A large variety of historical, linguistic, and cultural traditions may be found in Latin America. Indigenous peoples have contributed significantly to this variety for thousands of years, aiding in the development of the region’s unique identity and way of life. Nonetheless, the history of Indigenous peoples in South America has been significantly influenced by colonization, exploitation, and racism. To better understand Indigenous peoples’ experiences in South America, it is essential to learn about their history and culture.
Discussion
The first thing that struck me in the readings was the complexity of Indigenous cultures in Latin America prior to the arrival of Europeans. According to Moya, indigenous societies possessed intricate political and economic structures in addition to a wide variety of languages and cultures (Moya, 2011, pg. 152). Before reading this chapter, I was unaware of the depth of this complexity, and it has helped me comprehend Indigenous civilizations in Latin America more fully.
The effects of European diseases on Indigenous communities struck me as the second thing. According to some estimates, measles, smallpox, and influenza killed up to 90% of the population in some locations, Moya writes, decimating Indigenous populations (Moya, 2011, pg. 160). The depth of the damage was surprising, even though I was aware of the destructive effects that European illnesses had on Indigenous peoples.
The continuous fight for Indigenous rights and acknowledgment in Latin America was the third issue that caught my attention. Despite recent progress, marginalization and persecution are still major problems for Indigenous peoples throughout Latin America, according to Moya (Moya, 2011, pg. 165). Even though I already knew this information, it served to highlight the importance of continuing to support Indigenous peoples and their rights.
Conclusion
Last but not least, the readings from Jose C. Moya’s “The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History” provide light on the rich history and culture of Indigenous peoples in Latin America as well as the challenges they have faced over time. It is critical to consider the complexity of Indigenous cultures, the devastating consequences of European diseases, and the continuous struggle for Indigenous rights when attempting to understand and support Indigenous peoples in South America.
Reference
Moya, J. C. (2011). The Oxford handbook of Latin American history. Oxford University Press.
Dental primary healthcare (DPCH) service denotes healthcare services for people’s teeth and gums. Poor oral hygiene results in teeth and gums problems, which include the two common gum and caries diseases. Bacteria that destroy enamels are responsible for dental caries. If not treated, caries usually results in the extraction of the tooth. The main causes of caries are “sugary and sticky foods that allow bacteria to grow and increase in numbers” (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2012).
Bacteria that destroy the gum are responsible for periodontal or gum disease. They cause “swelling and bleeding of the gum” (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2012). Gums become weak and lose their ability to hold teeth due to periodontal disease. As a result, teeth become loose, and they may fall out easily.
The oral health of Aboriginals (Indigenous) of Australia is poor in comparison to that of non-Indigenous populations. Past studies have indicated that the oral health of non-Indigenous children in Australia has improved while the oral health of Indigenous children has declined (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2012; Christian and Blinkhorn, 2012). Christian and Blinkhorn noted increase in dental problems among indigenous children from 27 percent in 1963 to 85 percent currently. Indigenous children have several cases of caries during the period of developing deciduous and permanent teeth. They also have more cases of “lost, decayed, and filled teeth than non-Indigenous children” (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2012).
The number of Aboriginal adults who have dental caries is twice that of non-Indigenous Australians. In addition, Aboriginal adults who have cases of decayed surfaces are three times higher than non-Indigenous people who have decayed surfaces (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2012). At the same time, Aboriginal adults also exhibit higher rates of periodontal cases than their non-Indigenous counterparts. In fact, Indigenous people have high rates of edentulism (loosing teeth) which mostly occur at an early adulthood stage in comparison to non-Indigenous Australians.
Performance of dental PHC services
Most studies have indicated that rates of dental decay among Aboriginals in remote locations are worse than the rates of dental decay among city-dwelling aboriginals. This shows a lack of timely dental healthcare services among Aboriginals in remote locations. A recent study by Christian and Blinkhorn concluded that there were increasing numbers of dental caries among sampled children between 6 and 12 years old since 1963 (Christian and Blinkhorn, 2012). These authors noted that in 1963, there were 27 percent of cases of caries as opposed to 85 percent of cases of caries among Aboriginal children in rural non-fluoridated Western Australia. This indicates an increase in cases of caries among Aboriginal children in remote locations of Australia. Moreover, fluoridated water helped in reducing cases of caries among children. The national statistics of 2000 to 2003 showed that “72 percent of Aboriginal children aged 6 years had dental caries, whereas this figure was only 37% for non-Aboriginal children” (Christian and Blinkhorn, 2012).
These figures show that Indigenous rural populations face serious dental primary healthcare challenges in Australia. Studies show that the rates of dental problems are on the rise in remote locations of Australia. This confirms that healthcare disparities in Australia are severe, especially among Indigenous populations in rural areas. Therefore, health inequity in Australia is currently a major problem that the government and other stakeholders must address. It shows the need to fund PHC services in Australia especially among Aboriginals in remote areas. The situation requires adequate understanding of cultural beliefs, values, and practices and further studies in order to determine usages of oral healthcare services among Indigenous Australians.
Some scholars have also linked dental problems among Aboriginals to poor diet and a lack of water with fluoride. In addition, socio-economic issues have also contributed to dental healthcare problems among Aboriginals. The main problem is that most Aboriginals do not have access to dental healthcare services because of costs and lack of Aboriginal dentists in rural facilities. In addition, Aboriginal children also fail to learn oral hygiene, which contributes to dental problems among them.
Success and problems of dental PHC services
Current statistics ((Christian and Blinkhorn, 2012) have indicated that dental problem is a major source of healthcare concern among Aboriginals, particularly among children (primary dentition). Situations among Aboriginal communities are contrary to the global experience in which dental caries are on the decline. This situation has resulted in dental healthcare inequalities among Aboriginals.
It is not easy to identify a single factor as the main contributor to dental problems in Aboriginal communities. Instead, researchers prefer to offer multiple explanations for worsening dental healthcare services in Australia. Some of these factors include “social isolation, cultural perceptions of oral health, misguided policy, difficulties in gaining access to dental health services, inadequate education, remote location, inadequate housing, poor living conditions, lack of fluoride water and exposure to diets of the West” (Christian and Blinkhorn, 2012).
