual near eradication of the disease.

As aforementioned, vaccines are used to “immunize” or make someone immune. The body is an amazing machine. It contains trillions of cells all of which have specific functions. The immune system has the task of protecting the body from infections. When someone experiences a cold, the body is thrown out of whack and the immune cells are tasked with the job of ridding the body of the cold. However, it does not just get rid of all pathogenic cells. It makes copies of the virus and produces antibodies that recognize the disease in the future, which means humans require less time to recover (Sampson). This is the reason for vaccines. Vaccines, which have two parts, are inactive versions of illnesses that are injected into the bloodstream. The first part, or antigen, allows the body to produce antibodies in order for the body to use when fighting. The second part, adjuvant, signals the body to respond to the vaccination like a pathogen (Sampson).

From birth to death the human can obtain diseases within the first fourteen days of birth. This is where the childhood trips to the family medicine physician are most important. When sitting in the examination room, there is the familiar sight of a nurse walking in with a vial and needle. Vaccination improvements have led to the development of a specific vaccination schedule that children and adults alike are subject to in order to go to school or travel, respectively. Some of these vaccines include the Pertussis, MMR, Influenza, and HPV vaccines. These vaccines are extremely necessary for protecting humans from diseases like Pertussis (whooping cough) and Influenza (the flu), hence the reason they are required from birth to about age sixty-five. Without this ‘software update,’ the vaccine program that protects us could fade and leave us vulnerable to a slew of deadly diseases.

Vaccinations are prime for society’s survival and are just one of a plethora of ways human ingenuity has ensured our survival. Without vaccinations, humans would not be able to continue living on our beloved Earth, which is one of the main reasons to vaccinate. This is due to the nature of pathogens. They breed everywhere that possible, and without any type of protection from pathogens, they could mutate past the ability to develop a treatment for them. Humanity is still producing new vaccinations every year for the elusive flu virus. Its genetic material mutates into one of the nearly infinite possibilities every year. Thus, the CDC and scientist have to predict the next strand using an algorithm in order to create a vaccine. This is the same full vaccine, everyone in America is urged, but not required, to get. With Influenza, three million cases alone are reported in just the United States and can be spread any number of ways, from direct contact with a contaminated surface or through the air that an infected individual breathes (“About Flu”). Symptoms include nasal congestion, pain all over the body, chills, and other rather undesirable effects of contracting the flu. This is one of the reasons vaccinations are called upon. Those who have been vaccinated are immune to the rather deadly and repulsive symptoms, something that everyone desires and can achieve by accepting the flu vaccine. However, this is one of many cases of vaccinations preventing disease.

Vaccines, being one of the noteworthy medical advancements in recent centuries, should not just be compulsory for the mere fact that it provides the patient with immunity from daily diseases deadly enough to finish the entirety of the human race. Vaccines do more than provide immunity. It prevents diseases from resurging; that is, if everyone takes the vaccine, another reason to vaccinate. Smallpox is one of the deadliest diseases with no known cure. With scientific brilliance beginning in the eighteenth century, the human race was able to synthesize a vaccine that was able to inoculate human beings from one of the most deadly diseases at the time. This led to a widespread immunization program, that sought out every living individual to inoculate them. When this had been achieved another thing had also been achieved: the eradication of the smallpox virus (“Smallpox”). This is another reason why vaccinations are necessary. With vaccinations, we are able to protect people from diseases that are easy to catch and detrimental to their health and the health of those around them.

While the general consensus is to get vaccinated, some others do not agree. In recent years, many people called anti-vaxxers have started a movement of their own to protest vaccinations. Why might this be? With all the good that comes from vaccines, who could possibly say there is something wrong with them? Each individual poses their own reason for refusal of vaccinations. Most refusals come on the four bases of religious beliefs, personal principles, concern, or the need for more information on vaccinations. There are also many misconceptions that arise around vaccines, such as the adverse side effects they have on the body or, the fact that people can still contract diseases.

