The Navajo tribe is the largest American Indian tribe. They lived in the southwest in areas that are known for Mexico, Utah, and Colorado. The Navajo tribe were semi-nomadic people and were hunters and gathers. Their spiritual practice is about balance and harmony. The Navajo boy’s ritual was their voice cracking and becoming a man and the girl’s rite of passage was getting molded into a woman.
The rite of passage for the Navajo boys is their voice cracking. In the process of a boy’s voice changing, a ceremony is created for the boys within a sweat lodge where all of the men come together and go inside. Inside the sweat lodge, they are taught songs, prayers, and teachings. Boys run out of the lodge and begin yelling out that their voice is changing. Once the boy comes back from his first round of yelling, he must continue with another round. Each round of yelling takes quite a long time. A while later, the door of blankets will open up and the boy will run for the last time to the east. Once the last round has been completed, the boy’s voice will finally crack and he will become a man.
The Navajo girls’ rite of passage is almost like the transformation from a caterpillar to a butterfly. The right of passage begins after the girl’s first menstrual cycle and lasts four days. On the first morning of the girl transitioning into a woman, she will take baths, and dress in her finest clothing. Once the girl is ready, she will straighten her legs and arms. Her joints are smoothed, and her muscles are pressed to make her truly shaped. Before the ceremony, the girls have to eat only bread and mush. The girl should also not scratch her body or head with her nails because if she does, she will get very bad scars. It is important for girls to not get scars because that will damage their beautiful image and perfect skin. As a woman, it is important to be beautiful and to preserve your beauty in every way. Finally, when all of these things have been done, the girl will finally become a woman, and the village will throw a huge party and celebrate the girl coming of age.
The Navajo tribe is a very rich and interesting tribe because of all the rituals the girls and boys have. For a boy to become a man, he is taught songs and teachings inside of a sweat lodge and must go through several rounds of yelling. After the last round is completed, the boy’s voice will crack, and that will turn the boy into a man. The girls’ rite of passage takes a little longer than the boys’ and occurs after her first menstrual cycle. She prepares for four days, during which she eats bread and mush, takes baths, dresses in her finest clothes, and will have her joints and muscles smoothed and pressed into her true shape. Once all of these are completed, the girl will have transitioned into a woman. For both the girl’s and boys’ rite of passage, they celebrated with a party, which means that they have completed all the steps to becoming an adult member of the tribe. The celebration initiating the boys and girls into the tribe as an adult allows them to carry out activities they were not able to before. They are then merged with the rest of the tribe as adults.
On August 3, 1492, Christopher Columbus set on a voyage to India but instead landed in the present-day United States of America. As soon as Columbus first interacted with Native Americans, there were problems, Christopher Columbus brought over diseases new to the Natives that were slowly killing Native Americans. During Columbus’s second voyage, he had the intention of taking land away from the Natives, which ultimately caused the killing and removal of the Natives. Only three hundred and fifty years later, Andrew Jackson signed an act for the removal of Native Americans east of the Mississippi River. Only one hundred and twenty-six years later, Native Americans were given the choice to relocate once again called the Indian Relocation. Native Americans were put onto reservations where they would live under inhumane circumstances, but they were able to live on the reservations with their culture. Native Americans need developers to survive in a world such as today because the Native American reservations would not allow the Natives to thrive, there are new illnesses being discovered that need modern hospitals, and culture was becoming a liability for the survival of the Native tribes.
Living on the Native American reservations could be related to living in a run-down third-world country, there was no running water, no electricity, houses were scarce, and the minimal amount of homes that did exist was run down and not cared for. Due to these factors, life was not expected to last long on Native reservations. Life conditions on the reservations were inhumane, the Natives were essentially treated as animals. “Plenty of us came by choice (urban cities), to start over, to make money, or for a new experience. Some of us come to cities to escape the reservations” (Orange, 9). Tommy Orange, author of ‘There There’, states the fact that Native Americans are willing to throw their culture away and start a new life, just to get off of these reservations. The reservations were so cruel that Native Americans, one of the most culture-focused ethnicities, would rather throw their own culture away than live on a reservation any longer.
Some Native Americans were able to get off the reservations and, due to the developers, were able to have constant income from electricity companies, casinos, and tour guides through their ancestral land. “The Indian casino phenomenon. Most of its material deals with the Florida Seminoles’ earlier economic endeavors as cattle raisers and then as tourist producers—as crafts workers and as performers in alligator wrestling exhibitions” (Shoemaker, 117). Native Americans were forced to generate income to survive in a developed United States, and the Native Americans who possessed these companies proved that they were capable of developing. Many of the rich Native Americans who lived during the twentieth century were casino proprietors. Native Americans need developers to construct and modernize the buildings used for their electricity companies or their casinos.
The self-proclaimed Americans gave the Natives a choice to leave the awful lifestyle of these reservations and allowed them to live out the American Dream. For some Natives, being able to get off these reservations gave them a sense of freedom, which is what they want. Relocating from the reservations offered Native Americans hope to one day own land and live out the American dream. “Forced marches onto reservations, reduction of land holdings, broken treaty promises, attempts to destroy tribal culture through assimilation, and the termination of federal recognition of sovereign, tribal status” (Lewis, 414). Native Americans need developers to help renovate their reservations. The lifestyle they were living on the reservations compared to how the Europeans and Eastern United States were living was substantially worse, by developers helping they would be able to bring the Natives a better lifestyle. Developers would be able to stabilize their living conditions and help extend their life expectancy. They would also be able to improve technology and help evolve the Native reservations.
All countries are constantly evolving and discovering new technology and means of thriving. Native Americans were seemingly behind most of the first-world countries and a majority of all countries on the Earth. Native Americans urgently needed people to help advance their way of life, for the Natives to survive in this world. They need advancements in their defense and their technology. In the nineteenth century, the main concern of many countries is finding ways of expanding. Developers would be able to help with the Native means of defense, by doing this Native Americans would not be able to be taken over as simply. Developers would be able to provide them with security through advanced weapons. Native Americans also need development in their technology. The Natives did not have any plumbing and were miles behind what Europe was able to do.
While the rest of the world is advancing and evolving in their health and medical systems, the Natives still did not have any medical attention centers such as hospitals. Bringing in developers to the Natives will help construct and design hospitals when the Natives need medical attention using more than plants. Illnesses and diseases are constantly evolving and becoming immune to our current medication, so when plants are no longer able to cure the Natives, they will have nothing to treat themselves with. Bringing modernized hospitals will not only maintain the health of the Natives, but it will also allow them a place to have birth. Previously, the women of the tribe would give birth right on ancestral land, which is a risky action, because the chance for a failed delivery is significantly higher than at hospitals. Introducing the Natives to hospitals would allow them to have more surviving children and be able to cure or aid illnesses/diseases, thus having a larger population. Developers could also help Native Americans by building clinics for their mental health, currently, the Natives have the highest suicide rate among all ethnicities, and the rate for the Natives is much larger in comparison to every other race. Clinics would help to keep the Natives’ mental health stable. Native Americans also have the highest obesity rate among every ethnicity in the United States. Clinics would offer special help to the mental health of Native Americans, and the Natives will need developers to build said clinics.