A study by Kruger, Perera, and Tennant (2010) shows that effective management of poor dental healthcare services among Aboriginals is possible. According to these authors, many Aboriginals (95.3 percent) received their dental healthcare at the Aboriginal Medical Services (AMS) as opposed to other healthcare facilities available in rural areas. Many Indigenous patients sought treatments from AMS because most care providers who were in these facilities were Aboriginals. Most problems of dental healthcare were oral surgery and emergency cases in AMS. These behaviours show that Aboriginals seeking medical care when there is a serious dental problem that needs oral surgery or emergency care.
From the study, many Aboriginals prefer utilising services from AMS in comparison to other care providers, health policy-makers in Australia can work with the AMS in order to improve the provision of dental healthcare services to Aboriginals. Policy-makers should note that the provision of dental healthcare services to Aboriginals should account for cultural beliefs and practices with regard to oral care and perceptions about advanced health care.
Factors that contribute to Success or Poor performance of dental PHC services
Many factors contribute to the poor state of dental healthcare among Aboriginals. Aboriginals in remote locations have poor accessibility to dental healthcare services because of shortages of health workers, inadequate facilities, and long distances from healthcare facilities.
Aboriginal people have unfulfilled health care needs because of difficulties with services accessibility. Needs for dental healthcare services have increased in rural areas where Indigenous people are. However, policy-makers have targeted people in urban locations at the expense of rural masses.
Success factors for enhancing dental healthcare services among Aboriginal people should be community-managed and initiated. Healthcare providers have to develop dental healthcare promotional messages for Indigenous people. In this context, various researchers have recommended collaborative approaches in providing dental healthcare services to Indigenous people. Collaborative approaches should account for sharing of patient’s information, equipping health care centres, training dentists on cultural competence, and improving accessibility to dental health care services. Such approaches acknowledge rural challenges and improvement needed in healthcare facilities.
Implications for PHC providers, consumers, and the rest of the health care system
Researchers have done comparative studies when studying dental problems between Aboriginals and non-Indigenous populations. They have also done longitudinal studies in order to monitor changes in dental healthcare services. These studies have confirmed that cases of dental problems are increasing among Aboriginals. On the other hand, non-Indigenous populations in Australia have low cases of dental health problems.
Healthcare stakeholders should use such data for improving the provision of dental healthcare services among rural Aboriginals. For instance, most studies show potential causes of poor oral hygiene among Aboriginals. From the study, urban Aboriginals do not have severe cases of dental health problems like their counterparts in rural areas, health policy-makers in Australia should address such disparities in the provision of dental healthcare services.
Children depend on adults for healthier eating habits and oral care. However, Aboriginal children have failed to get adequate oral care from adults, and this has led to severe cases of primary dentition. Challenges of proper oral care education among Aboriginal adults have contributed to deteriorating conditions of oral hygiene. Therefore, oral care education should complement dental care provided to Aboriginals (Blinkhorn et al., 2012).
Culturally oriented dental healthcare provisions can address the problem of poor oral care for Aboriginals. For instance, studies have shown that most Aboriginals seek oral care from AMS. Therefore, all stakeholders should work together to provide efficient dental facilities in such care centres. In addition, many healthcare workers are also necessary in such facilities.
Aboriginals must also ensure that they practice oral hygiene and seek timely oral healthcare services from available facilities. On this note, effective oral education and promotional campaigns can encourage Aboriginals to seek dental care from health facilities. However, Aboriginals must understand their roles as consumers of healthcare services. Both Aboriginals and healthcare providers should understand cultural implications and possible miscommunication in the provision of dental healthcare services.
Equity implications
For the last few decades, studies have documented and acknowledged inequality in oral healthcare in Australia. However, oral healthcare policy-makers have failed to consider such findings when formulating dental healthcare policies.
Oral healthcare policy-makers must understand that inequalities originate from several areas, and they have cumulative effects on Aboriginals. We must consider the social context of Aboriginal communities live in and other factors that influence both access and provisions of dental healthcare services. Policy-makers should consider such factors and formulate policies, which aim at promoting and improving the provision of dental care among Aboriginals.
Policies should address issues about financial barriers, which AMS clinics face in their efforts to provide timely dental care to Aboriginals in remote areas. Such policies should also aim at preventive approaches to dental health problems so that many Aboriginals can avoid emergency and oral surgery.
Opportunities for change
The government has taken policy initiatives to improve provisions of health care services to Indigenous people. These policy initiatives aim to enhance identification of health care needs and promote efficient provisions of primary health care services among local people. The model aims to enhance integration and linkages between hospital services and primary care providers. We evaluate the success of these initiatives based on their impacts. We concentrate on how well they improve health provisions among Indigenous people. However, such positive outcomes depend on reforms and best practices provided.
Healthcare agencies should eliminate fragmented and compounded methods of delivering health care services. In this context, they should adopt collaborative or partnership models, which can provide accountability and improve relationships among all stakeholders. This model ensures that there are collective responsibilities, decision-making, and transparency in funding. It also reduces bureaucratic tendencies of the Office of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health (OATSIH). The bureaucratic tendencies in offering of healthcare services have challenged healthcare initiatives in the Northern Territory. Therefore, the author calls for co-ordination in provision of health care services to Indigenous people.
Collaborative approach is a way of enahncing healthcare provisions among Indigenous people because it is a realistic and practical method that can support dental healthcare services. It can also develop relationships among all stakeholders.
Cultural features can both promote or be barriers to offering dental healthcare services. Conventional ideologies have hampered provisions of health care to Indigenous people due to simplistic approaches, which promote the belief that peolpe will embrace and use medical services because such services are modern. On the other hand, healthcare providers who embrace certain cultural aspects of the remote Aboriginal can improve dental healthcare outcomes.
Researchers also note that historical policy contexts have negative consequences on provisions of healthcare services. Some studies have noted that power imbalances affect Indigenous people when they interact with healthcare providers. This is because of effects of colonialism. These authors attribute the view to non-compliant behaviours and dominance of biomedical paradigm, which result in poor dental health outcomes. On the other hand, if healthcare providers advocate for the use of local strategies by adopting “trust, reciprocity and shared decision-making, they can empower Aboriginal communities and successfully provide interventions to reduce the gap in dental health outcomes” (Kruger, Perera and Tennant, 2010).
