Category: India

Essay on History of Social Psychology

Introduction

Social Psychology is the scientific study of understanding people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours in a social setting. The root of social psychology can be traced back to time when human beings started interacting with other .In a society, one’s behaviour and thoughts can be influenced by others functioning in it. The aim of social psychology is to understand such influences and the effects of such influences. The history of social psychology in India can be dated back to 1500 BC . India’s understanding of human beings and social interactions were influenced by religious scriptures,narratives,common sense conceptions, philosophical ideas of scholars and socio political events and movements. Religious texts like Rigveda , Manusmriti ,Mahabharata and Ramayana provide an insight into the socio-political and economical interactions of the earlier society . Classical Narratives like Panchatantra and Jatak Kathas used mythology and fantasy to show human interactions . The common sense wisdom included the rich insights of the society The Indian philosophy use to empathize on self development, morality and code of conduct . Dharma was the guide to social life while the western philosophers focussed on rationalism, existence, scepticism and materialism. There were several modifications to these ideas with the emergence of movements and reforms. Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Swami Vivekananda contributed new ideas to the society. Mahatma Gandhi’s understanding of human psyche and the concept of Ahimsa also became a part of Indian philosophy.

Social Psychology in India during Colonization era

The British Colonization brought a huge impact on the way individuals and communities in a society perceived themselves and others. It mainly involved asserting superiority and viewing themselves or others inferior. The class divide in the society was more evident during this time. The colonizers were viewed as superiors and even as models . Ideas were often modelled after the west as they were the major contributors to the field of Psychology then.

India’s first department of Psychology was established in 1916 in Calcutta University. The second department was established at Mysore University and third at Patna University. In 1924,the Indian Psychological Association was formed and the first Psychology Journal, the Indian Journal of Psychology ,was published. The 1920s witnessed more research and the first textbook in social psychology by Indian psychologists (R.K.Mukherjee & Sengupta,1928). The experimental investigations were modelled on the basis of works done by the west ,for e.g.: The study of group effects and performance (Sengupta & Singh) was based on experiments carried out by Allport et al. Other prominent works included studies on catastrophic situations and rumours. Allport claimed that French Philosopher August Comte should be credited for the emergence of Social Psychology . Comte coined the term la- moral ,a science of sociology with biology .It incorporated ideas about culture and individual interactions in the society .This was later criticized for its struggle to find an identity between sociology and biology.

Social Psychology in India during Post Independence era

The Post World War Two era psychologists researched on group morale, persuasive communication and prejudice. 1950’s was marked by increase in the influence of Gestalt school of Psychology. The works of Kurt Lewin,Muzaffer Sheriff and Solomon Asch incorporated Gestalt school into Social Psychology. Classical experiments like conformity, obedience and theories like cognitive dissonance were developed during this era. By mid 1960s ,it was noticed that attitude does not predict behaviour, which in turn led to the decline of attitude based research. In India, Post Independence saw growth of social psychology. The national concern focused on rebuilding and planning a new India. This influenced the field of Indian social psychology to research on development. Social psychologists like D.Sinha(1966,1983) urged other psychologists to focus on social change and development.

The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established in 1969.It provided support for training and publications in psychology and other scientific disciplines. The first survey had a single chapter in Social Psychology (Rath,1972) . The second survey(Pareek,1980,1981) included various dimensions and aspects of social behaviour such as poverty, environmental issues, inequality, political processes and dynamics of social change. The further surveys expanded the field of research and included topics like social cognition, social influences, intergroup relations, social tensions ,topics on health ,social disadvantages etc. Indian institutes in 70’s and 80’s provided training programmes and MPhil in psychology. There was a significant growth in basic and applied psychology research.

