Category: Infant

Introduction

To supplement human breast milk, scientists have come up with genetically modified milk derived from dairy cows. Three hundred cows have been modified to produce milk with human breast milk properties (Gray, 2011). The milk has been genetically modified to include lysozyme (HLZ) that improves the immune system of newborn babies and fights ailments. Chinese researchers have introduced genes that bring lysozyme and other human proteins into the embryos of these cows. The embryos are then implanted in surrogate or genetically modified mother cows. The result of this is a cow that can produce milk containing lysozyme and two other proteins (Yang, Wang, Tang B, Liu, & Guo, 2011). This paper seeks to outline the specific nutritional benefits obtained from this milk. It will also highlight the pros and cons associated with this development.

Li observes that although HLZ is beneficial to young babies, it is not all mothers who want to go into lactation. Some factors prevent lactation, especially medical and health issues of the mother and the child. The mother might be willing to breastfeed but unfortunately not be able to produce sufficient milk. In addition, if the mother has a chronic illness, she may be advised by health practitioners to decline to breastfeed the baby (Gray, 2011).

It is therefore important to develop alternative sources of HLZ. This research is aimed at benefitting the health of infants. Researchers believe that modified milk from cows will be a better alternative than baby formula. The researchers hope the genetically modified milk could be sold in retails in the future to supplement the baby formulas which have been alleged as inferior (Braconnier, 2011).

Nutritional Benefits

One of the advantages of this invention is that the milk will be able to support babies with normal diet needs and special needs. Genetically modified milk exhibits similar nutritional characteristics to human breast milk. The genetically modified milk will have proteins such as HLZ, Lactoferrin and alpha-lactalbumin that are found in breast milk. Scientists have tried to balance the amount of protein, vitamins and fats to resemble breast milk (Jackson, Berg, Murray, & Maga, 2010).

The nutritional content of genetically modified milk from cows is brought close to that of human breast milk. A hundred-milliliter pack of human breast milk after three weeks of lactation contains approximately 70 calories, 7.4 g carbohydrate, 1.3 g protein, 4.2 g fat, and about 89.97 g of water. These values are the average obtained from samples taken repeatedly from different sources. Research suggests that these compositions vary during the day; for instance fat content may change as much as 2g/l in a period of twenty-four hours. The degree of composition has also been found to vary according to the diet composition (Yang, Wang, Tang B, Liu, & Guo, 2011).

Pure colostrums without any genetic interference produce lower values than the stated values for human breast milk. A hundred-milliliter sample taken after a few days of lactation contains approximately 58 calories, 5.3g carbohydrates, 3.7g protein, and 2.9g fat. Colostrum is low in fat and carbohydrates compared to human breast milk taken after a few days of lactation. The fat content, vitamins and beta carotene in cow’s milk will continue to decrease with time. Genetically modified cow’s milk has been made to bring the nutritional content closer to that of human breast milk (Yang, Wang, Tang B, Liu, & Guo, 2011).

Genetically modified cow’s milk has improved the fat content of ordinary cow’s milk. The scientists have boosted the fat content to about twenty percent, and have increased the number of milk solids drawing it closer to human breast milk (Gray, 2011). Fat is very important for the growth of a baby and is responsible for the majority of the calories in human breast milk. The modified fat contents in genetically modified milk will be important for the health of the baby. This is because fat is the primary source of the majority of calories in breast milk. Fat determines the growth rates and is required in the metabolism of vitamins; fat deficiency has a direct relationship with vitamin deficiency (Jackson, Berg, Murray, & Maga, 2010).

Important protein improvements have been made on genetically modified cow’s milk to allow easier digestion and assimilation. Milk contains two categories of protein including whey and caseins. The wheys maintain a liquid state in the stomach while the caseins turn into curds; therefore wheys are easier to digest. Human breast milk contains sixty percent whey compared to a cow’s milk at eighteen percent. This makes it hard for a human infant to digest cow’s milk. The genetically modified milk has increased the percentage of whey and has reduced the casein content to make it helpful for an infant. The milk has modified the proteins to serve as defense against disease-causing organisms. Immunoglobulin, a protein that protects the infant against respiratory bacteria, viruses and intestinal parasites has been incorporated (Yang, Wang, Tang B, Liu, & Guo, 2011).

Merits

Although normal cow’s milk has a higher protein density than human milk, it is not specifically good for human consumption, worse still for a growing infant. Health experts assert that this milk is specifically designed to cater to the needs of a developing calf. The milk does not have antimicrobials, hormones and digestive enzymes that are present in human milk. This research is meant to make those additions to cow’s milk to make it more digestible and nutritional (Braconnier, 2011).

An advantage of genetically modified cows’ milk to the health of an infant is that it contains lysozyme. This is an antimicrobial protein that is usually found in large quantities in human breast milk. This protein protects babies from any bacterial infection after they are born. The genetically modified milk will help adopted babies who will arguably not get an opportunity to breastfeed from their mothers. If the mother cannot breastfeed the baby on basis of health, the baby can get this genetically modified milk instead of relying on normal cow’s milk that lacks antimicrobial protein (Dresbach, Flax, Sokolowski, & Allred, 2009).

Genetically modified cow milk contains a human protein called lactoferrin. This protein will aid infants to increase the numbers of immune cells in the body. This means that those infants consuming the milk will have a boosted immune system. This will improve the health of the baby to keep the diseases and infections away. If the baby cannot access breast milk for some reason, this milk will be beneficial rather than using the normal cow’s milk that lacks lactoferrin (Yang, Wang, Tang B, Liu, & Guo, 2011).

Demerits

The development of genetically modified (GM) milk from cows has elicited negative claims from campaigns against GM technology. Although the research has a backing of a major biotechnology company, the research is likely to attract criticisms and opposition from stakeholders. The research also elicits legal and ethical concerns. Criticisms have already been obtained from animal welfare groups who reacted angrily to this study. They have questioned the effects on the health of the cows and the health safety of the milk obtained (Dresbach, Flax, Sokolowski, & Allred, 2009).

Environmental activists are concerned about the impact of this development on the environment. The side effects are not clearly known so in matters of ethics; it is not good to test this milk on human beings, worst of all babies. Ethical issues in matters of altering the genes are that we do not need to hurt the animals. Another ethical concern is the mass production of these kinds of cows. The safety of the milk has to be ascertained before the milk is sold.

A health concern about GM milk is that introduction of proteins into organisms may induce allergy in GM products (Dresbach, Flax, Sokolowski, & Allred, 2009). Genetically modified milk from cows will affect society directly and therefore, the stakeholders need to open debates for the public to participate. This product might be consumed unwillingly and out of no choice by the poor, powerless, and illiterate people in the society. These are people who do not have any influence on the issue of genetically modified organisms. The development might produce a good product but the question remains whether the milk will reach poor people especially in developing countries. The invention might be patented and be affordable to only the rich people in society.

Conclusion

Genetically modified milk from cows is a new development that needs to be tested for a long time before it is made available to the public. GM milk has the potential of solving health issues in society. However, the analysis should be made to consolidate all the health, ethical, environmental and legal concerns. The public all over the world and in targeted markets needs to be adequately informed to not only bear the risks of GMOs but also reap the benefits.

