Category: Infant

The study will evaluate early walking patterns. The study of infant walking experience will improve child-rearing practices. Infant walking abilities are influenced by the development of motor skills. However, motor skill development is influenced by different subcomponents. Some subcomponents include body coordination, routine exercise, diaper use, and head control. As infants grow, the components which facilitate walking patterns adapt to body changes. Such development could influence early independent walk. Infant motor development starts with hand crawling to knee crawl (Vereijken, Pedersen & Størksen, 2009). Thus, the independent walking experience is a sign of early motor development. We will study the relationship between induced changes and walking patterns.

Research question

1. Can independent walking infants carry load on their shoulders and around the wrist?
2. What is the effect of infant walking experience?
3. What is the effect of load position on motor development?

Fifteen infants were used as the sample population. The sample population had 7 boys and 8 girls, respectively. Workloads were placed in different positions on the infant’s shoulder, ankle, and around the wrist. Participants for the research were white Norwegian babies. The experimenter informed parents about the study, and the research conformed to Helsink Declaration. Data were collected using phone contacts. Parents provided a progress report on their baby’s motor skill development.

The independent walk used in this paper refers to 5 independent steps. Once the baby could make 5 independent walks, he or she was assigned a record tag. Due to disruptions and holidays, the experimental data was not completed. Adhesive materials were placed on each participant. The adhesives provided support for the load attached to the infant’s shoulders. Adhesive tapes were placed around the wrist by the experimenter to analyze motor skill development. Parents could withdraw their baby once 5 independent steps were completed. The weight of the support pack was 375g, while the packs placed on the ankles weighed 750g. Routine trials were repeated 8 times.

Parents motioned their baby during each trial, and the experimenter documented the results. Trials were repeated when the participant fell, stopped, or walked away from the experimental line. Coding instruments include success, fall, refusal, and pause. The results were accepted by a consensus confirmation.

To analyze the results, we separated trial secessions using the coding guide. Trial result codded as pause was removed from the analysis. We observed a change in the trial pattern from the first trial section to the final trial. Participants showed progressive development after repeated trials. Unsuccessful trials such as refusal and pause were analyzed to determine the reasons for failure. Infants refused to walk during the first and second weeks of trials. Participants who did not complete their trials during the first week of trials performed better after repeated sessions. At the end of the exercise, participants scored 100% walking experience. We observed a change in walking speed during the trials.

While analyzing the results, we observed that infant’s motor development, improved with routine experience. From the analysis, load perturbation influenced the gait parameters. To answer the first research question, the analysis confirmed the ability of infants to carry the load during the independent walking phase. Although most infants fell during the first trial session, they had similar performance without carrying a load. Thus, gait parameters significantly influenced the infant’s independent walking experience. The gait patterns of participants improved with routine walking experience. Infants changed their walking pattern with more routine exercises (Vereijken, Pedersen & Størksen, 2009). The load position significantly influenced the walking pattern of infants.

Access your knowledge section

1. How many infants participated in the experiment? Answer = Fifteen infants
2. The selection team accepted 5 independent walking steps by infants. True or false.

Go naked: Diapers affect infant walking

Infants develop walk experience through motor skills. Diapers constitute posture problems for infants. The research on child rearing reveals an imbalance between the legs of infants. Infants using diapers show poor gait movements than infants walking naked. Thus, an experimental research to ascertain the effect of diapers on infants showed significant impairment. Child rearing pattern influences their development. Motor skill development is influenced by age, care, and routine exercise (Cole, Lingeman & Adolph, 2012).

Routine learning exercises in sitting, standing and walking posture are used during child rearing. Child rearing requires a systematic plan to facilitate early development of infant motor skill. Motor development can delay or eliminate infant crawl phase. Thus, diaper elimination during child rearing will develop their motor skills. The experimental survey between naked infants and diaper wearing infants will be correlated in this paper. The study will assist caregivers to monitor, provided and develop routine exercise to facilitate infant motor development (Cole, Lingeman & Adolph, 2012).

We will analyze the effect of naked infants, cloth, and disposable diapers on infant’s motor development. To examine the relationship between motor developments and walking experience, we will examine two sample populations. The sample populations are infants between 13 and 19 months-old. The experimenter will monitor the gait development of naked, disposable, and cloth wearing infants.

Research questions

1. What factors are responsible for motor development in infants?
2. What factors affect motor development?
3. Do caregivers require a routing exercise to improve infant development?

Two sets of the sample population were tested. Each set comprised of 30 babies of 13 and 19 months-old. Samples were randomly taken from a predominantly white population. Data collected for 19 months-old infants were discontinued due to irritable feelings. Participants were divided by class and age. 27% of the population walked naked during the experiments, while 73% of the 19 months-old infants have walking experience.

The participants could walk repeatedly using different instruments of the experiment. Instruments used for the experiment include disposable diapers, cloth diapers and walking naked. Repeated trials were conducted on a covered walkway measuring 5.73m by 0.92m. The experiment was repeated when infants fell, veered off or stopped walking. Trials were conducted six times per diaper condition. The experimenter recorded the length and height of the infant’s legs. The coding parameter includes unsupported falls, missteps and double steps. Thus, the sections marred with errors were excluded from the sample results. We codded and documented the gait results after repeated trials. Three infants who did not complete their trials were excluded from the result. The experimenter used Gait software to compute step width, length, and walking speed. Motor development determines an early walk by infants.

Results indicated gait disruptions with the 13 months-old infants. Infants with disposable diapers showed no sign of misstep, while 10 naked infants fluttered. Infants with cloth diapers recorded slight difference. However, the sample B population showed steady development. The pattern of disruption, improved with routine exercise. Gait disruptions among the sample population decreased after days of routine experience. Gait disruptions were computed using the generalized estimating equation model.

The records show no significant correlation between diaper condition and infants age. Effects of walking experience were significant. Naked infants walked straight with little space between their legs, while infants with cloth and disposable diapers had wider spaces between their legs.