Seminars were conducted to discuss the social problems and solutions. Post Independence also saw problems like communal riots following the partition. This provided a rich source for studying identity ,stereotypes and prejudice. The caste system in India was another unique source for understanding prejudice. Social psychology researchers also studied national as well intergroup conflicts. Motivation and achievement was another popular research topic. It was found that the root cause of underdevelopment in India was related to low need for achievement (McClelland, 1961). Poverty became important research area with government policies like Garibi Hatao in the forefront. It raised issues of justice and inequality. Such inequalities are due to lack of limited resources. Limited resources in a society affects the way people interact as one who engage in altruism and sometimes darker sides like manipulative behaviours .Environment and health was also studied during the era. Health research incorporated yoga and Ayurveda. It mainly studied how one’s mind affects physical health .

Social Psychology in the current era

Indian psychologists in the previous era faced the problem of identity while researching as majority of the works were modelled after works of western researchers . Many of the early Indian psychologists focused only on conceptual level of understanding. Today’s research has an identity of it’s own as there is more focus on the Indian perspective and incorporation of different cultures. It is now more popular and productive in the country with various social situations becoming the new normal. Psychology researchers find Social Psychology as more affordable and less sophisticated compared to experimental research.

The future of Social Psychology in India

Although social psychology as a field has grown over the years, it still needs some work. Several researchers have identified the flaws which are to be worked on while researching in the future. Proper representation of sample is still a problem in many current research works. The database should be expanded and more cultural aspects of the country should be included. Researchers should be also encouraged to make use of multiple perspectives.

Conclusion

The Three articles discussed the significance of Social Psychology in India through the history . Religious texts, narratives ,common sense ideas and other codes of conduct provided basic understanding of the human interactions in the earlier society. Colonization era reflected the perceived inferior of Indian researchers as most works were modelled after the west. The challenges followed by Independence and partition provided rich source of unique topics for research works. Indian researchers gradually expanded the scope of basic of applied research in the country with the need to focus on more questioning and solving of issues. Indian Social Psychology as a field has come far in terms of original ideas and achievements but the society which is gradually evolving which means the field of research should also evolve and grow.

References

1. Dalal, A. K., & Misra, G. (2002).Social psychology in India: Evolution and emerging trends.
2. In A.K. Dalal & G. Misra (Eds.), New directions in Indian psychology: Vol.1. Social psychology. Sage Publications India.
3. Pandey, J., & Singh, P. (2005).Social psychology in India: Social roots and development. International Journal of Psychology, 40(4).239253.https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000186
4. Verma, J. (2017, April 18-20). Social psychology scenario in India, importance of common sense understanding of social phenomenon in India and envisaging social representations theory in the coming times in India[Paper presentation]. European/International Joint Ph.D. in Social Representations and Communication 33rd International Lab Meeting, Rome-Italy

Essay on the Power Crisis in India and Renewable Energy as a Solution

Energy is a prime requirement of our day-to-day life functioning and thus in general words energy is defined as the ability to do work. In the present world, energy plays a very important role in day-to-day life. In ancient times, wood and fossil fuels were often used as sources of energy. The amount of energy consumed is an indicator of economic growth and development, more the energy consumption, the more will be economic growth. Thus, energy is an important catalyst for economic growth and human development. Thus, energy is an important driving force of economic growth in all economies and it is a prerequisite to achieving sustainable social, economic, and environment-friendly development.

Presently, where the global economy shows a comparatively slower economic growth rate, the Indian economy, the world’s third-largest economy, is growing at a faster rate. In the last few decades, the Indian economy shows good growth, and it is interesting to note that India’s energy consumption has almost doubled since 2000. India ranked fourth largest energy consumer after the United States, China, and Russia, and is recognized as one of the fastest growing economies in the world, and after China, India is the second most populous country in the world. Though about 18% of the world’s population lived in India, it uses only 6% of the world’s primary energy. India is currently experiencing a so-called power crisis. As India is on a path of rapid economic growth with rapid overall growth, it will need 3 to 4 times more energy than the total energy consumed today to meet the energy requirement for such a fast-growing economy, as well as climate change and various environmental problems.