References

Braconnier, D. (2011). Genetically modified cows may one day produce human breast milk. Web.

Dresbach, S. H., Flax, H., Sokolowski, A., & Allred, J. (2009). The Impact of Genetically Modified Organisms on Human Health. Neil Avenue, Columbus: Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet.

Gray, R. (2011). Genetically modified cows produce ‘human’ milk. The Telegraph , pp. 1-2.

Jackson, K. A., Berg, J. M., Murray, J. D., & Maga, E. A. (2010). Evaluating the fitness of human lysozyme transgenic dairy goats: growth and reproductive traits. Transgenic Res , 977–986.

Yang, B., Wang, J., Tang B, B., Liu, Y., & Guo, C. (2011). Characterization of Bioactive Recombinant Human Lysozyme Expressed in Milk of Cloned Transgenic Cattle. Web.

Introduction

Infant Sleep Disturbance (ISD) is a common problem in psychology. Infants who have this problem may significantly disrupt family life, as they demand a lot of attention from parents and those around them. Past findings from sleep laboratories show insignificant differences between infant sleep disorders and sleep disorders among older children, or adults (Heller, 2013).

It is difficult to differentiate normal and abnormal sleep disorders among infants because these disorders manifest differently, and at different developmental stages. However, sleep disorders that manifest as unsatisfactory sleeping habits appear to be more common in infants.

Since ISD is a common occurrence, many scientific studies have delved into the condition to explain its causes and solutions. Most of such studies highlight maternal relations, environmental factors, and infant characteristics as the main variables that affect ISD (Heller, 2013; Siegler, DeLoache & Eisenberg, 2010).

While the need to evaluate the effects of the above variables on studies that explore infant sleeping disorder is important, the multiplicity of different variables in ISD findings often confuses parents and caregivers when they have to identify the most effective basis for managing the condition.

This paper draws on the findings of previous researchers by affirming that infant, parent, and environmental factors affect sleep disorders for infants aged six to 36 months. Thus, this paper proposes a research study to identify the most significant variable that has the greatest effect on sleep disorders among this group of infants.

Purpose of Study

The main purpose of conducting the proposed study is to provide a platform for the easy identification of the most effective intervention for managing ISD. Indeed, by understanding the extent of environmental factors, infant characteristics, and maternal relations on infant sleeping disorders, it would be easy to provide the basis for the formulation of the most effective intervention for managing the condition.

The uniqueness of this study stems from the fact that it would provide a clear understanding of the most effective intervention/basis for physicians and parents to pursue in the management of sleep disorders among infants aged three to 36 months. This way, it would be possible to have a clear picture of the most effective intervention to manage ISD.

Therefore, the proposed study aims to adopt a holistic understanding of sleep disorders among infants by categorizing the most significant variables for the identification of effective interventions. Comparatively, other studies have only explored the role of specific variables, like maternal relationships and environmental factors on sleeping disorders without explaining the extent that such variables help to manage ISD.

Research Question

• To explore the extent that infant, parent, and environmental factors affect sleeping disorders among infants aged three to 36 months.

Research Objectives

• To explore the extent that infant characteristics affect sleeping disorders.
• To understand the importance of maternal relations in formulating interventions to manage sleep disorders.
• To explain the extent that environmental factors play in exacerbating, or inhibiting, sleeping disorders among infants.

Hypothesis

• Maternal relations play the greatest role in understanding sleeping disorders among infants.

Literature Review

Previous researches that have investigated ISD have identified maternal relationships and environmental factors as the most common variables in ISD research. One article that investigated patterns of developmental changes in infants (6-36 months old) identified intrinsic variables as the main causes of ISD (Siegler et al., 2010).

In detail, the article highlighted temperament variability, environmental factors, and maternal variables as the main factors affecting ISD. Heller (2013) agrees that the relationship between mothers and infants is a common predictor of sleep pattern disorders among 3-36 month old infants.

He also highlights a father’s presence, quality of childcare, and birth orders as common issues that affect sleep pattern disorders among the same group of infants (Heller, 2013). Similar studies that have used the same variables to investigate behavioral sleep patterns among infants say sleep disorders may be more common than perceived by parents (Siegler et al., 2010).

For example, Thiedke (2001) investigated stability and predictive factors that affected infant sleeping habits and found out that socioeconomic status was not a predictor of sleeping disorders among 3-36 months old infants.

Instead, he proposed that maternal relations and breastfeeding habits had a major role to play in defining sleep patterns (Thiedke, 2001). Similar studies show that demographic variables have insignificant effects on sleeping disorders among infants within the first 12 months of their birth (Heller, 2013).

The influence of maternal associations on sleep disorders has also emerged in other independent studies that analyze sleep disorders among infants. For example, an article investigating frequent night awakenings in infants and preschool children identified non-adaptive sleep associations and maternal relations as two common variants affecting sleep disorders (Heller, 2013).

The article also said unpleasant engagements between parents and infants enforced sleep awakening among infants (Heller, 2013). Studies that have also investigated maternal relationships show that about 95% of infants would not sleep if they have not experienced any type of maternal interaction (Thiedke, 2001). Thiedke (2001) says this finding is largely true for infants less than 15 months old.

When the infants reach 15 months, the statistics change because evidence shows that the percentage of infants who would not sleep without maternal interactions reduces from 90% to 75% (Thiedke, 2001). Conversely, this statistic shows that about 30% of infants would not self soothe to sleep without maternal interactions.

Observers weakly understood the correlates of maternal relationships in the association of maternal relationships with sleep disorders among infants. Some researchers, for example, have used rapid eye movements among infants to dispel the idea that the role of maternal interactions in the development of ISD is a mere byproduct of sleep consolidation (Heller, 2013).

Here, features of the mother-infant relationship emerge as correlates that affect the influence of maternal relationships on sleep disorders. Evidence also shows that insecure attachment to a mother should be an important variable to consider in the understanding of the above relationship (Siegler et al., 2010).

To assess the influence of this insecurity, Thiedke (2001) conducted a study of 94 pairs of mothers and their infants and found out that the insecurity of infant-mother attachment influenced the severity of sleeping disorders among infants aged 3-36 months.

Maternal relations have therefore dominated most of the research that has delved into the details of ISD. The hypothesis of the proposed study therefore stems from the same opinion.

Methodology

Study Design

The proposed research will be a prospective cohort study that follows the lives of a group of respondents to establish infant sleeping behaviors for a group of selected respondents (the study involves longitudinal observations over a long time) (Doll, 2001). The prospective cohort study will use a mixed research approach.

Stated differently, the proposed study intends to use qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect and analyze data. The greatest motivation for using the mixed research approach is its ability to match the purpose of the method to the research objectives.

For instance, this design will be useful in providing a feel of the study before undertaking an in-depth analysis of the same. Furthermore, the proposed mixed methodology would help to triangulate the findings of the study and improve the validity of the responses (Northwest Nazarene University, 2013). The sound relationship between the quantitative approach and the qualitative approach is therefore invaluable for the proposed study.

Data Collection

This paper aims to gather primary data through observation and surveys. Since it is important to understand sleep disorders among infants at different stages of their growth, the proposed study aims to observe infant behavior at five stages of their development. The study intends to make the observations when the infants are one month, six months, 12 months, 24 months, and 36 months old.