The result indicates significant influence of diapers on the motor development of infants. Disruptive pattern of infants can be measured by walking routine. While the sample population showed signs of impairment, diapers significantly altered the walking patterns of infants. Infants with diapers took wider steps than naked infants. Infants walking naked required lesser routine exercise during trials, while 13 months-old infants wearing diapers continued the routine exercise weeks after the trials. Using gait maturity as an instrument of measure, infants with disposable or cloth diapers displayed inconsistent steps during the walking sessions.

Thus, we can explain the reasons for diaper impairment. Diaper design affects the development of infant’s motor skill. Infants with dirty diapers showed signs of impairment while walking. It accounts for wider base angle noticed during the experiment. Dirty diapers will inhibit motor development and restrain motor development. While other factors such as dress pattern and posture could slow motor development in infants, child care givers can argue the case against diapers.

Access your knowledge section

1. What are the ages of infants used for the experiment? Answer = 13 and 19 months-old infant.
2. List the coding instrument for the experiment. Answer = Naked infants, cloth and disposable diapers.

References

Cole W., Lingeman J., & Adolph K. (2012).Go naked: Diapers affect infant walking. New York, USA: Department of Psychology, New York University. Web.

Vereijken B., Pedersen A., & Størksen J. (2009). Early independent walking: A longitudinal study of load perturbation effects. Trondheim, Norway: Faculty of Social Sciences, Norwegian University. Web.

The Continuous Positive Airways Pressure, also known as CPAP, is a kind of ventilation that is done to the respiratory system whose major purpose is to treat sleep apnea. However, research has indicated that newborn infants can also benefit from this system. The mechanism of action of CPAP for infants is that it spontaneously supports their breathing, especially if they are suffering from lung conditions (Goldsmith & Karotkin, 2011). The use of CPAP in infants has been around for almost forty years now. There are various CPAPS for infants, and each one of them has its advantages and disadvantages, pros and cons, hazards, and benefits, which should be analyzed for the benefit of those who may want to use them in future.

Bubble CPAP

A Bubble CPAP is an infant CPAP device that was discovered by Dr. Wung. It is used to deliver oxygen to the lungs of a newborn to maintain their lung volumes especially when they are breathing out. It delivers humidified and mixed oxygen through a nasal mask. The pressure within the circuit is sustained by dipping the distal side of the tubing into water. It has been used for over 40 years.

This particular CPAP is appealing to many people because of its affordability. It can be acquired by paying a small amount of money as a down payment (Kuenhe & Wishloff, 2011). Also, it is something that one can use for an extended period. If the vent circuit has a hitch, one only needs to modify it instead of buying a new one. The CPAP is also easy to use since it is very simple in structure. Compared to the mechanical ventilation, the rate of occurrence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia is substantially reduced when using the Bubble CPAP.

Besides, the Bubble CPAP is also available in various interfaces. Such diversity ensures that the device covers different categories of patients and not just the infants. Further, the bubbling that this CPAP initiates is used to facilitate gaseous exchange. Lastly, it is hard for the gaseous exchange to be reproduced making the device relatively safe.

However, the device does not contain any built-in monitors. This makes it difficult to analyze instances of high-pressure vis-à-vis the change in pressure. Also, it is hard for one to notice if there is a disconnection in the system. Furthermore, the lack of monitors makes it hard for one to combat apnea.

Another disadvantage is that the Bubble-CPAP can increase the amount of effort that is necessary to force air into the lungs. This may put a strain on the infant instead of helping them breathe easily..

Continuous Flow NCPAP

Compared to the B-CPAP, the usage of CF NCPAP began earlier. The prongs of CF NCPAP are linked between the expiratory and inspiratory limbs of its ventilator (Pk, 2011). Thus, the CPAP is determined by tweaking the flow and PEEP of the device. In fact, it is used as a model CPAP for other new CPAPs.

According to various literature, the CF NCPAP has been used for around 35 years. The implication of this is that it has been an effective system (Pk, 2011). Additionally, caregivers have reported that they are very comfortable with its performance as compared to the Bubble CPAP.

Nevertheless, it has other undesirable aspects. For instance, caregivers prefer other CPAPs such as Bubble CPAP to it. Its overall performance has also been proven to lag behind other similar products. Moreover, it can lead to the retention of CO2 in the system (Kuenhe & Wishloff, 2011), which is dangerous to the health of the infant. The retention may in turn lead to respiratory fatigue leading to breathing problems. Like the bubble CPAP, the CF CPAP also leads to increased work of breathing (WOB).

Nasal-Intermittent Positive Pressure Ventilation

The NIPPV is a form of CPAP that is an upgrade on CF CPAP. As a matter of fact, it is a contemporary device since it delivers pressure in two ways. The already discussed CPAPs only deliver pressure using a single system. According to White (2014) its potential benefits include a reduction in the frequency of occurrence of apnea. It also increases the expiration of CO2 from the body. Unlike the other CPAPs, it reduces work of breath (WOB). Also, it uses the latest technology making it very effective.

Unlike the other CPAPs, the NIPPV is an expensive equipment making it unaffordable to a wide range of people. Its hazard entails the potential to cause dysynchrony that may be prompted by the trigger. This is dangerous to the general wellbeing of the infant.

Variable Flow NCPAP

The VF NCPAP is a complex, hence more effective system when it comes to breathing problems that afflict infants (Esquinas, 2012). It is easy to use because it has a free standing technique. When it was compared to other CPAPs, it was realized that it delivers pressure exactly as prescribed by the neonatologists. Its effectiveness is further augmented by its monitors and safety valve that it uses to dump air (Esquinas, 2012). Nonetheless, the VF NCPAP is a very expensive system. To buy it, one has to, first of all, pay a very expensive down payment.