Presently, the government is giving special focus on laying the infrastructure for the overall development of the country and power is the basic requirement for the overall development of the country. The power sector plays a very significant role in the growth of the Indian economy and it is growing at a rapid pace.

Renewable energy is energy that comes from such resources that are constantly replenished like sunlight, wind, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is one of the cleanest sources of energy options with the least carbon emissions or pollution. It has the potential to significantly reduce dependence on coal and other fossil fuels. By expanding renewable energy, India can improve air quality, reduce global warming emissions, create new industries and jobs, and propel the world towards cleaner, safer, and cheaper energy. Current and future global use of traditional sources of energy has put great pressure on environmental values, health, and society. Therefore, there is an urgent need to promote renewable energy in the current Indian power sector in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner.

Renewable sources of energy are clean and sustainable sources of energy because renewable energy is derived from natural sources like sun and wind. Today non-conventional sources of energy are depleting rapidly and only conventional sources of energy have the potential to meet the energy requirements in the future and only solutions to the energy crisis faced by developing countries like India. Renewable energy sources such as wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean power, biomass energy, and fuel cell technology can be used to overcome the energy shortage in India. Today, renewable energy accounts for about 33% of India’s primary energy use. In recent years India emphasized on development of renewable energy technologies, and India is more serious about issues like carbon emissions, clean air, and a pollution-free environment.

The western part of Rajasthan has good potential for renewable energy generation, which can contribute to economic development on the one hand and maintain a clean environment on the other.

Thus, it is clear that renewable energy is the future, including for India’s economy and solving its power crisis.

Essay on Poverty and Unemployment in India

To understand the level and trends of unemployment in India it is important to comprehend the relationship between unemployment with demographic transition structure and economic development in India (k., 2017)

Social scientists have argued over the impact of population growth on economic growth. The debate has oscillated from the “pessimistic view,” which explains that population growth restricts economic development (credited largely to Malthus), to the “optimistic view,” which says that population growth fuels economic growth (for example, Kuznets 1967). The debate seemed to have finally concluded in favor of the “neutralist view,” i.e., population growth does not matter for growth prospects.

Bloom and Williamson (1998) As countries pass through various phases of demographic transition from high fertility and high mortality to low mortality and low fertility, the age composition of a country‟s population changes accordingly. During this demographic transition, all countries have a demographic “window of opportunity” when the growth in the working-age population is greater than the growth in the total population. This bulge in the working-age population, the increase in the share of the working-age population in the total population, is referred to as the “Demographic dividend.”

This demographic dividend comes but once in the life of any nation. When the share of the population above 60 years goes over 10 percent of the total population, the UN defines that society as aging. China’s demographic dividend will be over in a few years; India’s is expected to continue till about 2040 (World Bank, 2012)

Vasant Gowariker (1994) characterized the Demographic transition as the following five steps, regardless of where it occurs: Step (i) – The crude death rate (CDR) declines, with no significant decline in the crude birth rate (CBR). Step (ii) – The Natural Growth Rate (CBR-CDR) increases; concurrently population increases. Step (iii) -The Natural Growth Rate reaches a plateau; the birth rate begins to decline significantly. Step (iv) – The Natural Growth Rate begins to decline; the birth rate begins to decline faster than the death rate. Step (v) – The Natural Growth Rate declines at a fast rate and ultimately becomes zero – the number of births equals the number of deaths; the population stabilizes. In India, four of the above five steps are already over and the fifth (and the final) step has started that in real terms defines the Demographic Transition.

Unemployment is bigger than a political party it is a national danger and a national scandal – Ellen Wilkinson

One of the persistent problems faced by the Indian economy is the ever-increasing unemployment rate. Every year it reaches its peak, and the repercussions follow. The last decade has seen a massive growth in unemployment as well as underemployment in both, the urban and rural sectors of India.