Observation will be an important data collection method for the intended study because it would provide information regarding the sleeping behaviors of infants, if parents leave the infants alone in a room, and if the parents are available in the room. Through such an analysis, the proposed study would test significant variables, such as parent-infant attachment.

To assess environmental factors affecting ISD, the study intends to give 50 mothers a questionnaire (survey) that would gather significant pieces of information regarding an infant’s environment. The study would use the same questionnaire to gather useful pieces of information regarding infant characteristics.

This way, it would be easy to compare environmental factors, maternal relations, and environmental factors at the same time. Significant questions that would appear in the questionnaires include an assessment of whether the infant woke up the mother in the last week of conducting the survey, or not, and an assessment of the nature/frequency of interaction between the mother and the child.

Respondents

Through a purposeful sampling technique, the proposed study aims to recruit respondents from all over the country to participate in the study. The participants would come from different socioeconomic backgrounds and geographical regions to have an unbiased assessment of important variables (such as maternal health, maternal education, poverty, and family size) that affect ISD.

The mean age of the participants would be 30 years because the study aims to gather the views of new mothers. Because of the widespread geographical area needed to reach these respondents, the proposed study will use online surveys to gather their views.

Proposed Data Analysis

Data transformation will be the main data analysis technique for the proposed study. This method involves the transformation of one type of data into another (to allow for easy statistical and thematic analyses).

Northwest Nazarene University (2013) says this analysis method is highly appropriate for studies that use the mixed method approach because it allows for easy integration of quantitative and qualitative data. In detail, the data transformation method will make it possible to transform qualitative findings into numerical ratings (to analyze such data with quantitative assessments).

Insights into infant sleep patterns mainly depend on maternal reports on the same. Thiedke (2001) says previous reports on ISD normally underestimate the frequency of sleep disturbances, but rarely do they distort the same observation.

Evidence of maternal relations would therefore emerge from an analysis of three different reports that would include ISDs that occurred in the past week, the extent of the ISDs, and the impact of the ISDs on the mothers.

After the assessment of these variables, the proposed study intends to use Zuckerman’s criterion for understanding the severity of ISDs. This criterion outlines that three disruptions constitute a sleep problem. The same criterion outlines that a sleep problem exists when a child is awake for more than one hour (Thiedke, 2001).

Results

The expected results could follow the hypothesis laid out in this paper. In other words, the results could affirm the importance of maternal relations as the most important factor affecting ISD for infants aged 6-36 months.

Environmental influences and infant characteristics could therefore emerge as the secondary influences of sleeping disorders among the sampled infants. Through the affirmation of this hypothesis, this research would add to the growing body of literature surrounding the importance of maternal relations in solving ISD.

Conclusion

The results of the proposed study would help to understand the importance of maternal relations in ISD. If the study affirms the importance of this relation to infant sleeping habits, a new frontier for identifying the most effective methods for correcting ISDs would emerge.

This way, medical practitioners and physicians would be able to formulate effective interventions for correcting the disorder, while avoiding the confusion of proposing different types of interventions.

If the proposed study fails to uphold maternal relations as the most significant intervention for correcting ISD, the role/significance of environmental influences and infant characteristics would emerge. This way, it would be easier to identify the most effective intervention to pursue when advising parents on the most effective intervention for correcting ISD.

References

Doll, R. (2001). Cohort studies: history of the method. I. Prospective cohort studies. Soz Praventive med, 46(2), 75-86.

Heller, K. (2013). Resolving Infant Sleep Disturbance. Web.

Northwest Nazarene University. (2013). Benefits and Challenges of Mixed Methods Research. Web.

Siegler, R., DeLoache, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2010). How Children Develop. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Thiedke, C. (2001). Sleep Disorders and Sleep Problems in Childhood. Am Fam Physician, 63(2), 277-285.

Introduction

In psychology, acquisition of knowledge is a crucial pillar of human life. Psychologists are concerned in determining the stages of its development. They, also, focus on flexibility of human mind and the ability of acquiring knowledge. Various psychologists and researchers have developed theories that express diverse understanding.

Particularly, the cognitive competence of infants raises a lot of contention. Current psychologists disagree with the old theories relating to infant development. The theories include Piaget’s theory of development. The Piaget’s stage theory has been challenged partially (Ginsburg & Opper 1969). The recent psychologists suggest that the competence of infants is more than Piaget suggested in his theory.

Therefore, they seek to develop and acquire evidence supporting their argument. In this paper, we seek to understand the original understanding relating to infant competence. We shall, also, explore on the challenges that are launched against the early theories.

The exploration will include the examination of the evidence that challengers have developed against the original suggestions. However, we shall start with a brief description of Piaget’s theory forming the basis of the paper.

Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s theory was originally known as the developmental stage theory. It focuses on the characteristics of knowledge and its gradual acquisition. It is, also, concerned with the structure and utilization of knowledge. Piaget suggested that cognitive development was involved in the progressive process of mind reorganization. It asserts that children understand their environment gradually.

The understanding enables them to identify the differences that exist between their prerequisite knowledge and the environment. It does not pay much attention to language as a pillar of development. In addition, he relates the RNA molecules to mental development without having a firm conclusion of the relationship that exists.

Although researchers have given theoretical explanations relating to RNA concept, they have not produced experimental evidence (Phillips 1975).

It, further, assumes that cognitive development is a smooth process that comprise of four stages. The stages include sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, pre-operatory thought, and formal operational stage. This theory will form the basis of this paper. We shall examine the evidences showing that the development of an infant is more competent that the suggestions made by the Piaget’s theory.

Smooth Advancement

In his theory, Piaget predicts smooth developmental stages of an infant’s mind. However, specialists assert that infant development does not follow a smooth progress. They assert that the stage model is an approximation that does not fit reality perfectly. They emphasize that the development experiences developmental rush.

The rush allows a child to learn some concepts that are predictably represented in later stages with ease. They acquire skills that do not coincide with Piaget’s scale. In fact, there is a lot of evidence on these cases around the world. For example, Akrit Jaswal bestowed this evidence in India.

Akrit Jaswal was born in 1993 in India. Surprisingly, he began speaking at the age of ten months. At the age of five years, he could read Shakespeare’s books. He was allowed bys surgeons to watch surgeries at the age of six years. Consequently, the child performed a successful surgery at the age of seven years.

Since he had the passion of science, he was admitted to Punjab University at the age of twelve years. In fact, he is the youngest child to attend a university in India. He, personally, say that he has many ideas that would solve health problems. Although his case is seemingly extraordinary, it suggests that children are more competitive than the theory suggests.

Collins Carson, also, deviated from the theory of Piaget and portrayed more competence than people expected (Slater & Bremner 2003). At the age of fifteen years he is seeking for a bachelor degree in evolutionary biology. His aim is to acquire a Ph. D at the age of 22 years. In reference to Collins, it is clear that the suggestions pertaining to Piaget’s theory in adolescence stage lacks sense.

Therefore, his case asserts that cognitive development is more competitive than the people would suggest. The two cases, therefore, approve that children are more competitive than the earlier speculations.

Domain Specific

The Piaget’s theory argues on basis that generalizes the domains of development. The competence of children should be based on domain specific arguments (Roberts 2007). It should examine their competence on various fields. Technical experiments have shown that some infants experience fast development in certain domain. On other hand, they might experience a slow development in certain fields that needs different skills.