Trends in NCPAP

Trends in CPAP include a sealing flange that is softer, lighter weight, ease of use, adaptability to multifarious geometries, better sealing among others (White, 2014). The CPAP systems are increasingly becoming connected and smart. The latest devices have masks that are applied easily while they are also more pliable compared to the earlier ones.

References

Esquinas, A. M. (2012). Humidification in the intensive care unit: The essentials. Philadelphia, PA : Springer Science & Business Media. Web.

Goldsmith, J. P., & Karotkin, E. H. (2010). Assisted ventilation of the neonate. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Health Sciences. Web.

Kuenhe, B., & Wishloff, E. (2011). What type of CPAP and why. Columbus, OH: Neonatal Respiratory Services Nationwide Children’s Hospital Columbus. Web.

Pk, R. (2011). CPAP (Continuous positive airway pressure) bedside application in the newborn. London, : JP Medical Ltd. Web.

White, G. (2014). Equipment theory for respiratory care. Boston , MA: Cengage Learning. Web.

Abstract

Anemia is a serious health problem among infants and children. Though iron deficiency is defined as one of the main causes of anemia, this type of deficiency may lead to a number of different cognitive diseases and neurodevelopmental problems. Subramaniam and Girish (2015) introduce the article where they discuss the peculiarities of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in children and the promotion of different measures that can be used to decrease the level of problems and offer therapies that may help children and their families to deal with the diseases caused by iron deficiency. In the chosen journal article, the authors justify the chosen therapies and explain the reasons for the lack of response to the offered therapy using different theories and observations from the 1990s-2000s.

Background

The peculiar feature of research offered by Subramaniam and Girish (2015) is the idea not to consider anemia as a diagnosis, but as a manifestation of many diseases, including IDA. At the same time, IDA may not be a complete diagnosis, but a sign that has to be taken into consideration for diagnosing microcytic or hypochromic anemia. It is necessary to understand that infants and children are under a threat of having iron anemia because of the peculiarities of their diets and the necessity to eat products to complete a 30% daily iron need. Up to four months, children cannot get the required portion of iron. If neonatal reserves are not enough to cover the need, the concentration of hemoglobin declines and causes changes in the work of an organism.

Methods

To discuss the problem of iron deficiency in infants and children, the authors use a systematic review of different sources and create several important subjects to cover the chosen topic. The authors investigate the opinions of different researchers on an existing variety of diagnosis for children and use the results of tests used to diagnose different stages of IDA. Taking into consideration the symptoms and diagnoses, the authors discuss several appropriate treatments, including iron therapy, dietary changes, and constant lab monitoring. The analysis of the details and the possibility to create own conclusions are the strong methodological aspects of the chosen article.

Results

The results of the study developed by Subramaniam and Girish (2015) are based on the idea that iron deficiency anemia can be prevented in children and infants. There are several non-pharmacological interventions that may be used by doctors to prevent the development of iron deficiency. For example, it is possible to delay the process of clamping of cord at birth. Sometimes, it is enough to wait another minute after birth and get certain benefits. Another suggestion that is offered is to use iron pots for cooking and avoid bottles for feeding. Finally, even the consumption of milk has to be measured to decrease the level of hemoglobin. In addition to non- pharmacological ideas, the authors develop several pharmacological measures to prevent IDA, including elemental iron in a dosage of 12.5 mg (Subramaniam & Girish, 2015).

Conclusions

In general, the work of Subramaniam and Girish (2015) helps to clarify the peculiar features of iron deficiency in infants and children and comprehend that the prevention of this health problem is possible in case certain pharmacological and non-pharmacological measures are taken. The literature review and personal conclusions create a solid basis for the development of new preventive programs for children from developed and developing countries.

Reference

Subramaniam, G., & Girish, M. (2015). Iron deficiency anemia in children. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 82(6), 558-564. Web.

Human beings go through different stages of development, from birth to when they attain maturity. There are several ways through which the development of an infant can be measured. One of the most common methods of measuring development in infants is by use of milestones.

It is common knowledge that growth and development among children usually occur at different rates and it is not surprising to find children of the same age exhibiting varying levels of development. Ideally, the disparity in levels of development is not supposed to be big among normal infants of the same age (Sigelman and Rider 133–170).

A child is considered to be having a normal development profile if he or she has functional skills that match up to the set of skills that characterize ordinary kids of his or her age. A milestone is an established set of skills configured for a particular age level and which children of this age must overcome to be regarded as normal.

The importance of using milestones in determining the development records of infants lies in the ability of this technique to detect abnormalities in their early stages. Furthermore, efficient use of milestones can lead to timely discovery of inappropriate parenting (Sigelman and Rider 133–170).

There are five major areas that need to be borne in mind when considering development milestones, these are: gross motor, fine motor, cognitive, language, and social. It is the joy of every parent to learn that their children can recognize them and even identify them by calling them daddy or mummy. This identification is only possible if the child has been mastering language skills progressively as he or she grows.

The main parameters that the tracking of language skills incorporates include: speech, ability to understand what is said by others, and other communication skills. Walking, running, standing, and sitting are some of the activities classified under the gross motor that are executed with the help of a collection of large muscles (Sigelman and Rider 133–170).

On the other hand, fine motor encompasses hand-generated activities such as, eating, writing, dressing, and drawing. Development milestones are not complete without the inclusion of cognitive capabilities which are characterized by problem-solving, learning, remembering, and understanding new concepts.

Finally, a comprehensive set of milestones will incorporate the social dynamics of a child, i.e., interpersonal relationships of the child and other people around him or her and the child’s ability to understand the feelings of others.

The most convenient person to detect developmental milestone delay in a child is the parent or guardian. It is only after a parent or guardian has detected development anomalies in a child that the services of a paediatric expert can be sought (Sigelman and Rider 133–170).

Chart 1: Report from Dr. Thadani’s demonstration

From Dr. Thadani’s demonstration, we can conclude that the age of the two infants is approximately twelve months. This conclusion is borne out of the type of tasks that the two infants have been able to accomplish. For instance, the two infants are able to sit on their own, make bubble sounds, grasp small boxes with their thumb and index fingers (Sigelman and Rider 133–170).