Though the education level in the recent years has improved, the skill development still needs attention. (Huggins,2008)

From the evidence produced, there has been longer-duration unemployment in the eastern region of the country in the last decade. However, the high-frequency unemployment rates put up by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) showed a rapidly rising unemployment in last year (2018-19).

According to the Investment Potential Index Report (IPIR, 2017), the share of agriculture in employment was 60 percent in 2000 which fell to 53 percent in 2010. It is expected to fall even further to 40 percent with more and more workers moving out of agriculture. With the New Manufacturing Plan and investments in the infrastructure sector doubling from $500 billion the industry sector (manufacturing, construction, mining, electricity, and water supply) is expected to absorb more than 60 million additional workers over the next decade. Also, the service sector which provided 22 million new job opportunities in the past decade (1999-2000 to 2009-10) is expected to expand even at a higher pace creating employment for around 60 million workers in the sector by 2022.

It is impossible to imagine a better India with such an insurmountable number of unemployed youths in the country. (UN Labour report,2012)

Unfortunately, very few governments think about youth unemployment when they are drawing up their national plans- Kofi Annan

As per the projection of the National Commission on Population (NCP), the total population of India will be 1400 million in 2026, out of which the youth population will be 20% i.e., 280 million. The growth rate of the youth population is faster compared to any other age group. Youth unemployment is an important aspect of the ‘national unemployment problem’ (Visaria, 1998).

Unemployment can cause a person’s self-esteem to fall and a feeling of being a burden on their family and society might arise.

This potentially affects an individual’s personal life and the well-being of unemployed people, especially when one is unemployed for a sustained period. Further, it can lead to social isolation, decreased social contact, and a reduction in collective participation of individuals as they feel lonely and psychologically depressed. It often affects the mental health of people and they develop a pessimistic attitude toward life which can lead to involvement in negative activities or suicide (Emelie, Jeroen, & Finn, 2017).

In India many of the youth remain unemployed and some chronically unemployed. Employability will be low with a lack of education and skills. Young women in India face a higher risk of unemployment than men, in particular in urban areas. The problem of youth unemployment, particularly that of educated youth, is gradually becoming a major concern. In India, unemployment rates are rising. This can largely be attributed to a failure of the agriculture sector that forces workers to migrate and be part of the unorganized sector. Nor are employment opportunities in the manufacturing and service sectors growing. In India, young people are withdrawing from the labor force for the sake of education (Rangarajan, 2011).

In 2016, India’s GDP growth rate was 8.26%, a 0.26% increase from 2015. However, the GDP growth rate has been declining continuously since then (it was 5.024% in 2019). 1 Numerous reasons have been stated for the declining economic growth, ranging from demonetization to declining demands and rising NPAs. On the other hand, the unemployment rate stood at 23.4% in April 2020, which is the highest since 2016. This dramatic increase could be attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdown, nevertheless, the rates stabilized in October 2020 and stood at 6.98%. Unemployment in India has always been a major issue and with the prevailing COVID crisis, it can become more challenging.

There has been evidence in the past about how a recession affects the workforce. During the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, an estimated 22 million people lost their jobs, according to the International Labour Organization (ILO).

The recession due to COVID-19 appears to be more serious than what we faced in the 2009 recession. The ILO has estimated that up to 25 million people might become unemployed worldwide due to the impact of COVID-19, ranging between 5.3 million job losses on a ‘low scenario’ and 24.7 million on a ‘high scenario’ (ILO, 2020).

There is a fear that COVID-19 recessions in India can take an extraordinary human toll that extends well beyond temporary earnings losses for unemployed workers. The studies on earlier recessions suggest that job loss during a downturn sometimes results in long-term unemployment and wage setbacks, deteriorating the health of unemployed workers and increasing poverty. These impacts are most troubling for low-income households, which are less well-positioned to cope with earnings losses during a recession, have no alternative earnings, and have no social security available (Papademetriou et al., 2010).