Tribes believe in their culture and beliefs to a point where it is not only affecting their children but also themselves. A tribe in Africa named the Maji Maji believed in the use of magic and drinking special potions that would help to protect them from being attacked by the Germans. They believed if they drank a mixture of water and seeds, they would be able to turn the German’s bullets to water in mid-air. “Villagers for being associated with black magic, Maji nwe. Maji nwe is power acquired from the devil by selling one’s soul” (Kelley, 72). It was a part of their culture to believe in magic instead of using weapons to defend themselves. If someone could have encouraged the African tribe to advance, possibly they would have been able to set up a defense against the Germans and not use their culture and beliefs as a weapon. This can also be related back to the Natives. Because the Americans would be able to help advance the Natives in constructing more powerful and effective weapons for when they are inevitably invaded by another country in search of new land. Developing the Natives would help the tribes to not use their culture and beliefs as a way of defending themselves, but to use legitimate weapons as a means of defense. If these tribes are not advanced, they will be trampled by more developed countries.
Scholars have argued the fact that current Americans are not environmentally friendly and that developing Native Americans will in turn destroy our environment and eventually kill our planet Earth. Native Americans were the original environmentalists, Native Americans would use all their resources entirely until there was nothing left, and the Natives did not allow any material to go to waste. Native Americans also used any resources they had around them, including the tiniest of objects. Natives were known for their excellent habits of preserving the Earth. Some would argue the fact that if South and North America were never colonized, there would be less pollution in the air and the Earth would naturally be a cleaner and better place to live.
Native Americans are in need of developers to help advance their way of life, Native Americans are far behind most first-world countries because they need advancement to their reservations, they need help developing their medical knowledge, and tribes have to realize their culture is becoming a liability to them. Considering how much Native Americans are trailing in advancements compared to the rest of the world, the Natives need developers urgently. They are lacking in the fields of defense all the way to their health systems. Having developers will not only make the lives of Native Americans more enjoyable, but developers will also lengthen the life expectancy of Native Americans, causing the ethnicity to strive.
The Igbo people form the south-eastern geo-political zone amongst the six geo-political zones in Nigeria and are also one of the largest ethnic groups in the whole of Africa. The Igbos can be found in most or all of these five states namely: Anambra State, Abia State, Ebonyi State, Imo State, and Enugu State, and also in some minor parts of regions like Delta State, Rivers State, and Benue State. These Igbo people are present in other different parts of Nigeria and outside of Nigeria. Irrespective of the fact that these Igbo people are scattered around the world, they all speak one particular language which is ‘Igbo’.
The origin of the name “Igbo or Ibo” is not known and also the origin of the Igbo People is also not known, unlike other ethnic groups who have myths about their origin. Afigbo, A.E. (1972) explained that the Igbo people are very much concerned about where they came from in order to know where they are going or how they are. There are speculations about the Igbo origin that they originated from immigrants (Nzam, Nri, and Azam) who arrived in the 1400s and 1500s from the North and West. The Igbo origin has been and will forever be an issue of speculation due to the lack of written historical records and findings.
The Igbo culture is very unique. The political and social structure in Igbo culture is highly decentralized; decisions are not made by one person. There is a group of elders (Ndichie), age groups, women’s associations (Umuada), and other community members that come together to make decisions that affect them. The Igbos also have their own method of worship. They also believe in a supreme God (Chukwu). Although the Igbos of today are mostly Christians, some of them still have the deep-rooted African traditional method of worship. Ceremonies, Rites of passage are also aspects of the Igbo culture. Marriage is also another key aspect of the Igbo culture. Marriage or “Ilu Nwanyi” in Igbo land is seen as a way of bringing families, towns, and lineages together. It involves the extended family (community) not just the immediate families. Dressing, Food (Ofe Nsala, Ofe Akwu, Ofe Owerri, Abacha, Nkwobi, and many other dishes), arts and crafts are the material aspects of culture widely known by the Igbos.
The Igbo culture shapes the way of reasoning, communication, speech, and actions of the Igbo people which makes them distinct from the other tribe or ethnic groups. The survival of any culture depends on the ability of the people to learn and be able to transmit this culture to forth-coming generations.
References
Adeboyejo, A. (2018, may 22). an introduction to Nigeria’s Igbo people. Retrieved from culture trips: https://theculturetrip.com/africa/nigeria/articles/an-introduction-to-nigerias-igbo-people/ https://theculturetrip.com/africa/nigeria/articles/an-introduction-to-nigerias-igbo-people/
Iweadighi, S. (n.d.). Origin or Geneology of the Igbo people of Nigeria. naira metrics. https://nairametrics.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Origin-of_the_Igbo_people_of_Nigeria.pdf
Obindigibo. (2020, June 15). Category: Igbo culture. Retrieved from Obindigbo: http://obindigbo.com.ng/category/igbo-culture/ http://obindigbo.com.ng/category/igbo-culture/
Ohadike, J. C. (1996). Igbo Culture and History. Womrel, 18-49. https://womrel.sitehost.iu.edu/REL%20300%20Spirit/REL%20300_Spirit/Igbo%20Culture%20and%20History.pdf
Ojiaku, M. O. (2015). The Igbo People: Culture and Character. U.S.A: Booklocker.com, Inc. https://assets.booklocker.com/pdfs/8047s.pdf
Harike is an indigenous ritual in which people resort in requesting a boon from the God (Selva J. Raj, 2006). They do so by offering the God with something they have like, money, ritual activity, devotion, service, a willingness to undergo pain, in return for assistance from the God (Selva J. Raj, 2006). Harike is entering into the relationship with supernatural power, where promises or obligations are made and hopes that these promises or obligations, once taken on, will result in divine blessings or supernatural gifts (Selva J. Raj, 2006). Harike becomes a defiant affirmation, an assertion and boosts confidence in facing the unpredictability of human life or it is a commitment with the superpower to walk through the chaos of human life (Selva J. Raj, 2006).
Optimism is an individual difference variable that reflects the extent to which people hold generalized favorable expectancies for their future (Charles S. Carver, 2010). Optimism has been linked to better emotional well-being, effective coping strategies, enhanced inter-personal relations and better outcomes in physical and economic choices (Charles S. Carver, 2010).
The research paper aimed to explore the subjective understanding of Harike among 10 people belonging to the Hindu religion in Shivamogga. The subjective experiences of the people taking Harike were recorded to understand the individual differences and experiences as how Harike, as an indigenous ritual, plays a role in facilitating optimism. The major themes drawn from the data collected are, resilience, coping mechanism and psychological stress.
Psychological Stress
Stress refers to the demands that tax or exceeds the adaptive capacity of an organism, resulting in psychological and biological changes that may place a person at risk for diseases (Cornell, 2014). The participants were asked about the reasons for taking Harike and the most the respondents used Harike to overcome psychological stress caused mainly by physical illness and financial crisis. The sub themes identified are physical illness and financial crisis, leading to the major theme psychological stress.