Religion is an important part of many people’s lives. Most individuals factor their religion into the decisions they make in their daily lives. This being said, those who rely on their religion to make decisions are the most strongly opposed to vaccinations. According to Chopra Mckee and Kristin Bohannon, cited in the National Library of Medicine, these arguments stem from the disapproval of the ingredients in some of the vaccinations. Christians who are strongly opposed to abortion and the use of fetal tissue would take strong stances against the use of human fetal tissue in the MMR vaccine, specifically the Rubella vaccine (McKee). They would rather risk the protection they need than obtain the vaccine, which gravely damages the concept of herd immunity, or the immunity of a community to contagious diseases if a high number of individuals in the community are vaccinated. However, the refusal of vaccinations, on religious grounds is not limited to those who claim that they are Christians. Muslims, who cannot eat pork have also rejected vaccinations, due to religious beliefs. Due to the inability to ingest “animal-derived gelatin,” they are unable to obtain protection from most of the present vaccinations (McKee). Given, that these are conscious choices to forgo inoculation, it is tough to dissuade those who use religion to refuse vaccination, given their first amendment rights. Rather, when conversing with religious anti-vaxxers, one would have to show them the positives that vaccination brings with it.

Furthermore, those who refuse vaccination based on personal philosophy are another common group of anti-vaxxers. Their belief that natural immunity is more efficient than that which originates from vaccines couples with their belief that natural immunization is better at strengthening the immune system and provides the reason for their objection over medical vaccines. There are also others who believe that because deadly diseases are minuscule and pose no current danger to themselves, children, or the rest of society, there is no current need for vaccination and thus, the ‘harms’ of vaccination pose more of a threat to themselves than if they were to not be vaccinated (McKee). Those who are on this line of reasoning need to be informed of the dangers that diseases pose and the current need for vaccination and the factor that since many of the diseases can breed anywhere, they have the ability to mutate and become stronger. Thus, in the event that contracting this disease, due to lack of immunization, they could pose a danger to society, or worse could be killed.

One of the biggest reasons why parents and other individuals refuse vaccination practices is safety concerns. Due to heavy media influence, concerns about vaccination have reached new heights, culminating in a growing refusal of necessary immunity. In a controversial 2003 study conducted by the IOM (Institute of Medicine), it was discussed that the MMR vaccine “favors a causal relationship and thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism.” (“Cause Autism”). The IOM study fundamentally detailed the belief that thimerosal, a mercury-based compound used in the preservation of vaccines, was related to the development of autism in certain people. Consequently, this would influence many individuals to become skeptical, even refuse vaccines, in an effort to protect themselves. However, in stark contrast, the CDC has conducted or financed nine related studies since the 2003 IOM study and come up with nothing. Another reason for the rejection and skepticism of vaccines is due to individuals’ beliefs about the use of human fetal tissue and the safety of vaccines, it unnerves individuals about the need for vaccines allowing them to avoid necessary processes for the good of society. However, according to Paul Offit at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, fetal tissue was necessary for the development of vaccines and are have not been used since the late 1960s (Offit). The use of fetal tissue, allowed viruses to grow to a great extent due to the incredible ability fetal cells have of going through many cell divisions. It also allowed developers to observe how the virus reacted to human cells, the information was later used to develop vaccinations.

With the CDC and other outside sources corroborating the original notion that there is no link between vaccinations and any other adverse side effects, the argument against the use of vaccination is ultimately disarmed. However, some might still like to pose the question, just how safe are vaccines? Given that there are negative consequences to everything, nothing by that logic is ever one hundred percent safe. However, with vaccines, there are many security measures in place to protect individuals from danger. Vaccines are tested in labs by volunteers, they are monitored for consequences, as well as, for performance (“Vaccine Safety”). The vaccinations are also tested by the FDA and CDC before being approved and recommended for public use (“Vaccine Safety”). Finally, once in public use, the vaccine is monitored by a number of groups including, but not limited to, VAERS (Vaccine Adverse Effects Reporting System) and, PRISM (Post-licensure Rapid Immunization Safety Monitoring System) (“Vaccine Safety”). These programs monitor the vaccinations closely through reports of vaccination performance, and ultimately make the vaccine one of the safest medical developments available. With vaccines continuously put ‘under the magnifying glass’ for monitoring, this means that those whose job is to catch problems with vaccines will find every possible thing wrong with it in order for vaccines to be produced.

Since vaccines are in fact safe and do not cause other life-threatening or perilous diseases this means there is no other logical reason to refuse vaccinations. Because vaccines protect from and prevent the resurgence of diseases, as well as, are proven safe and no longer use fetal tissue, they should be made a requirement to participate in one’s civic duties. It is also a civic duty for everyone to be vaccinated to protect themselves and others. However, given that there are no federally managed vaccination laws, it still leaves the herd, in this case, the U.S. and humanity, at an increased risk of contracting resurging diseases due to a lack of protective laws. The debate is far from over with the lack of vaccine legislation. There is still much to be done surrounding the development of vaccines, those who refuse to take them, and laws to regulate them. However, we are left with one question, to vax, or not to vax?