Works Cited

Sigelman, Carol K. and E. A. Rider. Life-Span Human Development, 7^th ed. 2012, Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Purpose of the study

The objective of the current study is to describe how the application of qualitative methods and internet-based methods can be used encourage community outreach workers to participate in community-based research in the assessment of public health intervention (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2275).

Research hypothesis

• Outreach workers are also able t o function as researchers, in addition to their work
• Activities
• Outreach workers prefer verbally relating their encounters with respondents, as
• opposed to the use of such written methods as field notes or journaling
• Outreach workers yearn for maximum flexibility in filling reports as it is very hard for
• them to complete the activity with their busy schedules

Study Participants

The study mainly targets women of African American descent living in Chicago, IL, and who are often faced with the challenges of high infant and perinatal mortality and morbidity rates (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2275).

Type of research

The current research was of the exploratory type. It involved the use of a VoIP phone-in system to identify at-risk pregnant women among the target population, so that they could be placed on a Medicaid reimbursed social and health services.

Research design

The study was qualitative in nature. The research was aimed at exploring the role of outreach workers who had participated in a community-based intervention program. In this case, the outreach workers would first receive training on certification in research ethics and qualitative research methodology (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2275). The outreach workers utilized Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) phone-in system.

This instrument would help the outreach workers to obtain narrative reports regarding the challenges that the participants (women in the community) are often faced with. In addition, the VoIP phone-in system would also assist the outreach workers to narrate their individual experiences in their capacity as outreach workers.

Methodology

The methodology involved administering the Healthy Births for Healthy Communities (HBHC) program among women in 2 communities in Chicago, IL. The two communities are mainly made up of women of African American descent. One of the defining traits of the women was high perinatal as well as infant mortality and morbidity rates. In this case, community outreach workers were used to identify at-risk pregnant women so that they could then be enrolled in Medicaid reimbursed social and health services (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2275).

In order for the women to be considered eligible for the current program, the pregnant women also had to be of low income status. Also, these women should not have been part of a similar program in the past. Once the outreach workers had identified the study’s respondents using the VoIP phone-in system, they had to fill out engagement logs and canvassing forms about those women that they had encountered while executing their outreach activities.

Data Collection

Data was collected using the VoIP system, which enabled outreach workers to call the numbers provided and leave a message (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2277). The outreach workers were also provided with scripts. This would enable them to record stories that according to them had a lot of relevance to the project.

Results

The qualitative data collected by the outreach workers on the study’s respondents gave them useful insights that could not otherwise have been collected by the evaluation team ((Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2278). For example, the outreach workers were able to learn more about the complex lives that the poor pregnant women had to undergo. In addition, the outreach workers also met with rewards and challenges that characterize the role of an outreach worker.

Conclusions

The study revealed that lay health workers may play a crucial role in research work. In addition, the study also revealed that it is quite possible to tailor training in research methods and ethics to suit the preferences and educational level of the lay health workers (Peacock et al, 2011, p. 2280).

Another finding of the study is that the useful insights of lay health workers can provide us with vital perspectives and information that could be hard to acquire using other data collection techniques. Moreover, the study revealed that training sessions can also be used as a venue to address the various challenges encountered by lay health workers when they are used as both lay health workers and researchers.

Critique

The study’s objectives are very clear and in the end, the study has been able to achieve the set objective. The language used by the study is also very coherent, and it had been referenced properly, both in-text and at the reference section. The authors of the study have explored the methodology section in detail and as such, it is much easier for the researcher to follow the study.

On the other hand, the study neither has a clear hypothesis, not does it contain questionnaires. Nonetheless, the researchers have managed to identify a number of limitations that they were faced with while undertaking the project and this further adds credibility to the study. It would also have been useful if the researchers are able to enumerate some of the study’s delimitations as well.

Furthermore, the researchers have not made an attempt to incorporate an ethical consideration section. For instance, since the community outreach workers would have to use VoIP phone-in system and scripts to collect data, this would constitute inversion of personal privacy. As such, it is important to take into account ethical considerations. While carrying out a research study of this nature, it is important to first seek consent from the ethical committee of the institution to which the project is affiliated.

Reference List

Peacock, N., Issel, M., Townsell, S. J., Chapple-McGruder, TG., & Handler, A. (2011).

An Innovative Method to Involve Community Health Workers as Partners in Evaluation Research. American Journal of Public Health, 101(12), 2275-80

Introduction

Health professionals use different indicators to understand the problems affecting different communities and implement appropriate care delivery programs. Infant mortality is one of these tools used to understand the health status of a given nation. The information gained from surveillance processes is used to inform various programs for preventing diseases. This paper discusses the rate of infant mortality in the United States and Western New York (WNY). The discussion goes further to explore how infant mortality presents a unique form of health disparity in Western New York.

Analysis of the Health Disparity

Lewis, Cogburn, and Williams (2015) define “infant mortality” as the number of deaths occurring in babies before attaining the age of one year. This number is usually recorded in every one thousand live births. The US government has been committed to mitigating risk factors for increased infant mortality rates. In order to achieve these goals, the state has managed to improve the health of women during and after pregnancy. This is supported by using improved prenatal care and the implementation of powerful surveillance research. The coordination of health services in the state and across the country has led to improved outcomes.

It is agreeable that the rate of infant mortality in the United States is quite low. Unfortunately, some racial groups continue to record high infant mortality rates (Guerra-Reyes & Hamilton, 2017). This disparity has been attributed to a number of factors, such as lack of appropriate health systems in rural areas. In WNY, many rural regions do not have adequate neonatal health services. Surveillance and research programs have only been taken seriously in urban regions. Additionally, some minority groups, such as Latinos and African Americans in WNY have recorded increased infant mortality rates. The nature and occurrence of this disparity explain why evidence-based approaches would be needed to support all citizens equally.