Miscommunication is also a serious challenge to dental healthcare accessibility. Miscommunication presents itself in language and literacy, communication problems, and futile sharing of patients’ data.
Community-managed and initiated health care services would improve health care among indigenous people because of the trust that remote Aboriginals have in their people and culture. Such initiatives can encourage nutritional health of Indigenous people because most dental health problems result from poor diets. Moreover, healthcare providers have to create healthcare promotional materials for Indigenous people. Based on this, various scholars have recommended partnership approaches in provisions of health care services to Indigenous people. For instance, healthcare stakeholders can form partnership with oral dental care firms to supply cheap or free toothpaste and toothbrushes for basic and regular oral cleaning. Such initiatives recognize local conditions and improved approaches in dental healthcare services.
Recommendations
Past studies have shown that the provision of dental healthcare services to the rural Aboriginals can improve if stakeholders collaborate. For instance, government agencies should work with AMS in order to increase early utilisation of such services between children and adults (Parker et al., 2012).
The government should formulate policies to curb multiple factors such as remote locations and lack of good dental healthcare facilities that contribute to poor oral hygiene among rural Aboriginals.
Equipping AMS clinics with modern dental care facilities can ensure that Aboriginals in remote areas also get proper dental care.
Cultural aspects have significant influences on the outcome of dental healthcare services. Therefore, it is necessary to provide Aboriginal nurses in AMS facilities and conduct cultural orientation for other healthcare workers because rural Aboriginals are likely to seek dental care in facilities where Aboriginal care providers are.
According to the Overburden Report, one method of enhancing the quality of healthcare service is to ensure that Aboriginal community-based health centres have the various forms of quality care needed for reducing the gap in healthcare provisions. The focus should be on equipping healthcare facilities, training many Aboriginal dentists and educating rural Aboriginals about oral hygiene.
Reference List
Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet 2012, Summary of Australian Indigenous health, 2011, Web.
Blinkhorn, F, Brown, N, Freeman, R, Humphris, G, Martin, A and Blinkhorn, A. 2012, ‘A phase II clinical trial of a dental health education program delivered by aboriginal health workers to prevent early childhood caries’, BMC Public Health, vol. 12, no. 681, pp. 1-8.
Christian B and Blinkhorn S 2012, ‘A review of dental caries in Australian Aboriginal children: the health inequalities perspective’, Journal of Rural and Remote Health, vol. 12, no. 2032, pp. 1-11.
Kruger, E, Perera, I, and Tennant, M 2010, ‘Primary oral health service provision in Aboriginal Medical Services-based dental clinics in Western Australia’, Australia Journal of Primary Health, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 291-5.
Parker, J, Misan, G, Shearer, M, Richards, L, Russell, A, Mills, H and Jamieson, L. 2012, ‘Planning, implementing, and evaluating a program to address the oral health needs of aboriginal children in Port Augusta, Australia’, International Journal of Pediatrics.
Oral health is very important for any person. Not only the comfortable existence of a person depends on it, but also the satisfaction of basic needs, such as eating. In America, as in many other countries, there are groups of the population that are in crisis for oral care. Native Americans suffer from the worst oral health of any population group in the United States (Tiwari et al., 2019). They have staggering rates of untreated dental caries among children and untreated caries and gum disease among adults. Native Americans suffer from toothache every day and face more severe consequences, such as unstoppable tooth decay. This problem is as acute as in other states with indigenous populations in Florida.
Oral Health Care for the Indigenous Population of Florida
There are 240 districts in Florida with a shortage of dental specialists, which provides less than 15% of the population’s needs. In addition, less than 1% of dentists and dental hygienists in Florida are indigenous (Florida Health, 2021). This provides additional difficulties for obtaining dental care for indigenous people. The fact is that the dental treatment that modern society is used to is unusual for them. Such people are much more willing to go to a specialist from their culture than to a white doctor. Due to the shortage of indigenous people among doctors in Florida providing dental services, this segment of the population suffers from dental problems. Compared to white children in the United States aged 3-5 years, indigenous children have four times more cases of untreated caries (Florida Health, 2021). Untreated caries affects more than twice as many adult indigenous dental patients as the U.S. population as a whole and compared to any other racial or ethnic group. Such an epidemiological situation indicates an acute problem with dental care among the indigenous population.
Even though this problem does not increase the risk of mortality, it dramatically spoils the quality of life of the indigenous population. The topic of oral health is also mentioned in the Healthy People 2020 program. The goal of the program on this topic is prevention and control of oral diseases and making dental services more accessible. In a review in 2020, it was noted that over the past 50 years, the oral health of Americans had improved significantly (Healthy People 2020, n.d.). However, some Americans do not have access to prevention programs. The goals in this area are to increase Americans’ awareness of oral health and reduce differences in access to medical services. In addition, the goal is also to take adequate preventive measures to improve the oral health of Americans. To improve the oral health of Native Americans, the Government regularly applies preventive measures. Among them, first, educational events are held to convey the importance of oral care to Native Americans. In addition, programs are also being implemented to provide free consultations for this segment of the population.
Conclusion
Summing up, the problem of oral health care for the indigenous population of America is quite acute. Poor dental health not only harms appearance but also prevents the fulfillment of basic human needs. The indigenous population remains the group whose oral health is the worst of the entire population. This is due to the lack of indigenous specialists in the field of dentistry, as well as a lack of educational work. Nevertheless, government programs are actively engaged in the development of this area and improving the health conditions of the indigenous population.
Healthy People 2020. (n.d.). Oral health. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Web.
Tiwari, T., Jamieson, L., Broughton, J., Lawrence, H. P., Batliner, T. S., Arantes, R., & Albino, J. (2018). Reducing Indigenous oral health inequalities: A review from 5 nations. Journal of Dental Research, 97(8), 1-15. Web.