For example, development differs in field like mathematics, logic, physics, and language. Some students are highly competitive in mathematical advancement. They portray a high cognitive competence than they might appear. For example, male children have a higher rate of cognitive development in technical subjects than female children.

On the other hand, female children experience a high rate of development in languages. In a technical experiment that was done in Kenya, researchers collected the performance of boys in fifty national schools. They considered performance of students with the same age in the K.C.S.E exam.

They found that 86 percent of boys scored above the mean grade in mathematics. In English, only 56 percent scored above the mean grade. For the girls, 88 percent scored more than the mean in English. On the other hand, 53 percent, scored above the mean in mathematics.

The results of the research show that boys develop faster in technical thinking than girls of the same age. They, therefore, have a higher rate than the general expectations. On the other hand, girls have a higher development in reference to humanities and language than it would be for the general view.

In this case, we conclude that infant cognitive development is domain specific rather than domain general. It provides natural and experimental evidence suggesting that the competence of infants is higher than the general appearance. This is concluded because the students sat for the exam at the same age. Therefore, this shown disparity in performance, portraying a difference in cognitive development.

Language and development

Piaget’s theory does not consider the role of language in cognitive development of infants. However, infants have high competence that allows them to use language leading to development. Firstly, language forms the basis of their thoughts. Their thought revolves around what they say. They use language as a tool for developing their thinking capacity (Pinker 2007).

However, people do not perceive their ability to use language in this manner. Language appears passive in cognitive development. It is not considered as a tool of shaping the infants thoughts. When a child talks of breast their thought revolve around the breast. The child, then, starts thinking of breast milk and cry for it. Secondly, it shapes the plane of socialization with other children.

They have the capability to mingle with other children by use of language (Thomson 1975). However, the Piaget’s theory does not consider the acumen of children using language for development. This implies that children have a more cognitive development than it appeared.

In fact, they have a great ability to attain and maintain relations using language. For example, children use certain word referring to their mothers maintains the relationship maintains the relationship. They attach a passive importance to the name and attain the desired respect towards them. On the other hand, they would use a different name for the people they do not respect.

This allows them to determine the relations they should maintain with the people who surround them. Through evidence, it has been found that the children who do not talk have difficulty in creating relationships with others. This is particularly tragic during the early stages of development.

They experience difficulties in keeping memory of those surrounding them. They, also, have it difficult to determine the relations they have towar5d them. In fact, children with a normal oral ability have a better coordination that helps them develop in a faster way than the children who never talk.

As a result, we can conclude that children have a great power of language that they use in development. However, Piaget suggests that language is a vestigial component of development. Therefore, the current predictions are lower than what they are able to do.

Accommodation and Association

In the theory of accommodation Piaget suggests that a child perceive objects in similar ways (Slater & Bremner 2003). They generalize the appearance of the objects and animals. The power to differentiate does not exist. This creates confusion and ignorance. For example, a child may confuse a dog to a cut. In fact, the child might give them the same name.

However, with continued development they understand the difference. This is attributed to the law of association. It increases the power to accommodate new understanding. As a result, the child can differentiate between a cat and a dog. On the same case, a child might confuse between an elder brother and their father. The behavior continues for a notable period of time.

When the child lives with the two people for some time they are able to differentiate the two. However, people might undermine the ability of a child’s mind to expand and accommodate change. They might perceive that the understanding rely on the period of time that the child mingle with the objects or the people.

However, it is important to understand that the children have the capability to expand their reasoning and allow differentiation of characters. Some children have experience a high rate in acquiring differentiation power. This is clear evidence that children have a higher cognitive development capability than we expect.

Conclusion

From the study, we find that Piaget’s theory undermines the possibility of children cognitive development. It assumes that the process it suggests work in a smooth flow. It assumes that the theory does not have barriers and exemptions. It, therefore, disregards an important pillar of psychology. In addition, the theory does not recognize the power of language in development.

It considers it as being vestigial. In this essay we have brought out real cases that show a greater ability of infants in child development. It has portrayed various researches that provide evidence of more cognitive rate of development than in human expectations. Therefore, this paper provides an important examination of the evidences which support the argument.

References

Ginsburg, H & Opper, S 1969, Piaget’s theory of intellectual development; an introduction. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.

Phillips, J 1975, The origins of intellect: Piaget’s theory (2d ed.), Freeman, San Francisco.

Pinker, S 2007, The stuff of thought: language as a window into human nature, Viking, New York.

Roberts, M 2007, Integrating the mind domain general versus domain specific processes in higher cognition, Psychology Press, Hove.

Slater, A & Bremner, L 2003, Introduction to developmental psychology, Blackwell Pub, Malden.

Thomson, D1975, Language, Time-Life Books, New York.

Introduction

• It is essential to study the milestones of child development, as a set of signals and strategies, to maintain the growth and development of a child. It is a valuable resource for parents and child care providers to a better comprehension of this issue.
• By providing the illustrations, this project aims at visually demonstrating the difference between sensory development and perception abilities of infants and toddlers.
• Observing children is considered the best way to “asses and document developmental milestones”, as they are subjected to new skills they try to master (Petty 3).
• The evidence presented are based on the multiple studies and researches in Milestones Of Child Development (2008).

Small unbreakable mirror

An infant might use this to interact with self in the mirror as if it were another person.

This correlates to the social/emotional domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Learning about Self (Self-concept): B2. Gain an emerging sense of self as separate from but also connected to others.

A toddler may recognize this item that belongs to oneself by saying, “mine”.

This correlates to the social/emotional domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Learning about Self (Self-concept): B9. Show increasing ability to distinguish between self and others.

A mirror might also be a good motivation for a toddler to start crawling and moving in front of it, and perform almost any other imaginative movement in response to self reflection in it.
This correlates to the Fine Arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Dance Arts: A9. Show creativity using their bodies.

Soft bristle toothbrush and soft bristle hairbrush

An infant may explore these items as new toys to see what happens when it is pushed, pulled, punched, dropped, rolled, shaken, or covered with towel.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Creativity and Inventiveness: C2. Approach and explore new experiences in familiar settings.

A toddler might use these items to participate in getting ready for bed and sleeping routines, specifically through fun activities.

This correlates to the physical development and health domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Health and Well-Being: C3. Participate in basic health and safety routines.

Small colored balls

An infant might reach and grab the small colored balls.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand B. Measurement: B1. Explore objects in their environment.

Together with a container, such as a the muffin tin or even egg carton, they might be a great way for infant’s exploration and motivation, and to infant motor development.

This correlates to the physical development and health domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Gross Motor Development: A2. Demonstrate proficiency in rolling over, sitting, crawling.

A toddler might drop small colored balls into the container while standing over it, or throw them into it. This which facilitates science skills, hand-eye coordination and fine and large motor skills.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2 Sub-Strand A. Scientific Knowledge: A4. Build beginning understanding of basic science concepts (e.g., force and motion, gravity, sound, light) through exploration.

A medium size ball

An infant might push a ball to watch it roll or even try to roll over it as on a therapy ball for babies.
This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Reasoning and Problem-Solving: D1. Explore object characteristics in many different ways.