Physical illness is one of the major stressors among the respondents. One of the responses obtained by the respondent is: “My daughter had high viral fever and all the clinics were closed due to bandh. We didn’t know what to do and we put all our hopes on God and took Harike that, I will offer Rudraabhisek if my daughter is cured…”. This statement indicates faith in God and how it facilitated hope in the helpless situation. This perspective can be seen in the study conducted by Amy L. Ai and Harold Koenig investigated the use of private prayer among the middle and old aged patients with cardiac surgery and the prayer’s relationship to optimism (Amy L Ai, 2002). The results indicated that the private prayer predicted optimism and healthier affect among older patients (Amy L Ai, 2002).
Financial crisis is another major stressor among the respondents. Harike is usually taken for personal economic growth. Respondents tend to rely upon God to gain courage and strength to take a step towards financial improvement, when there is economic downfall. One of the responses was: “I had lost all the crops due to plant infection and didn’t have courage to sow the seed next time, hence I relied upon God and took a courageous step in investing for second crop…”. Hence Harike is used to manage psychological stressors of physical illness and financial crisis.
Resilience
Resilience refers to the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress (Steven M. Southwick, 2014). Most of the respondents use Harike as a factor of resilience, where the respondents used Harike as a coping mechanism to bounce back from their difficulties. Respondents mentioned that they feel scared, helpless, hopeless, stressed and worried about their situation before taking Harike. They feel significant amount of relief, peace and hope after taking Harike. The sub theme identified is coping mechanism which leads to resilience. Harike was used as a coping mechanism to overcome stressors and develop resilience. One of the respondents said: “God and my prayers is what is helping me push through the day and my life…”. In the study ‘Anchored by Faith: Religion as a Resilience factor’, conducted by Pargament and Cummings explored the role of religiousness in response to life stressors and concluded that religiousness is a significant resilience factor in coping with stress (Pargament, 2010).
Faith
Faith is one of the important themes of the study, as faith acts as an anchoring factor in the whole process of Harike and its effects on lives. The sub-themes identified are belief, trust and hope. All the respondents unanimously agreed on the existence of super power and had full hope, trust and belief in God. These are the basic factors building the blocks of faith in God. Harike as a practice can be effective only when there is faith in God and trust the super power to help them in the mist helpless situations. When respondents were asked if the Harike had ever failed in fulfilling their needs, 8 out of 10 participants said Harike has never failed them and they have received what they have asked for by taking Harike. 2 participants blamed their fate, yet continued to take Harike.
Conclusion
The data collected and the analysis of the responses suggests that Harike plays a significant role in facilitating optimism. Harike facilitates in holding favorable expectancies of future and has contributed in better emotional well-being, physical health and economic growth. From the above responses, we can imply that, Harike has contributed in developing learned optimism in respondents. In the process of Harike, people use faith in God to gain hope, strength and courage in the most helpless situation. Through faith and trust in God, they overcome challenges by learning to be optimistic and hopeful. They change their negative self-talks and attitudes towards the situation, by putting their faith in God and hence learning the more optimistic way of dealing the adversity.
Suicide is a humanitarian crisis; it is the fifth deadly killer of Indigenous people and according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, over the past decade there has been a 21% increase in youth suicide rates. Mental health is a multi-layered issue that requires a holistic tailored response to adequately address the root social, economic and historic causes of suicide in Indigenous communities. It is alarming to think about the suicide of a young adult who still has much to experience from life, emphasising severe underlying issues in our society and systems and suggesting youth are reacting to this toxic environment. The journey of healing is imperative, it is not one dimensional and requires a more profound level of knowing at the individual, community and societal level. We need successful programs that effectively address mental health in relation to suicide using a strong Indigenous context to strengthen the future generation by employing powerful Indigenous knowledge. As Professor Dudgeon said, “there is a serious need to overhaul the current system”.
A dynamic state of interconnectedness exists; no single aspect of an Indigenous person’s life can be considered in isolation. Different aspects impact on or are impacted by others, highlighting a “multi-directional” continuous cycle that defies simplicity. Policy and programs can’t be reduced to the simple interplay of isolated risk and protective factors as they fail to acknowledge a broad range of interconnected factors that leave youth feeling inadequate and vulnerable, neglecting the opportunity to prioritise their mental health as their relatives are forced to deal with other issues. There is an overarching theme of loss in relation to suicide. Historic rulings have propagated intergenerational trauma and now more influencers only complicate the situation. Youth have been challenged by the continual degradation of social support networks; where ties with family and community traditions have weakened, particularly in relation to the roles of elders and Indigenous males advancing feelings of isolation. For males, this has been associated to the concerning 24% increase in suicides.
“Young kids especially here look up to lead teams and people that play so as a club we decided to promote the awareness of youth suicide. I’ve been personally affected by suicide where family members actually did it, so it hit home for me and so I find it kind of meaningful to go along with the whole idea of [raising awareness about] youth suicide” – Tristram Pigram- Captain of the Broome Saints.
Action Learning Models like those in Inala (QLD) and Alive and Kicking Goals! (AKG) (WA) captivates youth and consequently diverts them from damaging influences. Youth develop personally and professionally; gaining interpersonal and teamwork skills and respect for themselves. Peer status is influential and significant in Warlpiri youth culture; support from a different peer, older person, or health professional may not be accepted as they are deemed untrustworthy or unsuitable to deliver this type of support. Volunteer youth leaders like Pigram emphasise that pursuing help is not an indication of weakness; peer-to-peer support also guides youth by giving them necessary tools to inspire resilience and strength to build their own solutions to overcome tough events. “Indigenous people have been treated as second class citizens for too long” , programs like these are instrumental to elicit societal change as youth have a sense of belonging by understanding their role within their communities and society at large. Youth learn and respect Indigenous ways of life, boosting their sense of control and optimism as they recognise the importance of Indigenous knowledge of mindfulness and interconnectedness as the awareness of one’s self empowers them to improve their mental health and continue on their personal healing journey.
There is a fear of Western mental health treatment and practitioners; distressing incidents of people hospitalised far from country and failure to satisfy familial and community roles impacted on how youth understand Western models of healing. Hence, families would delaying getting help until breaking point. The Mt Theo Program engages a permanent, community-based, competent counsellor to develop healing plans to overcome these embedded fears. The counsellor can encourage critical evaluation of deeper causes and triggers and helps select and apply tailored coping strategies giving youth access to support. This diminishes an unequal ‘pear shaped’ delivery of services with minimum training and accountability and makes seeing an Indigenous health professional or accessing higher levels of help possible, allowing healing at the individual and communal level. These programs also address socioeconomic subjugation as Indigenous youth can overcome inequalities in our systems to gain access to the support they deserve.
Western practices tend to ‘label’ individuals from their diagnosis and this ‘othering’ is problematic in Indigenous communities as it connotates shame and stigma. The Suicide Prevention Project: Lighting the Dark works alongside local communities to augment individual, family and community capacity against suicidal actions. Using DVDs and working with local languages this program and AKG educate youth without assumptions of literacy. DVDs are made relatable and specific to the communities; having a constructive influence by increasing awareness around suicide. The importance of conveying these ideas could be seen strongly with depression, a risk factor for suicide, as some Indigenous people considered depression to be part of an individuals’ character where signs were dismissed as ‘that’s just the way he is’.