As an infectious disease, COVID-19 has been considered a major health threat for the whole world since its discovery in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. However, indigenous population groups are affected by this virus way more than the general population. It can be explained by a combination of several factors, including poor access to healthcare, as well as the lack of access to vital services and sanitation. Currently, it is difficult to predict when the coronavirus pandemic will be over, which is why it is essential to take appropriate measures to prevent the vast spread of this infectious disease. In spite of the fact that numerous countries of the world have started the process of vaccination, indigenous individuals constantly experience issues related to receiving vaccinations. Thus, the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus has significantly affected the lives of indigenous population groups in different countries of the world, as these individuals are frequently discriminated against in terms of business, society, and economy.
General Information
At the moment, COVID-19 is widely known as an infectious disease that affects not only health but also worldwide economic activity, education, and society. As of March 2021, approximately 140 million individuals were diagnosed with this disease throughout the entire world (Sudre et al. 2021). Even though the pandemic has been lasting for over a year already, its prevalence is still tremendously high. In fact, over three million people died due to the complications of coronavirus (Sudre et al. 2021). In turn, the complications usually include pneumonia, organ failure, heart problems, kidney injury, and blood clots. Elderly population groups are at high risk of developing severe symptoms of COVID-19, although new types of this disease are likely to affect the health of children and adults as well. Indigenous individuals belong to the social group at higher risk from emerging infectious diseases as well.
Aboriginal people have always faced systemic health, racial, and social inequalities. However, these inequalities became more obvious in the past year. Presently, nearly 476 million indigenous and tribal people live on the planet (Goha et al., 2021). Taking into consideration that these individuals have higher rates of diabetes, obesity, and asthma, they are more likely to be injected with COVID-19 than the general population. In fact, it is predicted that populations residing on reservations have four times higher rates of coronavirus cases (Goha et al., 2021). Moreover, the economic and social disruption put considerable pressure on the life of these individuals. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the impact and implications of COVID-19 on native individuals in order to minimize the morbidity and mortality rate caused by the pandemic.
Employment and Working Conditions
First, COVID-19 has had a significant impact on the indigenous labor market not only in Australia but in the whole world. Despite the fact that around 63% of aboriginal people are in employment, they are still more disadvantaged than the general population (Button and Walker 2020). Currently, this trend can be considered the result of political exclusion, historical oppression, and limited infrastructure. For instance, indigenous females are 25% more likely to be working in the informal economy than non-aboriginal females, whereas this kind of economy is expected to fall by over 75% as a response to the coronavirus crisis (Button and Walker 2020). Hence, low wages accelerate the process of falling into poverty, which means individuals will have limited access to healthcare and education.
The outbreak of COVID-19 has also affected the native labor market in terms of sectors. In other words, the global crisis requires this population group to focus on low-skilled positions, as a variety of globally known companies have decided to reduce staff (AHCWA 2020). In turn, a high level of competition is the reason why indigenous people have to work among poorly-educated workers to earn money to satisfy basic human needs. Simultaneously, aboriginal population groups still experience workplace discrimination, even though it is usually expressed unconsciously.
Access to Healthcare
At present, indigenous individuals are more likely to get injected with COVID-19 due to a combination of multiple factors, such as high levels of poverty, unemployment, and malnutrition. One of the main reasons why these people have poor access to appropriate healthcare services is that this population mainly lives in rural areas. In turn, rural areas are usually characterized by low-quality medical infrastructure. Taking into account that numerous individuals decided to spend lockdown in rural areas, it resulted in a considerable increase in the number of patients who required medical care there. For instance, approximately three-quarters of indigenous people report some degree of inaccessibility to health facilities (Horrill et al. 2018). In fact, local healthcare providers do not have the opportunity to serve such a high number of people.
Furthermore, some population groups live under circumstances when there is tremendously poor access to hand sanitizers, water, and soap. Considering that these elements play an essential role in terms of preventing COVID-19, native people significantly increase the chances of suffering from the complications of coronavirus. Additionally, these individuals still struggle with discrimination in clinical settings. It is frequently based on their ethnic background or racial features, which should be taken into consideration with the help of culturally appropriate health services (Horrill et al. 2018). In case appropriate measures are not taken, the overall health status of indigenous population groups will be significantly worsened.
Access to Education
In light of the COVID-19 restrictions and precautions, education provision has been limited in different parts of the world. For example, regular school education was transformed in the format of online education in the majority of countries. Therefore, currently, the quality of school education depends on access to the Internet and certain gadgets. Taking into consideration that on average indigenous individuals are three times more likely to live in poor conditions, numerous families do not have the financial opportunity to afford strong Internet connection and multifunctioning gadgets (Andersen et al. 2017). As a result, the learning process of native people is frequently associated with inequalities. Simultaneously, this kind of education disturbs the lives of students, educators, and researchers.
Presently, it is also crucial to focus on both the medical education and the mental health impacts of school closures. In fact, high-quality education has always been connected to improved health outcomes, employment, and income (Burgess, Bishop and Lowe 2020). In the context of indigenous population groups, these individuals have limited access to medical education due to the lack of appropriate sources and infrastructure to achieve this goal. From the perspective of the mental health impact of online learning on the well-being of this population group, it is important to note significant improvements. It can be explained by the fact that online education is associated with less discrimination.
Social Protection
Marginalization, discrimination, and exclusion have a considerable impact not only on the poverty level and quality of education but also on social protection. In spite of the fact that there are numerous policies that are implemented in order to improve the existing social protection of indigenous individuals, they are considered tremendously ineffective. In some countries, the level of social protection is lower than 10%, which means that it is difficult to promote efficient labor markets and diminish people’s exposure to risks (Cooke et al. 2017). As a part of national development strategies, social protection significantly depends on discrimination, as well as economic and social disadvantages. Therefore, considering that highlighted disadvantages have developed into a global problem during the global pandemic, aboriginal people suffer from the lack of appropriate social insurance, labor market, social assistance, community protection, and child protection.