A toddler may move it into position to catch a ball, and then throw the ball in the right direction.

This correlates to the physical development and health domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Gross Motor Development: A7. Coordinate movements in more complex gross motor tasks, such as throwing, catching, kicking, bouncing balls, and using the slide and swing.

Hand puppet

An infant might explore objects placed in hands.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Reasoning and Problem-Solving: D1. Explore object characteristics in many different ways.

An infant might explore objects placed in hands.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Reasoning and Problem-Solving: D1. Explore object characteristics in many different ways.

Colored straws

An infant might mouth, shake, bang, drop, or throw shape the straws.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand D. Shapes: D1. Explore geometric shapes in the environment.

A toddler might use this item as a help in drinking water or juice.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Sub-Strand B. Scientific inquiry and exploration: B11. Begin to use simple tools and equipment for investigation.

A toddler might also use the straws for the art session by dipping them in the paint and turn it into the stamp to create art with.
This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Visual Arts: D4. Experiment with a variety of art materials.

Long colored scarf

An infant might use a scarf to develop the sense of touch.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Visual Arts: D2. Explore the texture of different mediums (e.g., fabrics of different textures).

A toddler may put a scarf on oneself when feeling cold.

This correlates to the physical development and health domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Health and Well-Being: C12. Perform self-care tasks independently.

Unbreakable magnifying glass

An infant might explore an object using all senses.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Curiosity and Initiative: B2. Engage in and actively explore self, objects, and surroundings.

A toddler might use this item to examine natural materials.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Sub-Strand B. Scientific Inquiry and Exploration: B14. Begin to collect, describe, and record information.

Baby blanket

An infant might use this item as a comfort object to reduce arousal or distress when feeling stressed or upset.

This correlates to the social/emotional development domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Emotion Regulation and Self-Regulation: C1. Develop increasing emotion regulation.

A toddler might use this item to engage in pretend play to extend a favorite story or field trip experience.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Theater Arts: C8. Participate with others in dramatic play, negotiating roles and setting up events.

Baby blanket might be also used by a toddler to build an indoor fort or tent; or as a parachute to toss around different sized balls or soft objects. This facilitates toddler’s imagination and gross motor skills.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Creativity & Inventiveness: C8. Approach tasks and activities with increased flexibility, imagination, and inventiveness.

Rattle

An infant may shake the rattle.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Music: B3. Experiment with a variety of sound sources (e.g., rattles, bells).

A toddler might shake this item to create a sound to dance, march, hop, jump, sway, clap, snap, stamp, twist, turn during movement activities.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Dance Arts: A9. Show creativity using their bodies.

Wooden blocks of different shapes

An infant might attempt to place the square beanbag in the round hole.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand D. Shapes: D1. Explore geometric shapes in the environment.

A toddler might put together and takes apart shapes to make other shapes.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand D. Shapes: D7. Recognize three-dimensional shapes (e.g., cylinders, spheres, cones) through everyday experiences.

Mask with face shapes

An infant might use a variety of actions to explore the masks – touch, mouth, smell, shake, bang.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Sub-Strand A. Scientific Knowledge: A2. Recognize and respond to different sights, textures, smells, sounds, and tastes.

A toddler might put on a mask and use it as a prop to pretend to be an animal or one’s favorite character from the cartoon.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Theater Arts: C9. Tell about and/or role-play characters from familiar stories or known people and own imagination.

Animal forms

An infant might babble in a flow of word sounds while pretending to “talk” to the stuffed animal.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Theater Arts: C2. Imitate sounds, facial expressions, and gestures of another person.

A toddler might start asking “why” questions about the dinosaurs and history while playing with parents.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 4: Reasoning and Problem-Solving: D6. Demonstrate beginning understanding of cause and effect, especially of own actions.

Set of four diversity dolls

An infant may examine a toy for a brief period of time.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Persistence: A1. Observe objects and people for a brief period of time.

A toddler might pretend to do what he has observed others do (e.g., to dress up the toes, to organize a lunch for them, dance and sing with the dolls), but imitate specific behaviors rather than entire role.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Theater Arts: C5. Imitate what others do.

A toddler might also try to feed the dolls as a play game that facilitates a practice of holding and using utensils such as spoons, forks, cups and bowls.

This correlates to the physical development and health domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Health and Well-Being: C14. Demonstrate the stamina and energy to participate in daily activities.

Set of nesting cups

An infant might nest up to five cups, with assistance.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand B. Measurement: B2. Show some awareness of the relative size of objects.

A toddler may begin to fit pieces in correct openings and correctly stack a few nesting cups.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand C. Patterns and Relationships: C6. Understand the relationship between objects, matching similar shapes.

Nesting cups might be a good source for an infant to learn different sounds and noises when cups are hit together.

This correlates to the fine arts domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Music: B3. Experiment with a variety of sound sources.

A toddler can use it as a measuring cup for scooping and pouring. Water, rice, or any other objects might assist here that can fill and empty the cups easily. This facilitates math, science and fine motor skills.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge, and physical development and health domains in Milestones of Child Development, Strand Strand 1: Learning About Mathematical Concepts. Sub-Strand B: Measurement: B10. Use standard tools to explore and understand the environment;

Strand 2: Fine Motor Development: B10. Persist in accomplishing more difficult fine motor tasks.

Soft cloth

An infant might use this item to explore the sense of touch and get excited with its soft material.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Sub-Strand F. Data Collection and Analysis: F2. Gather information through the senses (e.g. mouthing, grasping, reaching).

A soft cloth or any kind of cloth, such as scarf, towel, etc. can be a great way for an infant to practice strengthening its grasp and coordination.
This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand Strand 1: Learning About Mathematical Concepts. Sub-Strand F: Data Collection and Analysis: F2. Gather information through the senses (e.g., mouthing, grasping, reaching).

A toddler may use this item to learn to describe the variety of textures.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 2: Sub-Strand A. Scientific Knowledge: A3. Observe and describe characteristics of things.

Dressing doll

An infant might explore the doll and her clothes to see what happens when it is pushed, pulled, punched, dropped, rolled, shaken.

This correlates to the approaches to learning domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Creativity and Inventiveness: C1. Notice and show interest in and excitement with familiar objects, people, and events.

A toddler may use this item to talk about what she wants to be when she grows up by trying different styles and characters on the doll.

This correlates to the cognition and general knowledge domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 3: Sub-Strand C. Economics: C4. Develop awareness of jobs and what is required to perform them.

By interacting with other children, a toddler can practice language and social skills, including sharing, cooperation, helping, and problem solving.
This correlates to the social and emotional development domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Relationships with Others: A13.Interact easily with one or more children and adults.

Soft book

An infant might focus on the person speaking while reading the book to it.

This correlates to the language and literacy domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Listening and Speaking: B1. Show enjoyment of the sounds and rhythms of language.

A toddler might enjoy children’s books with themes of exaggeration, and develop vocabulary and speech whilst listening attentively to an adult reading it.

This correlates to the language and literacy domain in Milestones of Child Development, Strand 1: Listening and Speaking: A12. Enjoy hearing and creating humorous stories characterized by exaggeration;

Strand 4: Comprehension: D5. Show increased comprehension and response to stories read aloud.