The threat of recession is particularly important for India, as the pandemic came at a time when the country was already facing a problem of economic slowdown. Sectors such as tourism, aviation, hospitality, and trade will be severely affected, and these sectors will be the first to face the impact. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and the services sectors are likely to be among the most affected due to reduced consumer spending. Fitch has cut the GDP growth forecast for India to 2 percent for the fiscal year ending March 2021, which would make it the slowest growth in India over the past 30 years (Business Today, 2020, April 3).

Economists considering the economic effects of demographic change have been more interested in Adam Smith, and his narrative of the power of the market, than in Thomas Malthusís dire predictions about population. Most economic analyses have examined the statistical correlation between population and economic growth and found little significant connection. Though countries with rapidly growing populations tend to have more slowly growing economies, this negative correlation typically disappears (or even reverses direction) once other factors such as country size, openness to trade, educational attainment of the population, and the quality of civil and political institutions are taken into account.

In other words, when controlling for other factors, there is little cross-country evidence that population growth impedes economic growth.

Studies suggest that the unemployment rate and real GDP growth rate are negatively correlated, this is by Okun’s law, which simply states that since there is a positive relation

Output and employment; as the output depends upon the amount of labor used in the production process, there will be a negative relation between output and unemployment because Total unemployment = Labor force – Unemployed. (Edward S. Knotek, 2007)

However, other studies have shown that Okun’s law need not necessarily hold well at the time of economic crisis. (Cazes, Verick, & Hussami, 2013) . Therefore, it’s possible that even if India witnesses a strong economic growth post-COVID-19 crisis, the unemployment rate in the country would still be higher, indicating a jobless recovery.

India’s development is considered to be capital and knowledge-intensive, and thus, requires inclusive growth. All-round economic growth is important to reduce illiteracy, poverty, and malnutrition.

(Mukherji, 2009) . There exists a relationship between these variables and unemployment, thus, improvement in one would have a significant impact on another.

Though there is ample literature discussing countries’ experiences of demographic transition and its impact on growth and unemployment (, Bloom and Williamson (1998) and Bloom and Canning (2004)),

There is little literature on differences in demographic transition across regions within a country which leads to increased youth unemployment among the nation.

This research paper will be covering mainly How this regional demographic transition impacts the growth of the country and creates many barriers to economic development by increasing youth unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, crime, mental issues, and brain drain following various social issues considering the current pandemic and past trends.

Marital Rape in India and Why It Should Be Criminalized: An Essay

Rape is a heinous act of sexual intercourse committed against any natural person forcefully without the consent of such person against whom it is committed. Rape has been contained within the ambit of sexual assault, which also includes acts that fail to be regarded as intercourse, by several regimes. For a long duration of time rape was contemplated to be caused by rampant sexual impulse, however now it is considered as a pathological contention of power over a victim. Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code defines rape as an act committed by a man against the will and without the consent of a woman. However, marital rape is an act that is committed by husbands against their wives non-consensually. In this work I’ll discuss in detail what is marital rape and why it should be criminalized in India.

Meaning of Marital Rape

Marital rape or spousal rape means indulging in sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without consent. The absence of consent is an essential element and need not include physical violence. Marital rape is deemed to be a form of domestic violence and sexual abuse. Even though, traditionally sexual intercourse within marriage was regarded as a right of spouses, involving in the act without the consent of the spouse is now broadly classified as rape by many societies across the world, renounced by international conventions and progressively criminalized.

Status of Marital Rape in India

India is one of the thirty- six countries that still have not criminalized marital rape. Exception 2 to Section 375 of IPC states that non-consensual sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, if she is over 15 years, does not amount to rape. Thus, coercive and non-consensual intercourse by a husband with his wife (above 15 years of age) is outside the ambit of rape. It has been presumed that a woman, on marriage gives her consent forever to her husband for an act of sexual intercourse.