It is essential to implement policies that would be based on the idea to minimize the spread of COVID-19 among indigenous individuals. For instance, the Brazilian government adopted a law that considers social protection as an effective measure to prevent the contagion and dissemination of coronavirus on indigenous territories (Silva et al. 2021). This type of social protection includes sanitary and epidemiological surveillance, as well as food security actions, to improve the overall health status of native population groups during a pandemic. Accordingly, this example of social protection over epidemiological threat is expected to bring positive results in the nearest future, as it takes into account a mix of different preventative measures recognized by the World Health Organization.
Food and Land Security
In the twenty-first century, all individuals, regardless of their ethnic background, race, or sexual orientation, should have the right to adequate food. In turn, indigenous people have always been highlighting the importance of land entitlement over their traditional territories. On the one hand, the local government should review this request in a short period of time. On the other hand, the intention to prevent the spread of COVID-19 is more relevant at the present time. Therefore, the request for a land entitlement is currently left unsolved due to the global pandemic.
Simultaneously, conflicts concerning access to land and water have been on the rise lately. In fact, many indigenous people were required to transform their livelihood options. For example, the rapid spread of COVID-19 throughout the whole world has turned landowners and farmers into low-paid factory workers (Lugo-Morin 2020). In other words, the coronavirus crisis has considerably affected the rights of numerous aboriginal population groups for their own lands and territories. As a result, this problem creates barriers on the way to performing appropriate farming activities.
Recommendations
In order to improve the quality of life of indigenous people during a pandemic, it is essential to follow specific recommendations that can be applied to different areas of life. For instance, when it comes to poor access to education, local governments should take into consideration political frameworks that ensure the knowledge is accessible to every member of a certain population group. For example, school education should be based on the principles of individually paced learning, culturally safe learning environments, and local community involvement (Hart, Moore and Laverty 2017). From the perspective of access to healthcare, it is important to combine several actions. The actions include partnering with hospitals that are held in congregations, teaming up with retail healthcare organizations, as well as developing telehealth technologies.
In addition, the employment and working conditions of indigenous population groups should also be considered and improved. First, the skill levels of aboriginal people should be increased with the help of formal education and training (Jones et al. 2019). Second, in order to make the process of employment easier for this population group, it is crucial to perform customized training. Furthermore, it is recommended to maintain a safe working environment with the help of appropriate policies. Lastly, cross-cultural training for employers should be regularly arranged. In case initiatives that address the broader workplace culture are implemented, the working experience of indigenous individuals will be tremendously beneficial for their mental health. Consequently, in order to have a positive impact on the lives of aboriginal people during the global pandemic, it is important to consider a mix of different interventions.
Conclusion
The outbreak of COVID-19 has tremendously changed the lives of all individuals in different parts of the world. At the same time, aboriginal population groups have been affected by the pandemic more than the general population. When it comes to employment, these individuals are required to apply for low-skilled positions due to political exclusion and limited infrastructure. In the context of access to healthcare, aboriginal people are frequently discriminated against as well. It can be explained by the fact that the majority of aboriginal population groups live in rural areas where hospitals are understaffed. Lastly, the spread of coronavirus has affected indigenous individuals from the perspective of education, as it has transformed from school-based settings to the online format. In turn, numerous representatives of the indigenous group do not have proper access to the Internet and appropriate electronic gadgets. Therefore, it is essential to follow specific recommendations in order to minimize the negative impact of COVID-19 on the lives of aboriginal people.
Andersen, Melanie, Anna Williamson, Peter Fernando, Darryl Wright, and Sally Redman. 2017. “Housing Conditions of Urban Households with Aboriginal Children in NSW Australia: Tenure Type Matters”. BMC Public Health 18 (1): 1-20. Web.
Burgess, Catherine, Michelle Bishop, and Kevin Lowe. 2020. “Decolonising Indigenous Education: The Case for Cultural Mentoring in Supporting Indigenous Knowledge Reproduction”. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 2 (12): 1-14. Web.
Button, Patrick, and Brigham Walker. 2020. “Employment Discrimination Against Indigenous Peoples in The United States: Evidence from a Field Experiment”. Labour Economics 65 (2): 101-151. Web.
Cooke, Fadzilah Majid, Johan Nordensvard, Gusni Bin Saat, Frauke Urban, and Giuseppina Siciliano. 2017. “The Limits of Social Protection: The Case of Hydropower Dams and Indigenous Peoples’ Land”. Asia & The Pacific Policy Studies 4 (3): 437-450. Web.
Goha, Ahmed, Kenechukwu Mezue, Paul Edwards, Kristofer Madu, Dainia Baugh, Edwin Tulloch-Reid, Felix Nunura, Chyke Doubeni, and Ernest Madu. 2021. “Indigenous People and the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Tip of an Iceberg of Social and Economic Inequities”. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health 2 (75): 207-208. Web.
Hart, Michael, Michael Moore, and Martin Laverty. 2017. “Improving Indigenous Health Through Education”. Medical Journal of Australia 207 (1): 11-12. Web.
Horrill, Tara, Diana McMillan, Annette Schultz, and Genevieve Thompson. 2018. “Understanding Access to Healthcare Among Indigenous Peoples: A Comparative Analysis of Biomedical and Postcolonial Perspectives”. Nursing Inquiry 25 (3): 122-137. Web.
Jones, Rhys, Lynden Crowshoe, Papaarangi Reid, Betty Calam, Elana Curtis, Michael Green, and Tania Huria et al. 2019. “Educating for Indigenous Health Equity”. Academic Medicine 94 (4): 512-519. Web.
Lugo-Morin, Diosey. 2020. “Indigenous Communities and Their Food Systems: A Contribution to the Current Debate”. Journal of Ethnic Foods 7 (1): 33-39. Web.
Silva, Luciana, Patrícia Nascimento, Ordália Araújo, and Tamiris Pereira. 2021. “The Articulation of the Indigenous Peoples of Brazil in Facing the COVID-19 Pandemic”. Frontiers in Sociology 6 (23): 1-18. Web.
Sudre, Carole H., Benjamin Murray, Thomas Varsavsky, Mark S. Graham, Rose S. Penfold, Ruth C. Bowyer, and Joan Capdevila Pujol et al. 2021. “Attributes and Predictors of Long COVID”. Nature Medicine 27 (4): 626-631. Web.