References

Milestones Of Child Development. Virginia Dept. Of Social Services, Office Of Early Childhood Development, 2008.

Petty, Karen. Developmental Milestones Of Young Children. Redleaf Press, 2009.

A child’s visual system has some unconditioned visual reflexes already at birth. For example, a direct reaction of the pupils to light, a short-term reflex of turning the eyes and head to the light source, or an attempt to track a moving object. In the future, as the child would grow, all other visual functions will gradually develop and improve accordingly. However, to help these functions to manifest properly, parents have to consider the multitude of factors that may affect the baby’s vision. The Valenti’s article Infant Vision Guidance: Fundamental Vision Development in Infancy explores in detail the influences of environmental conditions that lead to the healthy development of a child’s visual system. Moreover, it also contains the specific training that can be performed in order to help the development of the child’s vision.

The first part of the article delves into a more investigatory ground, delivering different scientific concepts and experiments regarding the issue. It gives a clear explanation as to why parents need to maintain a close attention to their child’s vision. Valenti (2006) states that “other areas of a child’s development, including language, curiosity, imagination, social skills, emotional development, fine and gross motor skills, and cognition depend upon how vision develops” (p. 148). Moreover, the article provides a keen insight into the importance of the environment and different visual stimuli, stating their role as crucial in the fine processes behind the vision. The author also emphasizes on the proper integration between all of the infant’s senses, as well as the consistency in the baby’s surroundings.

Finally, the largest part of the article is dedicated to the different exercises a parent may perform with their child to improve the development processes in the visual system. Valenti (2006) explains that “it makes sense to learn the fundamental vision skills which develop in infancy and carry out simple and enjoyable activities to ensure that these skills are developed to their fullest capabilities” (p. 154). There are many different exercises which can provide a highly positive impact on the baby’s visual system, and the author presents supporting evidence for each and every of them.

Reference

Valenti C. (2006). Infant Vision Guidance: Fundamental Vision Development in Infancy. Optom Vis Dev 37(3), 147-155.

Infant’s motor development depends on routine exercise and child rearing. We can develop a related treatment for gait modification. Posture setting influences a child’s walking experience (Witherington, Campos, Anderson, Lejeune, & Seah, 2005). The article presents different scenarios about infant development. We will study the factors that affect the decisions of a child. Surveys revealed that newly walking infants could walk through risky slopes and heights without fear. Such development can be attributed to the infant’s locomotor experience. While newly walking infants show no sign of fear when placed at heights, experienced ones refused to walk or stand-alone. Researchers suggest the development of the locomotor experience as a reason for their decisions. Surveys suggested that new walking experience influenced the judgment of infants. To test the assumptions stated above, the article will review the experiment carried out on newly walking infants.

Research questions

1. What motivates newly walking infants to avoid slopes more than the crawlers?
2. What is the effect of locomotor experience on infants?
3. How can we develop an infant’s locomotor experience?

The experiment was conducted on forty infant. Ages of the participants varied between 293 and 398 days. The participants were categorized into crawlers, infants with walking experience, and experienced crawlers. Newly walking infants were categorized as experienced crawlers. The experimenter assigned experienced crawlers based on the parent’s report. The experimenter observed the participants at the onset of their walking experience. (Witherington et al., 2005). Infants were tested across a virtual height without support. A virtual cliff tool was used to test the participants. During the trial session, participants were videotaped. The experimenter tested infants on deep and shallow boards.

During the first trial, the parents of each participant placed their wards on the virtual cliff board. Eye contact with the infants was minimized to prevent distraction. The length of the cliff board was 38 x 38 cm. Coder blind was used to verify the results. For the trial to be successful, the participant must either walk on two legs or crawl on four limbs. Analysis of the experiments showed no significant difference between the ages of the participants (Witherington et al., 2005). Crawlers crossed deep and shallow cliffs without fear. Newly walking infants refused to cross the deep side. Experienced crawlers preferred the shallow cliff to the deep side (Witherington et al., 2005).

References

Kretch K., & Adolph K. (2013). No bridge too high: Infants decide whether to cross based on the probability of falling not the severity of the potential fall. New York, USA: Department of Psychology, New York University. Web.

Witherington D., Campos J., Anderson D., Lejeune L., & Seah E. (2005). Avoidance of heights on the visual cliff in newly walking infants. Albuquerque, Mexico: Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico. Web.

The Description of the Research Question, Method and Findings

Beier and Spelke (2012) studied whether infants appreciate the intentional, target-directed nature of social actions through the application of social gaze in third party interactions. The main research question in this study is whether the infants appreciate the intentional, target directed nature of social actions through the application of social gaze in third party interactions. According to Beier and Spelke (2012), studies indicate that infants are receptive to self-directed shared activities. Beier and Spelke (2012) utilized similar methods in testing different influencing variables including the age, provision of additional information and the variation of expectations.

However, the procedures have to be wide-ranging depending on the variable that was tested. The investigation involved a sample of 104 infants below the age of ten months. The findings indicated that ten-month-old infants are capable of identifying self-directed social actions. However, infants below ten months are incapable of identifying self-directed social actions even if provided with information that emphasized the social objectives of the gazer. The implication of the findings is that infants’ abilities to scrutinize the self-directed social actions improve gradually, particularly towards the end of twelve months. The development is associated with their positive reception of gaze as both goal-directed and collective response.

The Implication of the Research Findings, Methods and Theories

Even though the findings indicate similar results with previous studies, the experimental procedures applied cannot utterly ascertain the outcomes. In other words, the researchers need to conduct their experiments in diverse environments as well as involve other behavior related variables in order to make similar conclusions. Essentially, the implication is that the methods applied in testing the self-directed social actions in this study can be used to test the same behaviors using a different variable and similar results is obtained. However, Beier and Spelke (2012) focused their testing procedures, which produced similar results as the previous studies. In addition, the sample size used in the study cannot inform the conclusion that is applicable in practice. The sample size was also based on various assumptions, which discriminated the study response of certain age groups. As such, further studies need to be conducted using large and varied sample and variables in order to come up with a practicable conclusion.

Besides reliability and predictability weaknesses in the methodology, the study is also not based on any theoretical framework. Even though various development theories tend to explain the behavioral changes observed, the study is not primarily based on any of the theoretical framework. In essence, the study tended to test the previous study results that infants are receptive to self-directed shared activities. In fact, the study by Beier and Spelke (2012) is building on this previous knowledge and not based on any development theories. The objective is to fill the existing knowledge gap.

However, the findings of the study remain critical in advancing the social behavior of children. As indicated, the findings of the study by Beier and Spelke (2012) are aimed at filling the critical knowledge gap existing in the explanation of how children respond to self-driven social actions. The tested variables were carefully chosen to examine the changes in behavior of self-driven social actions focusing on intentional and target-directed nature of such behaviors. While the results are positively applied, further research need to be conducted through the use of larger samples and testing several behavior responses in diverse environments.

Reference

Beier, J. S., & Spelke, E. S. (2012). Infants’ developing understanding of social gaze. Child development, 83(2), 486-496.