Indigenous voices need to be heard to understand and gain knowledge about conceptualisations of suicide. Cross-cultural psychiatry contrasts the danger of categorising Indigenous people as one analogous cultural group, as recognising differences in cultural beliefs can help build understanding about extra dynamics like place. For example, globalisation, the media and western notions could influence youth in urban areas resulting in a conjugation of cultural beliefs and understandings about mental health. Critical understanding of culture and knowledge as active, living systems that continually change is essential to understand how programs can better relate to and reach youth.
“Even if you’re not sure on exactly what’s going on with yourself but you know something’s not right it can definitely help. There’s activities on the app that can help you figure out where to go from there…” – Dane Gagai
Internet-delivered therapy are just as effective as one-on-one methods for depression and anxiety. The iBobbly smartphone app, developed by the Black Dog Institute targets young Indigenous people at risk of suicide. As Gangai affirms, it allows confused youth to easily access help and information at the touch of a button, highlighting how innovative technology-based approaches can work with our ever-changing world as a preventative tool.
Empowerment can contribute to suicide prevention as communities can address their needs specifically. Cultural congeniality is fundamental; culture and traditions need to be respected and it emphasises the need for human rights considerations that can aid healing. Programs need to abide by the United Nation’s Declaration that recognises Indigenous peoples’ cultural difference and needs, and histories of colonisation affirming their individual and collective human rights (Article 1), but more importantly states Indigenous peoples have the right to self-determination (Article 3). The Yiriman Project (WA) is a community-based approach that is built on the human rights framework and forms stories in young people by bringing them back to country. Back to country trips allow youth to learn about Indigenous culture and knowledge, allowing youth to fully experience life and connect with country and community. Such programs work with individuals and communities to reinvigorate family and community values, re-building and strengthening youth support networks to prevent suicide. I believe earnest attempts like this can be extremely effective as they don’t operated on an inherent assumption of knowing the ‘best interests’ of Indigenous communities. The power of shifting control allows “Indigenous health to be led by Indigenous people” ; given the opportunity and resources their strength and resilience will rise above our current rigid social plane.
Similarly, the Mowanjum Keeping Place and Media Project (WA) documents culturally specific stories of people, places, language and perspectives. The program employs intergenerational teaching and learning to encourage the value for culture and lore as digital multimedia collections encapsulate storylines, songs and dance. This modern twist ensures knowledge is preserved and sustained as it appeals to youth who form a connection to culture on their terms. Youth are also able to contribute to the archives making this process of healing extremely personal and unique. Likewise, the Junba project (WA) uses ‘Junba’, a type of storytelling using traditional song and dance to widen myriad opportunities for youth to participate in workshops that couples youth with Elders and multimedia specialists. Junba gatherings on country are arranged before the annual Mowanjum Festival. The community come together and practice Junba together aiding individual and communal healing.
Social and cultural changes experienced by youth call for an expansion of biopsychosocial models to encompass sociocultural and spiritual aspects as these two programs highlight. Youth have a right to cultural healing customs in both traditional and modern revitalised forms. Acknowledging the healing and cultural learning frameworks that exist within Indigenous conceptualisations helps utilise the power of culture and community to heal from the past and build a stronger future. These programs restore connection to spirituality and culture to positively shape identity and allow youth to handle taxing circumstances. Approaches that draw on Indigenous knowledge to construct culturally appropriate programs provide a unique opportunity to develop ‘two-way understandings’ between Indigenous knowledge and Western models of care that will fulfil successful mental health outcomes with and for Indigenous youth.
Many policies have failed to realise the true potential of community-driven, Indigenous knowledge specific programs from the way they are evaluated. The next step is to ensure effective programs like the ones mentioned are kept and funded for. The current challenge is to develop meaningful indicators/measures for data collection, research and government reporting frameworks so that they accurately capture what is fundamental and meaningful to Indigenous people and how they view mental health and wellbeing. Currently, data is solely sourced from hospitalization and mortality data to inform policy and program development causing severe difficulties in identifying and interpreting suicidal factors which leaves issues unresolved or wrongly approached. Even the current high suicide rates are underestimated as many suicides go unreported or falsely classified. We need more in-depth accounts based on experiences of those within the community to shed light on the perspectives around suicide in different communities, their families and broader support structures. I believe more time needs to be invested in evaluating community-driven programs so communities are given a fair chance to see what suits them. Many feelings and experiences can’t be quantified; so it forms a complex issue when practical considerations require ‘proof’ in the form of quick and adequate statistics to continue funding a program. Communities shouldn’t be reduced to numbers; it is this misconception of success that needs to be tackled next as it prevents societal healing.
Suicide is a cause for concern. Western and Indigenous models of knowledge need to work together to secure a safe and prosperous future for Indigenous youth. Ultimately, the aim should be that Indigenous youth have access to mental health services that have the equivalent quality, dependability and service continuity as other Australians. We are all in the process of healing; understanding and learning more about Indigenous knowledge can help provide us with the answers to build and sustain successful programs that effectively address mental health in relation to suicide. Suicide is a social phenomenon; when we change it will cease to be a deadly killer.
The U.S. drive west that spanned roughly over 30 years displayed how committed the settler, and the U.S Government was in regards to settling the frontier. The greatest tools that was exploited with winning congress following the war was railroad building expansion program. The railroad, in essence, is what this country needed at the time to help re establish unity among the populace. With Union Victory, the south was ruined and the railroads gave way to opportunities of colonization and unity. People who were affected by war, sought desperately to leave that life behind them and start a new life with their families on the frontier. The contract companies that were assigned in constructing railroads offered jobs to newly freed slaves as well as former confederate soldiers who desperately needed employment. While the railroad was being constructed, a new threat presented itself, indigenous tribes of the plains. Indians, did not look at the iron horse the same way everyone else did. They viewed the Iron horse as a threat to there way of life and a threat to their land which they lived on for centuries. The death and mass murder of the Indian and there way of life came at the hands of railway building supplemented by U.S Cavalry units. Who after failed negotiations with multiple different tribes gave way to what is known today as the Indian Wars the struggle for settlement on of the U.S. interior. U.S. did not care about the Natives nor did they care about how much life was lost due to the settlement action. Gold being discovered in California gave congress a need to build faster routes between west to east in essence creating a land bridge which would further consolidate U.S. power.(West,2014).
The creation of the railroad would give unprecedented access to the U.S Government to move troops and supplies from east to west without having to board a ship in order to move men and material westward. As more railroad track was being laid on Indian lands, their ability to hunt bison, small game, and fish began to decline at a faster rate. The aggressive push west also brought with an increasing number of pilgrims and hunters, which hunted Bison to excessively, which was the main source of food. Settlers quickly discovered that buffalo hides represented a way to make needed money, and they could process them into leather (West, 2014). The establishment of reservations by the U.S gave negotiating leverage in which they could use in order to remove the tribes off their rightfully owned land so they can finish the expansion west. These reservations that where manufactured are nothing more than a precursor to concentration camps built by the Germans. The growth rate of U.S cities played a huge role in the destruction of critical ecosystems on native lands and way of life.