Literature Review

The United States is one of the developed nations with broad disparities in infant outcomes and maternal care (Ruiz et al., 2015). Such disparities exist along racial lines. Minority communities and groups such as Latinos and African Americans do not have access to adequate maternal services (Lewis et al., 2015). This fact explains why race is a powerful indicator of the nature and quality of health services available to every citizen (Kothari et al., 2016). Similarly, studies have indicated clearly that many minority groups do not get adequate maternal, postnatal, and prenatal services in Western New York.

Haider (2014) goes further to indicate that the rates of infant mortality and preterm births in the country continue to expose the nature of disparities affecting the healthcare sector. Unfortunately, past studies have failed to analyze how the disparity affects different ethnic or racial groups. In WNY, disparities in maternal health have been catalyzed by a lack of adequate opportunities and economic empowerment (Ruiz et al., 2015). Consequently, underage mothers and women from minority races find it hard to get adequate maternal health services.

The absence of appropriate human development programs in rural regions has contributed to this kind of disparity (Anderson et al., 2018). Similarly, many rural regions in WNY lack appropriate programs that can empower different people to achieve their potential. Such gaps have resulted in family breakdowns and a lack of superior health services. Inequality has become a major problem due to the nature of race relations experienced in the country. Additionally, underserved regions and communities record poor infant mortality rates due to a lack of appropriate welfare programs. Individuals living in such neighborhoods face numerous challenges, such as inadequate health services. Haider (2014) believes strongly that such factors have contributed to unequal infant mortality rates in regions such as WNY.

Statistical Data

In 2012, WNY’s infant mortality rate stood at around 4.97/1,000 live births (Anderson et al., 2018). This was a decline of 16.6 percent within a period of ten years. It is agreeable that the Healthy People 2020’s goal has been to have a national infant mortality rate of 6/1,000 live births (Haider, 2014). This is a clear indication that the targeted region fulfills this objective. However, it should be observed that disparities in infant mortality are evident in WNY. For instance, the rate for African Americans in 2012 was 8.96/1,000 live births (Ruiz et al., 2015). Haider (2014) indicates that the infant mortality rate for whites during the same year stood at 3.7/1,000 while that of Latinos was 5.27/1,000 live births.

Over the years, infant mortality rates have declined by an average of 10 percent. The rate of decline among whites has been around 20 percent (Haider, 2014). This is a clear indication that minorities in the region have not been supported with appropriate strategies in an attempt to deal with this kind of disparity. Additionally, young women below the age of 20 have recorded high infant mortality rates in WNY. For example, the current rate stands at 6.5/1,000 live births for women aged below 20 (Haider, 2014). That of women between 20 and 40 years is around 4.8/1,000 live births.

Relevance to Nursing Care

The average infant mortality rate in WNY is below 5 deaths per 1,000 live births (Anderson et al., 2018). The region has implemented adequate initiatives and programs to ensure that the health of women is improved before pregnancy. This has also been the same case for prenatal care. Unfortunately, some underserved populations and minority groups record higher mortality rates (Anderson et al., 2018). This gap explains why nurses working with childbearing women should implement powerful initiatives and programs. Health practitioners can apply their skills and competencies in different health settings to address women’s health needs.

Nurses working in pediatric and maternity wards should use their skills to transform the situation. They can do so by coordinating their care delivery processes, engage in lifelong learning, and carry out evidence-based researches. These practices will make it easier for them to streamline their care delivery models. They will also meet the changing or diverse needs of underprivileged persons such as the homeless, orphans, and underage mothers. Such initiatives would also support the needs of every newborn child. This disparity is also a wakeup call for practitioners to put in place powerful strategies to monitor the causes of early childhood deaths and offer appropriate solutions (Guerra-Reyes & Hamilton, 2017). The ultimate goal of nursing should, therefore, be to promote safety and quality in prenatal care. By doing so, it will be easier for practitioners to meet the needs of underserved populations in WNY.

Conclusion

This discussion has revealed that most of the surveillance systems and care delivery processes targeting childbearing mothers in WNY have been applied disproportionately. The malpractice has resulted in different infant mortality rates for whites, young women, and minority groups. That being the case, it would be appropriate to implement powerful strategies to deal with this disparity and ensure that childbearing women in WNY have adequate, superior, and timely postnatal and prenatal health services.

References

Guerra-Reyes, L., & Hamilton, L. J. (2017). Racial disparities in birth care: Exploring the perceived role of African-American women providing midwifery care and birth support in the United States. Women and Birth, 30, e9-e16. Web.

Anderson, J. G., Rogers, E. E., Baer, R. J., Oltman, S. P., Paynter, R., Partridge, J. C., … Steurer, M. A. (2018). Racial and ethnic disparities in preterm infant mortality and severe morbidity: A population-based study. Neonatology, 113(1), 44-54. Web.

Haider, S. J. (2014). Racial and ethnic infant mortality gaps and socioeconomic status. Focus, 31(1), 18-20.

Ruiz, J. I., Nuhu, K., McDaniel, J. T., Popoff, F., Izcovich, A., & Criniti, J. M. (2015). Inequality as a powerful predictor of infant and maternal mortality around the world. PLOS One, 10(10), 1-12. Web.

Kothari, C. L., Paul, R., Dormitorio, B., Ospina, F., James, A., Lenz, D., … Wiley, J. (2016). The interplay of race, socioeconomic status and neighborhood residence upon birth outcomes in a high black infant mortality community. SSM – Population Health, 2, 859-867. Web.

Lewis, T. T., Cogburn, C. D., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 11, 407-440. Web.

Introduction

Infants require proper nutrition to enable them to develop their bodies physically mentally, and socially. Once a child is born, the first food the child needs is the mother’s milk. This implies that breastfeeding is greatly important to a newborn baby. During this tender age, the feeding procedure of the baby is very challenging to some people, mostly in developing countries (Lande et al. 2003). Optimal infant feeding involves initiatives that empower mothers to start breastfeeding the child starting from the first day continuously for the period between six months and two years. Mental nutrition is another important aspect to observe so that the infant and the mother’s nutritional status are safeguarded.