Statement of the Problem

The main research question that will be covered in my thesis is, ‘Does exposure to television or video media affect the development of infants and children aged 0-3 years?’ The impact of media exposure to infants below 3 years is an under-researched topic, despite the fact that more than 70% of infants in the age bracket of 0-3 years are exposed to television/video media on a daily basis. However, there have been concerns that such early exposure may have a negative impact on the development of infants, although such concerns lack a strong research backing. This research is important since it will provide an opportunity to answer this important question whilst providing recommendations for future research on the topic.

Introduction

Since the advent of television in the 1950s, the number of households that own a television set has reached more than 90% in the USA alone. Across the world, the figure is also high. A lot of research has focused on the impact of exposure to television media on various age groups. For instance, there is an overwhelming support on the potential benefits of educational and entertainment media content to pre-school children based on their cognitive and language development. However, for a longtime, research on 0-3 year-old age group has been ignored or has attracted little interest from researchers who assert that children at such an age cannot decipher the content of the media and that there cannot be impacts on their development.

An extensive body of scholars reveals undesirable consequences of unproductive media material introduction to kindergarten and school-going kids on their future life results such as cognition, conduct, and accomplishment. In addition, emerging studies on the impact of media exposure to children below 3 years also suggest negative impacts, although researches are overly inconclusive and open for further research to strengthen their assertions. The researches have also failed to include detailed information on the correlation between media content and the impacts that occur on infants. As such, in order to understand the impacts of media exposure on infants below 3 years, there is a need to carry out more research that addresses specific questions of research that have not been addressed.

These topics should include the impact of television and video media exposure on cognitive development and attention capacity. They should also clarify whether the content of media can be linked to specific developmental issues. This research is important since it strives to create an understanding of the potential impacts or lack thereof of media exposure on the three identified areas, namely cognition, attention, and content of the media on infants of 0-3 years. The research will also make important recommendations that will guide the way forward for further research in the given areas.

Relevant Literature

Although the bulk of research has focused on the impact of media exposure on pre-school and school aged children, a substantial amount of literature has also focused on infants below 3 years of age. However, the research has acted to bring awareness on the need for more studies to be carried on this potentially vulnerable group, which for a long time was not thought to be affected by exposure to media. The claim was that infants learn through experience and that television or video content has no bearing at all on their development.

According to Christakis (2009), the human brain develops rapidly until it eventually triples in size by the age of 2 years. Issues such as the rapid growth and the relevance of external stimulation during the period are an important factor and cause for concern on whether exposure to TV and video media has any impact on the development of the young ones. To address the questions of the research, my thesis draws heavily from the existing research.

The first research study that will be relied on is titled, ‘The Effects of Infant Media Usage: What Do We Know and What Should We Learn?’ by Dimitri Christakis. In this study, Christakis tries to analyze what previous studies have found concerning the impact of television and media exposure with an aim of discussing the relevance of such information. The aim of the study by Christakis is to pool together the findings of various researches and then recommend the way forward for such research. The study covers four areas of media exposure to infants that have been previously researched. The study discusses the effects of television exposure on infant language development.

The author takes to task the increased television content that seeks to help children develop language skills. According to Christakis (2009), overwhelming research, which is supported by theories of infant language development, indicates that language development is greatly influenced by native speakers who subsequently regard parenting as an important part of the language development process. The study concludes that the existing research does not support any positive impact of TV exposure on language development. Rather, it suggests the opposite.

The study also discusses the effect of TV exposure on infant cognitive development. According to Christakis (2009), although many proponents of media exposure to infants suggest a positive impact, their claims are not backed by a strong research. At most, such claims have been used as marketing tools for TV programs that focus on this age group. On the contrary, the study finds a negative correlation between exposure to TV content and cognitive development of pre-school and school-aged children. However, there is a need to extent the research to cover infants who are also being exposed to media because of their little awareness of the consequences of such contents on their cognitive development.

Lastly, the study covers TV exposure on infants and its possible effects on their attention capacity. Drawing from previous researchers, the study asserts that early exposure to TV may be linked to the increased cases of Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) in the US. This claim borrows from the argument that early exposure to media can have a bearing on brain development of children and consequently far reaching consequences that may include ADHD. The research concludes that there is still more space for further research to address the topic comprehensively.

The second research that will be relied on in this thesis will be, ‘Infant Media Exposure and Toddler Development’ by Tomopoulos, Dreyer, Berkule, Fierman, Brockmeyer, and Mendelsohn (2010). The research focuses on the impact of media exposure on children below three years of age. The research, which uses human subjects to test its hypothesis, arrives at an important conclusion (Tomopoulos et al., 2010).

For instance, the research finds that media content is an important factor when researching on impact of media exposure on children. According to the study, non-violent and violent media exposure at 6 months has negative impacts on children’s cognitive development at 14 months. However, the exposure to educational and non-educational child-focused content does not have such an impact. There is a need for further research to be carried on this area to support or disapprove the findings of the research.

The last research that will be relied on is, ‘Associations between Content Types of Early Media Exposure and Subsequent Attention Problems’ by Zimmerman and Christakis. The research is relevant to my research since it focuses on the impact of different media contents on attention capacity development in children below 3 years (Frederivk & Dimitri, 2007). The research supports the findings of the previous research by Tomopoulos and Colleagues by pointing out that the content of media exposure is a key factor in determining the kind of impact that such exposure has on infant development.

Data

In this research, primary and secondary data sources will be relied on to answer the questions of the research. However, being a meta-analysis research, the study will rely heavily on previous researches on the topic. The study will include the analysis of the above-mentioned literature sources in addition to other relevant previous researches that will support the assertions of the study. For primary data, the study will include the use of questions and interviews that will be targeted at experts in the field of human development to shed more light on different areas of focus that will be identified

Outline of the Argument

The study will confirm that there lacks comprehensive and satisfactory research on the impact of media exposure to children below 3 years of age, despite the fact that children in this age bracket are being exposed to media. Hence, it will verify the need to understand the effects that such a trend has on infant development in cognition, attention capacity, and the correlation between the media content and developmental impacts. Consequently, by studying these areas, the research will provide important knowledge on how media can be used effectively to ensure maximum benefits and minimum negative impacts on infant development if such benefits or negative effects exist.

Frameworks

The study will use a theoretical framework that draws from different theories of infant development, including Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, Piaget’s theory of infant development, and Freud’s psychosexual stage development. These theories are important in understanding the developmental stages of infants and applying their principles to understand how and why media can have specific impacts or no impacts on children below 3 years. The other framework will be a conceptual structure that will be concerned with how the ideas of the research will be conceptualized to build a strong case. The following diagram summarizes the conceptual framework that will be used in the study.

Chapter/ Section Outline

The research will start with a background description of the base for the research that will include an analysis of what the previous research has covered and what it has not. This plan will be important in justifying the relevance of the research. The research will then address each question where it will rely on both primary and secondary data sources to support the assertions. Lastly, the study will conclude with research findings and recommendations for future research.

Contribution of the Research

This study will contribute to the growing knowledge concerning the effects of infant exposure to media on their development in terms of cognition and attention capacity. It will also shed light on whether the content of media is a determinant of the effects of media exposure to the 0-3 year-old age group.

Reference List

Christakis, D. (2009). The effects of infant media usage: what do we know and what should we learn? Acta Paediatrica , 98(2), 8-16.