Major metropolitan cities did play a factor, but what’s not discussed is the manner in which the U.S government applied violence towards them if they did not cooperate with them. The U.S Army issued orders to hunt down Sioux and Cheyenne to kill them regardless. This thought process gave way to mass-murdering an entire group of people, placed them on a course to be hunted down to extinction. The elderly, children, the sick, and women alike were also killed in the same fashion that the Indian warriors were killed. Indian Appropriation Act was signed into law in 1871 which gave the U.S. the ability to strip their rights away from which is unconstitutional. Following the passage, children were placed in schools forced to learn a culture they did not want. The force of education upon the American indian with the use of violence is morally wrong. However, this was so easily accomplished due the fact the way people viewed them as if they were uneducated savages deserved to be treated this way. With the Indian removed from their land presented an opportunity for people to settle those lands with minimal impact financially, and the U.S. government guaranteed protection against any further acts of aggression from the remaining Indian war parties that have not surrender to the U.S. Army. The Homestead Act of 1862, helped people known as homesteaders move west into territories an settle them accordingly (National Archives). Prior to 1865 most land beyond the Mississippi was settled by indigenous peoples. Death of the indigenous people spainded over thirty years to accomplish. All due to the railroad, and the dream of connecting a nation by land with the use of violence. The morality of the choices in regards to how the treatment of them was carried out with the settlement of the west brings with it the testament of horror on how the U.S. treated them and viewed no differently than another industrialized country. The many lessons that can be learned from the expansion westward is how an idea such as this can bring about the end of a group of people’s cultures, lands and extermination of entire group people.
References:
Potter, Lee Ann, and Wynell Schamel. “The Homestead Act of 1862” The National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives and Records Administration, Oct 1997, Retrieved from: www.archives.gov/education/lessons/homestead-act. Pgs. 359-364.
West, Elliot. (Jan, 2014) “The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Advanced Placement United States History study guide. Education Reform in Antebellum America. Retrieved from: ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/development-west/essays/american-indians-and transcontinental-railroad.
Inequalities are experienced by everyone, which could be in material and immaterial forms. Social exclusion and economic disadvantage could be some forms of inequalities. In this essay, employment inequalities experienced by Australian indigenous people will be examined. In the past, Australia’s indigenous people are recognized as ‘human’ by the white settlers. They were not protected by human rights and had a low social status; social exclusion was experienced by indigenous people (Lydon 2017). This essay will build an argument about the concept of racism and argue that there is a relationship between racism and Australian indigenous people’s unemployment rate. To argue that indigenous people are still experiencing inequalities.
Racism refers to discrimination behaviours because of an individual’s race, and it could lead to disadvantages to individuals (Bailey et al. 2017). According to Gilroy (2005) ‘Racism involves a mode of exploitation and domination.’ Although races of individuals are about genetic, sometimes others used it to indicate the ability of a person, which could be regarded as racism (Prewitt 2016).
Negative understanding of non-indigenous people toward indigenous people
According to the study of Awofeso (2011), around 30% of Australians show a negative attitude toward indigenous people. They mentioned that they would have negative thoughts if their relative committed in a marriage with an indigenous people. This implies that indigenous people have a lower social status compared to other races, a lot of Australians hold a negative attitude toward indigenous people, believe that indigenous people may be more likely to present unacceptable behaviour. It obviously is shown that some indigenous people are not accepted by some non-indigenous people in society.
In the other hand, the existence of discrimination to indigenous people because of race is also experienced by indigenous people. The report of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010) shows that around 30% of indigenous people have experienced discrimination on different occasions because of their race in the past year. And it is essential to know that the discrimination toward indigenous people does affect their daily life and may affect their self-esteem, which could also worsen the situation of the high unemployment rate of indigenous people.
The research of Griffiths and Pedersen (2009) emphasizes that non-indigenous people’s negative attitude toward indigenous people will affect the quality of support that indigenous people receive, for instance, health and general welfare. The discrimination to the indigenous race will not only affect indigenous people’s health issues but also affect their working opportunities. Griffiths and Pedersen also pointed out that a lot of Australians hold a negative attitude toward indigenous people, which affects indigenous people’s employment rate.
As a result, it could be said that in Australia, there is discrimination of non-indigenous to indigenous people. Study shows that some Australians hold negative attitudes and understandings toward indigenous people, and indigenous also have a sense of social exclusion. Racism could lead to low quality of life for indigenous people, and low self-esteem, which could affect the employment rate of indigenous people.
Indigenous people’s unemployment rate
The existence of racism toward indigenous people may affect different issues of indigenous people. The high unemployment rate for indigenous people could be argued as the result of non-indigenous people’s discrimination toward indigenous people.
Study shows that the unemployment rate of indigenous people is higher than non-indigenous people. In 2008, the unemployment rate of Australian female indigenous was 12.9%, and the unemployment rate of Australian females was 3.2%, similar statistic happened to male indigenous, the unemployment rate of Australian male indigenous was 19.8% compared to the 2.9% unemployment rate of Australia male (Gray & Hunter 2018).
Similar findings are supported by the report of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The report shows that indigenous people are more likely to be unemployed due to their race compared to non-indigenous people. The chance of indigenous people being unemployed is three times more compared to other Australians (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Different studies show that indigenous people have a higher chance to be unemployed compared to other Australians. Racism could be said as a factor for the huge difference of employment between indigenous people and non-indigenous people.
Racism could be said as a reason for a huge difference in the unemployment rate between indigenous people and non-indigenous people. Since studies show that some of the Australian hold negative attitudes and understandings toward indigenous people, some of the employers also the same attitude to indigenous people, which could inhibit indigenous people to success in the job seeking.
Existence of discrimination to indigenous people in the workplace
Study of Dunn (2003) shows that around 15% of Australian indigenous people have experienced racism within the workplace and in the education environment, they are likely to experience verbally and physically racism behaviours from others, which would affect the performance of indigenous people in both working and learning.
Helme (2010) pointed out that the chance of indigenous Australians experiencing racism is higher than people with other races. Besides, studies show that racism exists in the workplace and is one of the biggest challenges that indigenous people face in job seeking. Helme emphasized that racism creates massive negative impacts on indigenous people’s development in education and employment.
According to a study by Paradies and Cunningham (2009), 70 per cent of participants reported racism experienced in the past, and racism that happened in employment is one of the most common experiences.
Therefore, it could be said that racism exists in the workplace and education environment, and different studies support that racism is likely to occur to indigenous people and which affects their performance. As discrimination toward indigenous people exists in the workplace, it could be argued that indigenous people may become harder to find a job due to the discrimination from non-indigenous people.