Apart from the mother’s milk, the child requires additional nutrients from different kinds of food after some time. During the winning period, the child is introduced to semi-solid foods that help to boost nutrient supply in the body. This prevents the nutritional status of the child. Children who fail to get proper nutrients in addition to the mothers’ milk experience greater problems during their life.

Studying this topic is of great importance to both men and women. This is because parents require to understand the nutritional requirements of their children as they develop into an adult. This topic is also important to health providers (Kersting et al. 2005). They have to offer proper advice to parents who have problems with the nutritional requirements of their young kids. Through proper implementation of better programs, the developing nations can realize a reduction in the death of children from poor nutrition (Black et al. 2004). Guiding and counseling groups can also play an important role in advising parents on how to feed their children once they are born. This research provides important information to the developing nations for readjusting their health and educational organization to include feeding programs, which can greatly reduce the rate of young children who die due to malnutrition.

I intend to look at several issues in this paper. First, I will summarize each of the three researches giving a brief description of their background information. Secondly, I will describe briefly how the studies were carried out and present major findings. I will also critically analyze the researches according to assumptions, methods, and interpretations of the articles (Engle & Menon, 2000).

Summary

Complimentary food for infancy

Gibson, Ferguson, and Lehrfeld carried out this research in developing nations with the view of assessing the nutrient and energy sufficiency in various complementary foods given to children during winning period. The research was based in different countries that are still developing. For example, it included countries like Malawi, Ghana Ethiopia, India, Papua New Guinea Thailand and Philippines. The investigators collected and selected recipes of complementary foods among the mentioned countries (Lande et al. 2003). Food and Nutrient Research Institute of Manila supplied the recipes from Philippines while Institute of Nutrition of Mahidol supplied the recipes from Thailand. The other recipes were taken from the literature. Ferguson and his friends compiled the food composition data that was used to compute the nutrients, anti-contents and energy per 100g together with molar ratios of every recipe. The researchers did not include food composition quantities of nianic since only a few of them had nianic contribution and performed niacin. Trace minerals, non-starch polysaccharides together with phytic acid came from staple foods of the above countries. The staple foods were not analyzed for vitamin A.

The research only used children of 9 to 11 months because children at this stage still receive some milk from their mothers. For other cereal-based guidelines, the content matter was computed for gruel made with both ten and twenty-eight percent dry matter. Lastly, the computed intake of nutrient and energy in one day was compared with the requirement needs of energy and nutrient from the complementary foods (Engle & Menon, 2000).

Infant and young children feeding in developing countries

Mandana Arabi and Nune’ mangasaryan who are employees of the United Children Funds with other people carried out this research. They worked closely with Edward A. Frongillo and Rasmi Avula who are employees of the University of South Carolina.

This research indicates that feeding techniques are important in determining growth and development of the child during the early stages. The research describes seven practices in twenty-eight countries using indicators of young children feeding together with complementary feeding rules (Black, et al. 2004). They indicate that there is a substantial disparity in all the countries. Only twenty-five percent of 0-5 months children were involved in exclusive breast-feeding. On the other hand, a half of six to eight month old got complementary foods in the previous day. By living in the high –HDI nations may fail to translate to desirable feeding programs. It is true in the research that there is a requirement for promotion, support and protection of best breastfeeding together with complementary feeding techniques. Additionally, it is better to adhere to all the recommendations regarding to feeding during the sick period. The table below indicates countries that the research was carried out in February this year.

This survey was carried out in a developing nation, which is Lebanon. The survey involved in identifying the importance of breastfeeding and the effect of introducing semisolid and solid foods to infants. Malek Batal, choghik Boulghoujian and Rima afifi engaged in this serious study to provide evidence on the underlying concerning breastfeeding in one of the developing nations. The main reason for this study was to clarify issues concerning breastfeeding in mothers who give birth in Lebanon (Engle & Menon, 2000). The research was carried out in mothers who gave birth in hospitals. The survey included the cross-sectional design for over ten months. The researchers observed that a good number of mothers started breast-feeding after a half an hour of giving birth while others started after a few hours and very few never breastfed their young ones. This information was collected from mothers across the country in health centers then the participants were sampled out to get real participants in the research. The research reveals that mothers reduce breastfeeding as the day count towards six and eight months (Engle & Menon, 2000).

Critical Analysis of the Articles

The article on Infant and young children feeding in developing countries did not consider countries that have low-HDI from some parts of Africa. It is possible that this aspect greatly affected the results. All countries with high or low –HDI should have been included in the study to find the best results. The research revealed that children with the age between six months and eight months are given some different solid and semisolid foods as they continue to breastfeed. According to the results, the study was not able to determine the quality of the complementary food that was given to the children. This brings a gap between the results and the research objectives (Engle & Menon, 2000). This is how feeding in children takes place in the young kids together with the environment that enable the children to eat some food. They include availability of the food or care-giving services that encourage children to eat which were not considered.

On the other hand, Malek Batal and his friend devoted themselves to providing extensive report on when mothers start breastfeeding. They came up with a design that enabled them get proper information. For instance, they used questionnaires to fill in important information. Additionally they implemented a proper strategy in getting the required members of the study. It is true from the research that they sampled out participants in different healthcares and engaged them in the research for ten good months (Dewey & Adu-Afarwuah, 2008). This reasonable time provided ample time for observation, assessment and determination of the results in Lebanon.

General Conclusion

Children born in developing nations face many challenges with regard to feeding. Some mothers willingly feed their newborn babies on breast milk. Others fail to breastfeed due to various challenges that they face. For instance, availability of food to developing nation for mothers and children is a challenge.

Complementary foods are important to a child since it provides other requirements by the body for proper growth. Mental development, physical development and social development requires that the child should receive nutrients from other sources apart from the mother’s milk. This does not rule out the benefits of the breast milk just after birth.