Since the early 1990s, residents of the Kaska community, who live on the Ross River in Yukon, have struggled severely with mental health and addiction problems. Currently, the community consists of about 400 people. It is also notable that recently, many people are died of unnatural death only in the Yukon region. There is a lack of doctors and health care, and people require hours to get mental or physical support (Connors, 2022). The fact that there are so many addictions is because these issues have not been talked about for years. The Kaska community needs help quickly when it may already be too late for some people.
The news in this article is based on real events. In fact, this is evidenced by the fact that a woman named Ladue was interviewed before writing this article. This lady is part of the Kaska community and talks about the problematic situation in the community and what her husband is in. Her husband has suffered from mental and addiction problems for many years, and she speaks from experience. Moreover, the problematic situation is substantiated with examples (Connors, 2022). Thus, this article gives a realistic picture of the actual situation.
Investing in Mikmau’s Health Care System
The issue of health care and access to it for Indians in Canada it the forefront. Even though the Canadian health care system is one of the most progressive in the world, quality health care is not always available to the indigenous population (Roi, 2022). Analyzing the information presented in the media of indigenous people of Canada, it is possible to conclude that it emphasizes the necessity of creating and financing health care programs. Furthermore, new programs should be culturally sensitive and focus on mental health and cultural support, given the trauma Indigenous people have experienced.
Unlike governments and various social institutions and systems, diseases do not discriminate. If infectious diseases affect certain population groups to a much greater extent, this is the result of centuries of prejudice and inequality (Roi, 2022). The most socially disadvantaged members are those with the least ability to take precautions, have limited access to proper medical care, and are judged or persecuted. It is especially true in the case of indigenous peoples in Canada, which is the subject of this article. Immediate action, issue revealing, and funding for health care are needed to save the lives of thousands of people.
Native Canadian Veterans
The foremost of the article is based on the need to respect the role of Canada’s veterans on a par with others. Like other military members, they fought for freedom, justice, and equality. Moreover, they are also credited with having volunteered for combat, for which they have sometimes been punished. Indigenous people were often deprived of status or denied any benefits. Nowadays, Indigenous Veterans Day should be celebrated nationally, not regionally (Needham, 2022). It would promote understanding of Indigenous people and their role in the country.
The issue of respect for the cultural and national identities of Native Canadians is still relevant. Although the source presents an interview with an aboriginal person and raises an important issue, the manner of writing and the author’s comments indicate that Canadians do not understand the role of the issue. The article emphasizes the hard work of the Canadian military and only the negative aspects of the duties of the Canadian indigenous military (Needham, 2022). It is a severe societal problem; the press often overlooks the positive aspects of Indigenous communities but often discusses their issues or shortcomings.
Innu-aitun Culture and Identity in Danger
The Innu-aitun community of Pessamit in Quebec is greatly affected by climate change. Both the culture and way of life of this group of people are at risk. Moreover, they are in close contact with nature. An example of a threat to the Innu-autism community is coastal erosion (Guevara-Rosas & France-Isabelle, 2022). This prevents certain cultural activities from being carried out and this causes the loss of territory. The UN recognizes that indigenous peoples have suffered injustices, including colonization and dispossession of land, territories and resources.
The news in this article is reliable as Amnesty International is an internationally known organization that stands up for the people. Furthermore, research was conducted on the human rights violations of the Innu-aitun community (Guevara-Rosas & France-Isabelle, 2022). This involved looking at the impact of climate change on several fronts. The reliability of this article is also increased by the fact that the researchers actually visited the territory of the indigenous people to learn of their struggle to protect the environment and their culture.
Mainstream media has a negative depiction of Indigenous persons, portraying them as being primitive, violent, passive as well and devious. Portrayals like these are common in TV programs, movies, and literature (Carlson et al., 2017). This work, therefore, attempts to look at how mainstream and Native media outlets portray Indigenous news.
Global News
The first news article under analysis is Global News. The article published in this media outlet reports how the Canadian Federal Government is spending $39.4 million to support Native languages (Blake, 2022). The funding is to be given to communities, governments, and organizations that will help maintain the Native language. Further, one of the causes of the loss of Indigenous languages is the use of residential schools to kill these languages. Through this grant, Canada aims to enhance its communities’ diversity. In addition, the article is a news story, where the author reports new information to the audience, which is the government’s support of the Native language. The tone is formal since the author only focuses on officials to report the story. More specifically, its formality is shown since the author does not use resident views of the First Nation. The article’s topic also makes it appear formal, as it summarizes the information in the report.
In this CBC article, William Gaywish is a Rolling River First Nation father who started a healing group for men in his community (Kemp, 2022). In the past, he lived in Winnipeg but traveled back to Manitoba to find himself. Gaywish established the men’s group that would assist fathers in healing from their complications. These fathers aim to create a compelling future for their families. In other words, the group seeks to cut the effects of intergenerational trauma so their children can live everyday lives. The article further affirms that the conference assisted the men in establishing an action plan to heal. As a narrative of experience, the article addresses the occurrences and events happening to the Native people. The tone used in the report is a supportive and motivating one.
CTV News
The third article published in CTV News tells the story of an Indigenous mother awarded $150,000 after her children were snatched from her (Steacy, 2022). The tribunal unearthed that the mother’s treatment was discriminatory, including months of no contact with her kids. The woman had initially filled out her complaint in 2017. The article depicts what most indigenous mothers face while dealing with the child welfare system. Her children were also reported to be harmed while in care, such as in 2017, one of her children attempted suicide. The story type is a narrative feature as the report is long, depicting the life of the Indigenous mother from 2017 to 2022 when she finally received her compensation. The story further has an emotional tone. Steacy (2022) described the woman’s struggles in 2017 when she filed a complaint. Nevertheless, the news article appears to be indirectly addressing the issue; Whereas, from the topic, there is no name or accreditation given to the mother.
APTN reports
The news article published in APTN reports the re-opening of a sawmill within the Cree nation that had been out of service since 2012. The Cree government hopes to utilize the sawmill to counter the housing problems experienced in nine Cree communities and employment challenges, as the mill will add 30 more full-time jobs. The report is taking a news story format, presenting new information to the masses. Secondly, the article also uses a feature story to illustrate the experience of Natives in the Cree community. The tone is uplifting, as the article tends to motivate the readers on the progress happening in the Cree nation. Furthermore, the tone is cooperative, as the author shows many agreements between people from the Cree nation and the Canadian government.