Language as an obstruct for indigenous people
Racism could be said as a reason for causing a relatively high unemployment rate for indigenous people. However, some may argue that the high unemployment rate for indigenous people is due to the problem of language, as English is not the first language of some indigenous people, and difficulties occur when indigenous work with English speakers. Employers are not able to communicate with indigenous workers; therefore, they do not hire indigenous people (Freeman & Staley 2018).
Wigglesworth and Lasagabaster (2011) state that English is the common language in Australia and English is a compulsory subject that students have to take in high school. Indigenous are usually able to communicate in English with others. Also, the number of indigenous people speaking Indigenous languages is decreasing, and indigenous people now are usually able to communicate in English.
Biddle (2017) points out that most of the indigenous people in the age range of 10 to 65 years are confident of speaking in English, which also implies that the group of indigenous people who are able to work are confident in communicating in English.
Therefore, the argument of language differences affects indigenous people is invalid. Since the situation has changed, indigenous people are more adept to western culture compared to the past.
Conclusion
To conclude, this article has addressed the issue of the unemployment rate of Australia’s indigenous people. Evidence support that there are some non-indigenous people who hold a negative attitude and understanding toward indigenous people, which could affect the living quality of indigenous people. Also, indigenous people are more likely to be discriminated and which can affect their chances to find jobs. In addition, studies show that indigenous people experience racism in the workplace is common. Although English is a popular language in society of indigenous, some people still argue instead of racism language is the barrier of indigenous people to be employed. And studies show that the argument is invalid. Racism could be argued as a factor that leads to high unemployment rate to indigenous people. Exploitation and domination involve to the unemployment issues of indigenous people, race minority experience exploitation and domination in the society of Australia is terrifying but truly happening.
Inequalities are experienced by everyone, which could be in material and immaterial forms. Social exclusion and economic disadvantage could be some forms of inequalities. In this essay, employment inequalities experienced by Australian indigenous people will be examined. In the past, Australia’s indigenous people are recognized as ‘human’ by the white settlers. They were not protected by human rights and had a low social status; social exclusion was experienced by indigenous people (Lydon 2017). This essay will build an argument about the concept of racism and argue that there is a relationship between racism and Australian indigenous people’s unemployment rate. To argue that indigenous people are still experiencing inequalities.
Racism refers to discrimination behaviours because of an individual’s race, and it could lead to disadvantages to individuals (Bailey et al. 2017). According to Gilroy (2005) ‘Racism involves a mode of exploitation and domination.’ Although races of individuals are about genetic, sometimes others used it to indicate the ability of a person, which could be regarded as racism (Prewitt 2016).
Negative understanding of non-indigenous people toward indigenous people
According to the study of Awofeso (2011), around 30% of Australians show a negative attitude toward indigenous people. They mentioned that they would have negative thoughts if their relative committed in a marriage with an indigenous people. This implies that indigenous people have a lower social status compared to other races, a lot of Australians hold a negative attitude toward indigenous people, believe that indigenous people may be more likely to present unacceptable behaviour. It obviously is shown that some indigenous people are not accepted by some non-indigenous people in society.
In the other hand, the existence of discrimination to indigenous people because of race is also experienced by indigenous people. The report of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010) shows that around 30% of indigenous people have experienced discrimination on different occasions because of their race in the past year. And it is essential to know that the discrimination toward indigenous people does affect their daily life and may affect their self-esteem, which could also worsen the situation of the high unemployment rate of indigenous people.
The research of Griffiths and Pedersen (2009) emphasizes that non-indigenous people’s negative attitude toward indigenous people will affect the quality of support that indigenous people receive, for instance, health and general welfare. The discrimination to the indigenous race will not only affect indigenous people’s health issues but also affect their working opportunities. Griffiths and Pedersen also pointed out that a lot of Australians hold a negative attitude toward indigenous people, which affects indigenous people’s employment rate.
As a result, it could be said that in Australia, there is discrimination of non-indigenous to indigenous people. Study shows that some Australians hold negative attitudes and understandings toward indigenous people, and indigenous also have a sense of social exclusion. Racism could lead to low quality of life for indigenous people, and low self-esteem, which could affect the employment rate of indigenous people.
Indigenous people’s unemployment rate
The existence of racism toward indigenous people may affect different issues of indigenous people. The high unemployment rate for indigenous people could be argued as the result of non-indigenous people’s discrimination toward indigenous people.
Study shows that the unemployment rate of indigenous people is higher than non-indigenous people. In 2008, the unemployment rate of Australian female indigenous was 12.9%, and the unemployment rate of Australian females was 3.2%, similar statistic happened to male indigenous, the unemployment rate of Australian male indigenous was 19.8% compared to the 2.9% unemployment rate of Australia male (Gray & Hunter 2018).
Similar findings are supported by the report of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The report shows that indigenous people are more likely to be unemployed due to their race compared to non-indigenous people. The chance of indigenous people being unemployed is three times more compared to other Australians (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Different studies show that indigenous people have a higher chance to be unemployed compared to other Australians. Racism could be said as a factor for the huge difference of employment between indigenous people and non-indigenous people.
Racism could be said as a reason for a huge difference in the unemployment rate between indigenous people and non-indigenous people. Since studies show that some of the Australian hold negative attitudes and understandings toward indigenous people, some of the employers also the same attitude to indigenous people, which could inhibit indigenous people to success in the job seeking.
Existence of discrimination to indigenous people in the workplace
Study of Dunn (2003) shows that around 15% of Australian indigenous people have experienced racism within the workplace and in the education environment, they are likely to experience verbally and physically racism behaviours from others, which would affect the performance of indigenous people in both working and learning.
Helme (2010) pointed out that the chance of indigenous Australians experiencing racism is higher than people with other races. Besides, studies show that racism exists in the workplace and is one of the biggest challenges that indigenous people face in job seeking. Helme emphasized that racism creates massive negative impacts on indigenous people’s development in education and employment.
According to a study by Paradies and Cunningham (2009), 70 per cent of participants reported racism experienced in the past, and racism that happened in employment is one of the most common experiences.
Therefore, it could be said that racism exists in the workplace and education environment, and different studies support that racism is likely to occur to indigenous people and which affects their performance. As discrimination toward indigenous people exists in the workplace, it could be argued that indigenous people may become harder to find a job due to the discrimination from non-indigenous people.
Language as an obstruct for indigenous people
Racism could be said as a reason for causing a relatively high unemployment rate for indigenous people. However, some may argue that the high unemployment rate for indigenous people is due to the problem of language, as English is not the first language of some indigenous people, and difficulties occur when indigenous work with English speakers. Employers are not able to communicate with indigenous workers; therefore, they do not hire indigenous people (Freeman & Staley 2018).
Wigglesworth and Lasagabaster (2011) state that English is the common language in Australia and English is a compulsory subject that students have to take in high school. Indigenous are usually able to communicate in English with others. Also, the number of indigenous people speaking Indigenous languages is decreasing, and indigenous people now are usually able to communicate in English.
Biddle (2017) points out that most of the indigenous people in the age range of 10 to 65 years are confident of speaking in English, which also implies that the group of indigenous people who are able to work are confident in communicating in English.