Frederivk, J., & Dimitri, C. (2007). Associations between Content Types of Early Media Exposure and Subsequent Attention Problems. Pediatrics , 120(3), 984-993.

Tomopoulos, S., Dreyer, B., Berkule, S., Fierman, A., Brockmeyer, C., & Mendelsohn. (2010). Infant Media Exposure and Toddler Development. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine , 164(12), 1105-1111.

There are different paradigms and theories to discuss infants’ psychological development. The first influential theory is called neo-nativism which claims that there are some cognitive structures that are “prewired at birth” and can be reshaped through special experience-dependent activities (Farina, 2016, p. 618). Another dominant theory is empiricism, the major argument of which is that associative learning mechanisms contribute the most to the development (Larcher, 2017). In this paper, the new approach will be considered called “rational constructivism” (Xu & Kushnir, 2013). Breaking this concept into two categories, this theory indicates that infants during their development are both rational and constructivist in their reasoning, especially when this reasoning is linked with probabilistic hypotheses.

Rational constructivist theory of infant development can guide many spheres of development. Xu & Kushnir (2013) and Xu (2019) used rational constructivist theory to argue that in areas of language, physical and psychological reasoning, object understanding, and understanding of individual preferences, probabilistic reasoning is key in domain-general learning. In this list of areas, attachment relationships seem to be absent. Attachment relationships mean the emotional connection between infant and primary caregiver, for instance mother and father (Dagan & Sagi‐Schwartz, 2018). Cassidy et al. (2013) conducted complex research on the scholarship of attachment theory and came to the conclusion that stable attachment relationships in infancy contribute to children’s mental health, safe development, and absence of internal hatred. The goal of this paper is to try to connect whole this research on attachment with Xu’s & Kushnir’s (2013) conceptualization of rational constructivist behavior. The most integral aims of this connection are to formulate a feasible research question and describe the methods that can be used for research.

Keeping in mind that rational constructivist scholarship is highly influenced by the discussion on probabilistic reasoning, attachment relationships can also be conceptualized in the same manner. The most dominant theory about attachment relationships is that there is an association between well-built relationships with caregivers in infancy and prosocial behavior in the future (Gross et al., 2017). The possible research question for the study may sound “How attachment relationships are linked with the paradigm that early childhood behavior is rational, statistical, and inferential?” The major problem here is that the emotional link with parents cannot be explained well by the concepts of rationality. As for the “constructionist” part of the rational constructivist theory, such discussion can be impactful. Concerning this question, Keddell indicates: “within this view, categorisation processes associated with attachment theory are viewed as the product of knowledge generation within a specific cultural and social context” (p. 5). In the frame of this research question, specific cultural and social context can be discussed in the way how it contributes to the rational probabilistic inference of infants.

Speaking about possible methods for studying the aspect of communication between infants and adults, one should use qualitative methods, such as experiments and focus groups. The experiment is one of the key methods in considering the influence of various factors on the development of the child. This is due to the fact that it is impossible to conduct a sufficiently high-quality interview with an infant due to the small age and undeveloped speech. Focus groups can be used to find out the difference between children raised under close supervision of parents and children who are deprived of contact with family members. By creating different groups of children, it is possible to trace how one aspect visible in one group is absent in another.

References

Cassidy, J., Jones, J., & Shaver, P. (2013). Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1415-1434. Web.

Dagan, O., & Sagi‐Schwartz, A. (2018). Early attachment network with mother and father: An unsettled issue. Child Development Perspectives, 12(2), 115-121.

Farina, M. (2016). Three approaches to human cognitive development: Neo-nativism, neuroconstructivism, and dynamic enskillment. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 67(2), 617-641.

Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., Brett, B. E., & Cassidy, J. (2017). The multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior in children: Links with attachment theory and research. Social development, 26(4), 661-678.

Keddell, E. (2017). Interpreting children’s best interests: Needs, attachment and decision-making.Journal of Social Work, 17(3), 1-19. Web.

Larcher, V. (2017). Children are not small adults: Significance of biological and cognitive development in medical practice. Handbook of the philosophy of medicine. Dordrecht: Springer, 371-93. Web.

Xu, F., & Kushnir, T. (2013). Infants are rational constructivist learners. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 28-32.

Xu, F. (2019). Towards a rational constructivist theory of cognitive development. Psychological review, 126(6), 1-24. Web.

Introduction

The article written by Langlois et al. (1990) represents an important research project where the results of visual preferences among infants were associated with various social contexts and human reactions to beauty. Overall, it was proved by the researchers that infants reacted differently to beautiful men or women and their not-good-looking counterparts.

Discussion

The dimensions of various stimuli were also investigated to gain better insight into how future studies could improve the existing knowledge base. Langlois et al. (1990) ultimately came up with the idea to assign certain beauty ratings to human faces and compare them to find crucial correlations across available data. It was found that attractiveness played an important role in the cultural transmission of various norms related to beauty, so all of the mechanisms of identifying an unattractive face were found to be established as early as infancy. It was also interesting for Langlois et al. (1990) to go beyond their findings and investigate the actual reasons behind infants distinguishing between attractive and unattractive faces. Hence, social behaviors and visual preferences were both hypothetically linked to the human beauty coefficient.

After getting acquainted with the findings of the study carried out by Langlois et al. (1990), I am certain that there is specific information stored in the human brain that is pulled from the “database” when an infant looks at other people. The methodology presented by Langlois et al. (1990) was rigid and transparent enough for other researchers to replicate the study and acquire their own results. The findings presented by researchers are crucial because they provide additional insight into the role of one’s physical appearance and how humans tend to react to beauty from an early age.

The main strength of the article written by von Soest et al. (2020) revolves around how the second half of human life is often overshadowed by loneliness. The researchers were interested in investigating the nature of loneliness and various measures of the latter. It was crucial to find out that loneliness-related gender differences were substantial, with men becoming significantly more unstable. Another crucial finding was that personal traits, such as extraversion, also contributed to individual perception of loneliness (von Soest et al., 2020).

With emotionally unstable people being much more prone to loneliness, it was concluded by von Soest et al. (2020) that the main sources of isolation during the second half of life were social relationships, physical health, and socioeconomic variables. The investigators recommended replicating the proposed study for more detailed results and offered to add more heterogeneous sample members to the research. Hence, the hypothesis was validated successfully, hinting at the fact that individuals with particular personal traits can reflect on loneliness in a more positive manner.

Conclusion

The findings presented by von Soest et al. (2020) are comprehensive and thought-provoking because loneliness was addressed as a complex phenomenon, with few to no steps being taken away from the main topic. I think that the researchers also carefully addressed each of the limitations that affected their research while pointing out the lack of data generalization (von Soest et al., 2020). Overall, the findings can be considered incomplete because several samples were absent from the study completely. The limitations have to be removed in future reiterations of the research project conducted by von Soest et al. (2020) because they left several important questions unanswered. The parallel between age and loneliness relates to how people tend to react to their social circles and interactions.

References

Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A., & Rieser-Danner, L. A. (1990). Infants’ differential social responses to attractive and unattractive faces. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 153-159. Web.

von Soest, T., Luhmann, M., Hansen, T., & Gerstorf, D. (2020). Development of loneliness in midlife and old age: Its nature and correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(2), 388-407. Web.