Conclusion
There is a difference between how the mainstream media and Native outlet depicts their information. The mainstream media outlets only focus on words from top officials while neglecting the views of the average Native population. Nonetheless, APTN focuses on the littlest details of the Cree nation, including illustrating the opinions of locals in the territory.
Carlson, B. L., Jones, L. V., Harris, M., Quezada, N., & Frazer, R. (2017). Trauma, shared recognition and indigenous resistance on social media. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 21.
Indigenous peoples may be defined as a group of ethnic individuals who occupy a certain geographical region and it has also been established that this group bears the earliest historical relationships with such a region. This is in comparison with the immigrants to such a region, and who have over the years multiplied in numbers to an extent that the initial inhabitants have greatly been outnumbered (Grey & Postero 2004).
Several indigenous ethnic people are still existent today. Some of the well known and whose existence has extensively been documented over the years include the Aborigines in Australia, the Maori from New Zealand, the Red Indians in the United States (better known as the native Americans), as well as the Mayan people from Guatemala, to name but a few. It is important to note that the indigenous peoples possess unique ideas, knowledge, and skills that call for intellectual protection, lest we risk losing such a rich cultural heritage. Also worthy of note is the fact that indigenous people have made a major accomplishment, both as a community or as individuals.
Indigenous people accomplishments
In terms of accomplishments by these indigenous people, a lot has been recorded, although these individual bears a technological history that is a far cry from what we have today, in terms of development. The indigenous people may not be well versed with the latest form of technology, but they have in their special way achieved major accomplishments that warrant recognition.
For example, the indigenous people of South and North America were able to erect suspension bridges, enormous buildings that are earthquake-proof, transport systems for water, as well as paved roads that transverses thousands of kilometers, some of which still find use today (Grey & Postero 2004). We also have the Mayan people, whose technique of obsidian blade production has been borrowed by the makers of surgical instruments, with the result that more efficient surgical blades are now produced, thanks to the technology of the Mayan people.
On the other hand, the special artistic gift that the Maori tribe has been blessed with is an accomplishment that also needs to be mentioned here. The artwork of this tribe has served to inspire many individuals, along with their music (Garroutte 2003). The aboriginal people have also been shown to possess various developmental initiatives that have come in handy in their quest to solving developmental issues. At a personal level, there are several persons from the aboriginal tribe that has accomplished major fetes in the world. For example, we have Cathy Freeman, a splinter from Australia, and who has been associated with the aboriginal tribe. She helped her country win gold in the 4oo miters during the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney Australia.
Another aborigine who has been noted for having accomplished a major feat at the 1996 Olympics games in Atlanta, Georgia, is the Australian Nova Peris-Kneebone, who helped the country’s hockey team to success. These two personalities have gone down the annals of history in Australia as the first aborigines to have brought Olympic success to the country. The Native Americans have also left an indelible mark in the academic field.
For example, as of 2006, it was reported that there were 13 indigenous archeologists in the United States (Chanthaphonh & Fergusson 2007). Such a number may seem small relative to their non-indigenous counterparts, but when we take into account the hardships that this group of Americans has to overcome along the way, we then appreciate that this is indeed no small fete.
Knowledge of the world of children comes mainly from the experience of the behavior of their environment, primarily parents. They are strongly influenced by the life positions of those around them, and they adopt their behavior model. Children copy the behavior of their parents or caregivers and learn to navigate future relationships based on what they have learned. Sustainable coping mechanisms can be forged from efforts to avoid and/or restore anger, violent behavior, mistreatment, depression, or other problem behaviors. Trauma can develop, which has various types of manifestation and occurrence. Simple trauma can be caused by experiencing a limited traumatic event, such as an attack or a threat. There is also a complex trauma, when new traumatic events occur against the background of an already existing trauma or when a series of traumatic events occurs. Complex trauma at an early age can be detrimental to many aspects of a child’s development. The Stolen Generation and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descendants have been identified with chronic health problems, disabilities, and a disturbing financial and social disadvantage for the children of Stolen Generations and their families.
History of Trauma
Australia and its Indigenous peoples had a challenging, traumatic experience with the forced removal of Aboriginal children in the early to mid 20th century. For a long 60 years, from 1910 to 1970, every third child was abducted from indigenous settlements; much of the event affected the Torres Strait Islanders (Timeline of trauma, 2018). In Australia in those years, a new assimilation policy was opened, which led to the removal of indigenous children. The traumas, pain, and sadness caused by these events still worry the children and their relatives taken away from their families. Children who fell under the brutal assimilation policy were called the Stolen Generation (Trauma – healing, 2020). Those who experienced the horrors of the old politics experienced tremendous grief and received a lot of psychological and sometimes physical trauma. In doing so, they lost any connection to their family, culture, and identity in general.
The survivors of the Stolen Generation policy have a harrowing experience that is still not forgotten. Still, they collectively remember the experience of being in various institutions and usage of them as unpaid domestic servants and pastoralists. For children, they created a rigid framework for assimilation into a society different from their culture. They could not communicate with their blood family, speak their native language, and even use their real name given to them by their parents at birth (Menzies, 2019). The government kept no records of the birth dates or places of birth of many children. When these children grew up, it was almost impossible for them to be reunited with their families again. In many cases, the children were taken away and placed away from where they were stolen.
Since the children were abused and neglected, they were often stressed and suffered from low self-esteem and mental illnesses. Moreover, they experienced vulnerability to various manifestations of violence, mental, physical, and sexual. It was while they were under the care of the state, non-indigenous families, or at work. Stolen children have fewer opportunities to receive even a secondary education and have a tendency to increase arrests (Hunter et al., 2006). Many studies show that these children suffer from a disadvantaged position in society.