Therefore, the argument of language differences affects indigenous people is invalid. Since the situation has changed, indigenous people are more adept to western culture compared to the past.
Conclusion
To conclude, this article has addressed the issue of the unemployment rate of Australia’s indigenous people. Evidence support that there are some non-indigenous people who hold a negative attitude and understanding toward indigenous people, which could affect the living quality of indigenous people. Also, indigenous people are more likely to be discriminated and which can affect their chances to find jobs. In addition, studies show that indigenous people experience racism in the workplace is common. Although English is a popular language in society of indigenous, some people still argue instead of racism language is the barrier of indigenous people to be employed. And studies show that the argument is invalid. Racism could be argued as a factor that leads to high unemployment rate to indigenous people. Exploitation and domination involve to the unemployment issues of indigenous people, race minority experience exploitation and domination in the society of Australia is terrifying but truly happening.
Tourism is a process that involves traveling from one place to another and from one destination to another destination, mainly and especially for leisure, business, and even for recreational purposes within a period that is not more than one year.
It also involves occupation and business process of getting information, accommodation, and even transportation services in a place temporarily. Moreover, tourism involves a short time movement from a place that is outside one’s residential area and work place to another place. There are various forms and types of tourism, which make tourism an enjoyable activity.
To begin with, there is domestic tourism that involves the movement of a tourist to destinations only within his or her country (without going to another country) for pleasure or other recreational purposes. This is also known as indigenous tourism, since it involves touring around the local place. Another form of tourism is inbound tourism, which involves a nonresident of a country traveling and touring places in the host country mainly for recreational purposes and other tourist services.
Lastly, there is outbound tourism that involves the resident of a country moving from his or her country to another country for pleasure and exploration of other tourist services in another country. Therefore, tourism involves movement from one destination to another away from an individual residential area to another place. In this movement, we meet indigenous people in their communities, resulting into interaction between tourists and the indigenous people. This paper will discuss some of the effects of tourism on indigenous people.
My first experience when traveling as a tourist was challenging, but I came to understand that tourism is one of the activities that have many benefits and some challenges to the indigenous people of the community I visited.
To begin with, from my experience, I found out that tourism has social, economic, and cultural effects on indigenous people. Tourism is one of the sectors that require more attention in order to understand the role that indigenous people play in the tourism sector and the relationship between them, hence coming up with the best implications from the issues discovered (Butler, 2007).
The first benefit I realized is economic benefit of tourism. Most of research publications show that the major benefit of tourism is the capital and money that tourists always spend on their journeys, through buying of food, accommodation, and other services. This money is always used by the indigenous people to cater for other basic needs, hence leading to economic development and alleviation of poverty levels for the indigenous people (Butler, 2007).
Secondly, tourism is one of the sectors that benefit the indigenous people through the provision of revenue and employment, especially to the local people around the tourist destinations. This reduces unemployment cases in most countries, leading to increased economic growth of the country (Butler, 2007).
Thirdly, tourism leads to cultural benefits; for example, when a tourist visits an area, there is usually emergence of diversity of culture due to intermarriages and other social experiences that can include exchange of languages and even sharing of information and knowledge. There are also spiritual and aesthetic benefits where different values are added to the emerged cultures, leading to social benefits. This usually promotes the community and indigenous people’s development, leading to more stable communities (Butler, 2007).
On the other hand, tourism is also associated with some adverse and negative effects that always affect the indigenous people. Some of the disadvantages of tourism to the indigenous people include, environmental destruction and degradation, cultural destruction or erosion of cultures, dangerous lifestyle (for example, introduction of use of some illegal drugs), and unstable market because it only provides seasonal market and job. Here I will start by mentioning some of the environmental problems caused by tourism.
Accordingly, tourism is one of the sectors that lead to environmental degradation to the indigenous people due to noise pollution, incidences of forest fires, and even the destruction of sand dunes in some areas (Butler, 2007). Secondly, tourism mostly leads to erosion of cultures in some cases where individual indigenous people interact with tourists.
This is because tourists always come with some diverse cultures that indigenous people usually want to emulate, thereby leading to erosion of their culture. At times, some cultures are not ethical, leading to loss of morals by the indigenous people. Again, in some cases, the indigenous people may even lose their language and start emulating the tourists’ languages (Butler, 2007).
Lastly, tourism leads to poor marketing due to the seasonal jobs that it provides. In addition, tourism sometimes leads to unstable market because it is only available during some seasons and is very limited some times. Besides, some tourists always come with unethical businesses that are not accepted by the country government, leading to conflict between the indigenous people and the government (Butler, 2007).
In conclusion, although there are some disadvantages of tourism, the benefits tourism brings to the indigenous community and people, far outweigh the disadvantages. Therefore, it is important that more marketing strategies be included by the indigenous people in order to attract more tourists to increase economic development of the indigenous communities.
With the current availability of internet and social media, it is important that the indigenous people take advantage of this technology and use it constructively in order to promote the tourism sector; this will bring more profits to them.
If possible, it will also be very important if the government can provide marketing scheme strategies in order to promote tourism industry to continue benefiting the locals and indigenous people (Butler, 2007). In addition, the indigenous people should also enhance their knowledge expansion through trainings in order to provide better tourist services, as it is only through education that the indigenous people will benefit fully from the tourism sector and services provision.
In my opinion and feelings, it will be very important for the government to provide some financial support to the indigenous people to raise their tourism business and to have decent living conditions that would attract tourists to their destinations (Butler, 2007).
In addition, I will say that it will be very important again if proper developmental plans including good security provision, equitable treatment to all without discrimination, and proper awareness is included among the indigenous people when making tourism policies and other frameworks.
Furthermore, the challenges that the tourism industry comes with should be properly addressed to the extent of involving dialogue between tourists and the indigenous people to ensure that their mutual needs and goals are properly addressed. The indigenous people’s right to land and other resources that the tourism industry always undermines should be properly addressed (Butler, 2007).
Therefore, in my view and opinion, the indigenous people benefit a lot from the tourism industry although there are some disadvantages to some extent. Therefore, it is important that more marketing procedures be employed in order to promote the indigenous people in the provision of tourism services.
Reference
Butler, R. T. (2007). Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, Issues and Implications. MA, Burlington, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier.
Settler colonialism remains a major challenge that continues to erase the political, economic, cultural, and social aspects of many indigenous people. This is the sad reality despite the fact that various laws and regulations have been presented to protect more minority and indigenous groups from every form of abuse. The United States (U.S.) settler disruption is a critical issue that should be reexamined in order to understand the major challenges associated with environmental sustainability and climate change.1 This paper uses the case of Dakota Access Pipeline to describe how settler injustice threatens the rights of indigenous people in the United States and beyond.2 The discussion supports the use of powerful movements and legal frameworks to ensure the ethical and moral concerns affecting these underserved populations are addressed. The presented discussion will be supported using several texts such as Shue’s “Basic Rights” and the United Nation’s Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
Detailed Explanation of the Moral Issue
The article “The Dakota Access Pipeline, and Environmental Injustice, and U.S. Colonialism” gives a detailed analysis of the major issues affecting many ingenious populations in Dakota and Lakota. To begin with, the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) is a project intended to offer cheap transportation for oil and gas. Although it is indicated that the pipeline meets the required environmental and safety standards, the agreeable truth is that it is a major threat to the moral rights of the affected people. This is the case because it will pose numerous risks to the quality of water in Dakota and destroy the people’s cultural heritage.3 The current construction, according to the article, has destroyed ancestral sites, burial places, and cultural heritages.