The research in this context forms a basis for setting up more research programs. The research programs will be able to get more problems that the child in a developing nation can be facing in feeding.

References

Black, et al. (2004). Longitudinalstudies of infectious diseases and physical growth of children in rural Bangladesh. Boston: Beacon Press.

Dewey, K., & Adu-Afarwuah, S. (2008). Systematicreview of the efficacy and effectiveness of complemen-tary feeding interventions in developing countries.Maternal and Child Nutrition. New York: Perennial Classics.

Engle, P. & Menon, P. (2000). Care and nutrition: Concepts and measurement. New York: World Development Body.

Kersting, et al. (2005). Measured consumption of commercial infant food products in German infants: results from the DONALD study. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 100, 200-2.

Lande, et al. (2003). Infant feeding practices and associated factors in the first six months of life. London: Acta Paediatrica.

Summarize the main mortality indicators listed in this website

Total Population

The total population of a country is the summation of all individuals living in a certain particular geographical area. In this case, the total population of people living in UAE is 9,157,000 (Magyarország, 2003). This number represents the average population after estimating the population of both the death rate as well as birth rates.

Gross National Income Per Capita

The evaluation of the value of the country depends on the average income of every person in the nation. As such, Gross national income per capita is a tool that shows the total value of the nation in terms of dollar. The GNI per capita of United Arabs Emirates is $ 2012 (Felbermayr, Hiller & Sala, 2008). This represents the average income of every citizen in the country. Determination of Gross national income per capita is important to ascertain the level of income in the country and compare its value with the other nations. An economy performs fairly when GNI per capita is high.

Life Expectancy at Birth m/f (years, 2015)

Many people tend to estimate the number of years that they are likely to live after their birth. Life Expectancy at birth is the average that babies can live in the environment after birth (Koontz & Hallman, 2004). It give the people the estimates age that people are likely to die. For instance, for the case of UAE, Life Expectancy at birth in 2025 is 76/79.

Probability of Dying under Five (per 1000 live births, 0)

The probability of dying under five gives the number of people that can die before reaching five years. It calculates the number of deaths of children below five years in a group of 1000 people. From the statistics, it is apparent that there is no probability of dying under five in UAE.

Probability of Dying between 15 And 60 Years m/f (per 1000 population, 2013)

The probability of dying between 15 and 60 years represents the number of deaths of people with ages between 15 and 60 years (Anson & Luy, 2014). This statistics also represent the death rate of youths in the country. In 2013, the probability of dying at ages between 15 and 60 years is 84/59.

Total Expenditure on Health Per Capita (Intil $, 2014)

This fraction of national per capita takes care of health of individuals in the country. It represents the amount of income that people spend on health. In 2014, the average income spent on health in UAE is 2.405.

Total Expenditure on Health as % of GDP (2014)

Total health expenditure is the total of both private and public of health expenses. This total cost covers all the health care services in the country. It is normally expressed in percentage in comparison with GDP (California, 2000). The total health expenditure of UAE in 2014 is 3.6.

Infant Mortality Rate in AUE

Infant Mortality Rate= (infant deaths/live births)X1000

= 76/79 X 1000

= 962.03

Technical Problems That May Arise When Calculating IMR

Counting the Number of Deaths

Ascertaining the number of deaths in a particular geographical location becomes a problem. Usually, people assume that that the death represents the rate of death per year when the number of deaths keeps on changing (California, 2000). However, the results do not show the difficulty in counting the number of deaths, which leads to unrealistic figures.

Inaccurate Sources of Data used for Calculating IMR

The sources that provide data used for calculating IMR are not reliable. It is difficult to determine the accuracy of these data to arrive at reliable results. In this regard, people tend to assume these data and calculate IMR of the country (Ali, 2010). Such calculations may lead to wrong interpretation as well as irrelevant decision-making.

Exclusion of Stillbirth Rates

The data used in calculating IMR does not include the population of stillbirths. In this case, infant deaths should begin from the features of 28 weeks. It is not easy to determine the stillbirths because there is no data that records such deaths (Ali, 2010). For instance, IMR does not include the deaths that result from abortion. As a result, the figures from IMR may not be reliable for interpretation.

References

Ali, A. A. S. (2010). Unintentional death rates in selected medical districts among males living in the United Arab Emirates. Web.

Anson, J., & Luy, M. (2014). Mortality in an international perspective. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media.

California. (2000). California’s infant mortality rate. Sacramento, CA: State of California, Health and Human Services Agency, Dept. of Health Services.

Felbermayr, G. J., Hiller, S., & Sala, D. (2008). Does immigration boost per capita income? Stuttgart: Inst. für Volkswirtschaftslehre, Univ. Hohenheim.

Koontz, D. R., & Hallman, T. (2004). Life expectancy. New York, New York: Bantam Books.

Magyarország, T. (2003). Gross domestic product. Budapest: Kulturtrade Publishing Ltd.

Among developed countries, the United States lags well behind with its 6 infant deaths per 1,000 live births. The five leading causes of infant mortality are congenital defects, preterm birth accompanied by low birth weight, pregnancy complications, injuries such as suffocation, and sudden infant death syndrome. This paper will discuss how informatics and manipulating big data can help women and health practitioners predict and prevent tragedy.

Ascertaining Causes of Death

The first step would be to determine prevailing definitive causes of infant death for a specific region, which would allow for a customized solution. A prime example of a campaign aiming at preventing infant mortality employing informatics is Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance. CHAMPS Network takes place in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. What makes CHAMPS approach unique is the scope of data that is being captured. Specialists take into consideration laboratory results, verbal autopsy data, maternal health data, and clinical information to draw statistics for later use in the decision-making process (Public Health Informatics Institute, 2016).