When the children of the stolen generation start their own families today, the impact of their experiences of displacement and separation from the family is also felt. Due to the fact that children have been deprived of the experience of a normal family structure, they pass on their traumatic experiences and develop intergenerational trauma. According to the AIHW report, a large percentage of survivors (about 30%) do not have access to special services, so one in seven lives with a disability (AIHW reports, 2021). Moreover, of the poorest 30 percent of the population, survivors of the stolen generation make up the majority (66%) (AIHW reports, 2021). Separated from their families, children have lost touch with cultural and spiritual values.
Traumatic experiences were passed down from generation to generation and led to the emergence of a common intergenerational trauma. According to a study by the Healing Foundation, most indigenous peoples in Australia do not fully understand the impact of these traumatic events on their lives (Aboriginal and Torres, 2018). One of the key steps to healing is acknowledging the presence of trauma, as learning to work with it, plays an important role. Dealing with intergenerational trauma in this way will significantly impact dealing with it, not only among indigenous peoples in Australia but also among other Aboriginal people. Many factors have contributed to the development of intergenerational trauma, such as socially sanctioned racism, forced displacement and assimilation, and lack of cultural heritage and land (Andrew & Hibberd, 2022). As a result, the impact of the trauma only grows and prevents survivors from fully participating in their own social life.
Artwork Explanation
The child is torn off and isolated, and I presented this in part A of the task in my drawing. They cannot fully assimilate into a new society different from their traditions, as the then policy of Australia wanted. At the same time, they are losing the identity of their people, which is why their isolation affects their lives so much. Indeed, in the context of indigenous peoples, the intergenerational transmission was interrupted by colonization. The younger generations have to rid the older ones of the hurt caused by colonialism by helping them relive their life stories in order to bridge the gap between the past and the present. Therefore, it is important to preserve and promote Aboriginal identity and look to their internal practices to restore the balance of their culture and authenticity.
The child’s violent attachment to other people only contributes to the development of a lost identity. Despite the fact that children were instilled with common life values, they still remained suspended from the whole world, without the opportunity to fully assimilate into a new culture while losing their roots. Therefore, the child in the picture and part A is depicted as vulnerable and alone. There was a loss of culture due to the realities of life experience and assimilation into a new society. It led to the fact that parents were not able to pass on hereditary knowledge to their children, that is, to teach them the cultural traditions of the natives. Grandparents and parents passed on some aspects of the culture during the summer holidays when children returned home from residential schools, but there was no consistency in this (Norris, 2008). The loss of culture-led the children to be excluded from both societies, into which they were unable to fit in as a result.
Practicing Dadirri in the Healing Process
Links between tradition, healing, and Aboriginal health are becoming increasingly popular. Research clearly shows that understanding Aboriginal culture and ethnicity affects their health and well-being (Waller, 2018). The Aboriginal worldview, together with specific cultural knowledge, brings up the healthy behavior of people. Therefore, actions toward local peoples in the process of healing should not be considered stereotyped behavior. Cultural diversity must be taken into account to increase the sensitivity of those who work with the urban part of the Aboriginals.
By using different learning modes, children can interact with culture differently using different forms. With the help of self-immersion in issues of identity and self-knowledge, they realize that they are not just someone’s ideas but co-emergences between themselves and the world (Norris, 2008). Authentic assessment, like authentic learning, must have students as one of its authors, so immersion in the characteristics of Aboriginal culture is essential.
Dadirri’s practice allows people to own their data or intellectual property rights to their stories. The dadirri principle is to watch and listen, wait and then act. Dadirri, like many research methodologies, considers ethical responsibility to be vital. Putting dadirri into practice is, in many ways, a process of learning to stay in the current of the community, in which the river of need and exchange sometimes flowed slowly and profoundly and sometimes was fast and turbulent (Stronach & Adair, 2017). The stolen generation needs to listen and stay where they were meant to go. It means to follow the direction they chose when their experiences were defined and rethought so they can find their own stories and their healing paths.
Self-awareness and other patterns of thought should be valued, as the mental worldview provides a deeper understanding of what is important for the healing of the aboriginal peoples. Recovery involves relating to them in authentic ways, with an understanding of the experience of trauma, as well as acknowledging the interconnection of the mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual realms for well-being (Andrew & Hibberd, 2022). Understanding the experience of urban natives is needed, and using their traditional practices for their ways of dealing with complex mental and physical health problems.
Dealing with trauma and working to heal survivors requires a significant amount of resources that strengthen Aboriginal cultural bonds and identities. The result aims to improve people’s emotional state and raise their social status. In this way, it is possible to improve the general level of education among the natives, as well as to influence their relationships within the family positively. That, in turn, will reduce the number of children falling under the state protection system. Some schools in Australia are already doing this; for example, Murray in Queensland has coordination services aimed at therapeutic intervention and working with the families of survivors (Aboriginal and Torres, 2018). The school has created a holistic system that considers cultural diversity and brings together professionals who can help children with intergenerational trauma. Many schools and various foundations rely on the methodology of identity reconstruction, by referring to it, to help children overcome intergenerational trauma.
Conclusion
Many indigenous peoples have had traumatic experiences and experienced the collective trauma associated with colonization. As a result of the transfer of experience from generation to generation, intergenerational trauma has developed. Colonization led to forced migration from traditional settlements, eviction, locals, and forced transfer of children from their parents to boarding schools, foreign families, or orphanages. As a result, children have lost their culture, family stability, and traditional values. It stemmed from the impossibility of passing on important cultural values from parents and elders to the children who were taken away. In addition, resettlement and settlement in a new society alienated many indigenous people from their traditional way of life and prosperity. As a result, children feel disconnected from their own identity and unable to assimilate into a new environment. To overcome the trauma of the stolen generation, it is necessary to address their cultural practices to create and support the development of a healthy society.
References
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Stolen Generations and descendants: Numbers, demographic characteristics and selected outcomes, overview. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2018). Web.
Norris, J. (2008). A Quest for a theory and practice of authentic assessment: An arts-based approach. LEARNing Landscapes, 2(1), 211–233. Web.
Stronach, M. M., & Adair, D. (2017). Dadirri: Using a philosophical approach to research to build trust between a non-indigenous researcher and indigenous participants. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(2), 117–134. Web.