Shue indicates clearly that every organization and government has a role to fulfill the basic rights of every person. The tasks undertaken by the government should fulfill the rights of every indigenous or subsistence population. This should be achieved by preventing deprivation. Duty should be enforced while at the same time creating strong institutions to support the needs of the people.4 That being the case, the DAPL project appears to ignore the rights of the people. For instance, their cultural values, burial sites, and natural resources appear to be threatened by the project. Similarly, the UN’s Declaration on the Rights of Ingenious Peoples goes further to explain why the rights of indigenous people must be taken seriously than ever before. For instance, Article 2 stipulates that indigenous persons should be free from any form of discrimination. They should be allowed to embrace and appreciate their indigenous identities and origins. In Article 5, it is clearly indicated that such people should be allowed to exercise their cultural, legal, and political values. Their cultural institutions must be respected while at the same time empowering them to participate in their unique traditional and social rituals. This information shows conclusively that the moral liberties and cultural freedoms of the indigenous people of Lakota and Dakota are at stake.
Main Argument on Indigenous Rights
The UN presents specific laws and provisions that support the moral rights of indigenous and underserved populations. The concept of moral obligation is a rule that dictates what is forbidden or permitted in a given society.5 The consequences of actions should also be considered whenever determining whatever amounts to a moral obligation. This fact explains why the actions undertaken by governments, corporations, and other people should be informed by the rights of the greatest number of people.
The case of the DAPL therefore reveals a number of moral rights possessed by the affected citizens. For instance, it is evident that the construction project has led to the excavation of cultural sites and ancient burial places. Such sites should be safeguarded and protected because they support the cultural values and beliefs of these indigenous people. The people are also bona-fide residents of the affected regions. That being the case, their moral rights include access to clean water, safe environment, and cultural protection.6 These moral rights should be taken seriously if the liberties of more indigenous people are to be protected.
Main Argument on Duties of Businesses
Corporations and business entities have a huge obligation to ensure the rights of every underserved person are safeguarded. To begin with, businesses should focus on the unique provisions and rights of every indigenous population. For instance, it is appropriate to engage in ethical business practices that do not undermine the cultural values, pinions, practices, and religious beliefs of indigenous people.7 This approach will ensure every business agenda is aimed at safeguarding the welfare of these people.
It is agreeable that businesses and firms are mandated to fulfill the basic rights of subsistence populations. They can achieve this goal by completing various obligations or duties. The first duty is to protect indigenous populations from every form of deprivation. It is also necessary to design powerful institutions that can prevent the implementation of specific incentives that violate the rights of such populations. They should go further to embrace the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR). This kind of practice is necessary because it guides corporations and business entities to undertake various actions that promote the moral rights, freedoms, and liberties of every underserved population. By so doing, such business will provide aid to the deprived members of the society. Some of these beneficiaries include individuals who are affected by natural disasters or social failures that emerge whenever promoting various human services.
This knowledge explains why the major stakeholders in the DAPL have moral duties to protect the people of Lakota and Dakota. For instance, the Energy Transfer Partners (ETP) and the Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) should have collaborated in order to assess the environmental, social, and cultural issues that might emerge throughout the project period.8 They should have also consulted different community members in order to safeguard the rights of the indigenous persons. The companies should have also outlined the best strategies that can be undertaken in order to ensure the burial sites are not interfered with. The use of CSR would have led to adequate solutions to address the problems affecting these indigenous people.9 The government should have also embraced the best measures in order to ensure the freedoms, natural resources, cultural aspects, and moral values of the people were addressed.
Response to Criticisms
The above discussion shows conclusively that corporations have a moral obligation to protect the rights, freedoms, and cultural values of indigenous populations. This is also in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations.10 However, the case of the DAPL can be examined from a different perspective. For instance, some economists and experts might argue that the people in Dakota and across the country are in need of cheaper transportation methods. The completed project will have the potential to support the needs of the greatest number of people in the United States.
The concept of utilitarianism goes further to indicate that actions should be informed by their outcomes. This means that a specific action that promotes happiness for the greatest number of citizens should be considered ethical. This ethical theory will therefore be used by individuals who want to support the DAPL project. The proponents will go further to argue that the greatest number of citizens will be able to access cheaper gas and eventually lead better lives.11
Unfortunately, this notion is detestable because it does more harm to more indigenous people in Lakota and Dakota. This critic and reasoning is wrong because it might affect the experiences of more people in Dakota. The decision is also against the United Nation’s Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples. This analysis explains why the DAPL project is erroneous and fails to fulfill the moral rights or needs of the affected Dakotans.12
Conclusion
Indigenous people have unique rights that must be respected by businesses, governments, and social institutions. The DAPL project appears to disregard the moral rights, cultural values, and traditions of the people of Dakota and Lakota. That being the case, it is appropriate for the involved stakeholders to consider the unique rights of the indigenous people before continuing with the project.13 Although some people might use the concept utilitarianism to support the benefits associated with DAPL project, the agreeable affect is that the idea does not safeguard the rights of the affected people. The concerned parties should therefore embrace the best initiatives in order to meet the ethical and moral rights of these underserved people.
Bibliography
Gordon, Sue. Recognition and Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Cengage: Cengage Learning, 2014.
Jeffrey, Renee. Reason and Emotion in International Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Mitchell, Terry, and Charis Enns. “The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Monitoring and Realizing Indigenous Rights in Canada.” CIGI 39 (2014): 1-12.
Short, Damien, and Corinne Lennox. Handbook of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Shue, Henry. Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Westra, Laura. Environmental Justice and the Rights of Indigenous People. London: Earthscan, 2012.
Whyte, Kyle. “The Dakota Access Pipeline, Environmental Injustice, and U.S. Colonialism.” An International Journal of Indigenous Literature, Arts, & Humanities 1 (2017): 1-12.
Footnotes
Kyle Whyte, “The Dakota Access Pipeline, Environmental Injustice, and U.S. Colonialism,” An International Journal of Indigenous Literature, Arts, & Humanities 1 (2017): 2.
Damien Short and Corinne Lennox, Handbook of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights (New York: Routledge, 2016), 26.
Henry Shue, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 37.
Sue Gordon, Recognition and Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Cengage: Cengage Learning, 2014), 59.
Terry Mitchell and Charis Enns, “The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Monitoring and Realizing Indigenous Rights in Canada,” CIGI 39 (2014): 2.
Laura Westra, Environmental Justice and the Rights of Indigenous People (London: Earthscan, 2012), 54.
Renee Jeffrey, Reason and Emotion in International Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 68.