Automated Surveillance of Child Mortality Trends

The second step would be to develop a tool for automated surveillance of child mortality trends. It suffices not to evaluate the gravity of the issue locally; there is a need to build a national network that could be accessed by health practitioners and policymakers. Tourassi, Yoon, and Xu (2016) tested software that carries out online mining of obituaries to gather statistics on geospatial trends in cancer deaths. Even though the topic of the said study was not infant mortality, its objective is similar to that discussed in this paper.

Preventive Model

Lastly, once objective data has been drawn and awareness is raised, researchers need to come up with a preventive model that would heed all the relevant factors. Tsui (2017) offered four criteria for evaluating the likelihood of infant death. First, the model needs to analyze clinical EHR information which would coverage, race, preterm labor, birth defects, laboratory results, and other data. Second, each case should be put in the social context: parents’ education level, family environment, and bankruptcy. Lastly, behavioral data would include alcohol and drug abuse, whereas environmental data would deal with pollution, air and water quality, and so on.

Barriers and Challenges

Experts are confronted with several problems: they do not have appropriate tools for data collection that would cover all relevant domains and risk factors. The existing data is either insufficient, subjective, or includes only a handful of factors selected ad-hoc. Health care would benefit from implementing EHR (electronic health records) in every medical facility so that each organization could provide full information. The gathered evidence needs to be translated into practice, which, in the absence of a national strategy, might be challenging to say the least.

Conclusion

The death of a child is a tragedy for the parents, which, in some cases, could be prevented if the complications are predicted on time. Health care increasingly relies on informatics and new technologies, and there is a hope that they will be of use in decreasing infant mortality. A good strategy could include the following three steps: assigning causes of death, distributing and sharing data across an elaborate national network, and predicting negative outcomes.

References

Public Health Informatics Institute. (2016). Understanding childhood mortality through informatics. Web.

Tourassi, G., Yoon, H. J., & Xu, S. (2016). A novel web informatics approach for automated surveillance of cancer mortality trends. Journal of biomedical informatics, 61, 110–118.

Tsui, F. (2017). Using big data to predict infant mortality in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Web.

Infant mortality and morbidity is a significant issue in the healthcare system of the US. The development of the practices led to improvements in patient outcomes. However, “extremely preterm infants continue to contribute disproportionately to the burden of neonatal morbidity, mortality, and long-term neurodevelopmental disability” (Stroll et al., p. 1039). Thus, an understanding of the underlying causes of the matter is required to develop effective interventions. The purpose of the paper is to examine the article by Stoll et al. (2015), and identify how the research can be applied to improve the rates of mortality and morbidity in infant care.

The objective of the study was to gather and examine information regarding the mortality and morbidity of newborns in Neonatal Research Network centers. The focus was on the changes that were implemented in the care system between the years 1993 and 2002. Inspecting the interventions that took place and their outcomes can be beneficial for future studies on the topic, as it provides an insight into the causes of mortality of infants at 22 weeks to 28 weeks of gestation.

The paper is research as it exhibits a process of collection and analysis of specified data. For this study, the authors chose hospitals across the United States and collected information about the newborns that were born or admitted to the institutions (Stoll et al., 2015). The aim was to track the infants from their birth to them being discharged from the institution (and their health state during the next 120 days). Then, the statistical analysis was utilized to identify the nature of the care the infants received and their health outcomes.

The target audience for the paper is professionals that work in the healthcare industry and aim to create an effective intervention that would help reduce the rates of infant mortality and morbidity. The study collected a large number of data that relates to changes in practices of neonatal care, and additional information (such as age, ethnicity, and health state of mothers). The information can be used as a guide in family counseling or for the development of interventions in infant care.

For the most part, the information presented in the article was easy to understand. However, the statistical analysis included a large number of data, which required additional attention. Because the numbers were incorporated into the text of the paper, it was difficult to comprehend. However, the graphs and tables presented in the table after that have enabled a better interpretation of the data.

There is a variety of interesting findings in this paper. Firstly, the practices of aggressive lung ventilation can cause damage to the infants, thus embracing new approaches can have beneficial outcomes. Secondly, the improved care practices have enabled the decrease in morbidity for newborns, most notably, “a significant increase in survival to discharge for infants born at 23, 24, 25 weeks” (Stroll et al., 2015, p. 1045). Finally, despite the improvements, the number of infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia has increased. This can be a suggestion for further studies on the topic.

The implications for nursing education, research, and practice are varied. Because nurses spend a lot of their work time with the patients, they can generate research that would focus on improving the current practices of care. Thus, by utilizing the study by Stroll et al. (2015), a nurse can create an intervention plan for infant care to enhance health outcomes and research it in a hospital setting. In nursing education, the study can be employed to illustrate the importance of improving the current practice of care.

I would recommend this article to other students as it provides a good understanding of the issue. The data that was collected by Stroll et al. (2015) is extensive; thus, it can be used for further investigations into the problem. In addition, there is a lot of information regarding improved care (such as lung ventilation practices) that a future nurse can utilize in his or her work. Therefore, the paper is useful and relevant to any future medical professional.

The article produces an excellent data analysis of the topic. However, it can be improved by extending the conclusion and including more implications for future studies, as the current version provides only a brief overview. The paper has urged me to investigate the topic of health outcomes of infants and possible improvements in the current practices, as it has illustrated specific changes that were made by hospitals and how those have affected the mortality and morbidity rates.

Overall, Stroll et al. (2015) have conducted valuable research that can help future studies in creating interventions and new practices for neonatal care. The authors collected an extensive amount of data from many hospitals in the US. The research can be used in nurse education and nurse practice as it presents a valid analysis of the issues of infant mortality and morbidity, and can be utilized for further studies.

Reference

Stoll, B. J., Hansen, N.I., Bell, E.F., Walsh, M. C., Carlo, W. A., Shankaran, S., … Higgins, R. D. (2015). Trends in care practices, morbidity, and mortality of extremely preterm neonates, 1993-2012. JAMA, 314(10), 1039 – 1051. Web.