In India, almost 83% of married women aged between 15 and 49 have blamed their husband for sexual violence whereas 7% have called the bygone husband an offender, according to the 2015-16 report of the National Family Health Survey. As per the report of National Family Health Survey – 4, 4% of the women were forced by the husband to enter into sexual intercourse, 2.1% to perform sexual acts and 3% were threatened when the wife did not want to or wish to perform.

In 2014, Ashish Gupta of the Rice Institute, a non-profit association, announced that the number of women, who have encountered sexual brutality by their spouses, is multiple times the number of women encountering sexual savagery by non-intimate accomplices.

In 2017, The DailyO detailed a recent report by the International Center for Research on Women and the United Nations Population Fund on 9,500 respondents in seven states of India. The report said that 17 percent of the wives announced sexual viciousness from spouses while 31 percent (one in each three) men conceded that they had submitted sexual savagery against their wives.

In the case of the Harvinder Kaur vs. Harmander Singh, the Delhi High Court held that the Constitution of India could not intervene in household matters as it would destroy the institution of marriage. The court also stated that “in the privacy of the home and married life neither Article 21 nor Article 14 of the Indian Constitution have any role to play”.

In the State of Maharashtra & anr. vs. Madhukar Narayan Mardikar, the Supreme Court asserted that every woman has the right to privacy and it must not be violated.

In Shri Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Ms. Subhra Chakraborty, the Supreme Court held that rape violates Article 21 of the Indian Constitution as it hindered fundamental human rights and breached the victim’s right to life and dignity.

After the Nirbhaya rape case in 2012, the Justice Verma Committee had suggested criminalizing marital rape and said that marriage didn’t mean an irrevocable consent to sexual activities. But the Government of India neglected the suggestion.

In the case of the State vs. Vikash, 2014, a special fast track court in Delhi stated that “the petitioner and respondent (accused) being a legally married husband and wife, the petitioner being major, the sexual intercourse between the two, whether forcible, cannot be considered as rape and no conviction can be fixed upon the accused”.

In 2015, the RIT Foundation filed a public interest litigation in the Delhi High Court summoning the immunization of marital rape in Section 375 of the IPC on the grounds of violation of the fundamental rights, i.e., Article 14, 15, 19, and 21 of the Constitution of India.

In 2016, Maneka Gandhi, then minister for Women and Child Development stated that due to illiteracy and poverty in India the concept of marital rape could not be applied here even if it is accepted and understood globally.

However, in Independent Thought vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court was compelled to revisit into some of the theoretical suppositions on which the marital rape exception is based as it infringes constitutional rights of girls who are married between the age of 15 and 18 years. In the stage of provisions of Section 375 Sixthly, IPC, Section 3 and Section 5 of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (POCSO Act), and Section 3(1) of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 (PCMA) pursued with the legislative intent and silhouette of apt provisions of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (DVA) and Section 2(d) of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (PHRA), constitutional rectitude of Exception 2, so far it connects to sexual intercourse between husband and wife above 15 but below 18 years of age was doubted. The Supreme Court ruled that Exception 2 to Section 375, IPC, need to meaningfully read as: “Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his wife, the wife not being under eighteen years of age, is not rape”. However, sexual intercourse with a wife, whose marriage with him is void as he was already married and had a living spouse and who was aware of the fact of the first marriage, amounts to rape.

In the case of Nimeshbhai Bharat Bhai Desai vs. The State of Gujarat, the Gujarat High Court submitted that marital rape is not just a concept and the notion of ‘implied consent’ in marriage and should be collapsed. The law must provide security to every woman (married or unmarried) to protect her corporal independence.

In the case of Anuja Kapur vs. Union of India Through Secretary, 2019, a PIL was filed by Anuja Kapur asking the Court to direct the Government of India to release some guidelines and laws on marital rape. But the bench of the Supreme Court headed by Justice SA Bobde and Justice BR Gavai refused the petition and said that the work related to the formulation of the laws is of the legislature and not the judiciary and the court is more involved with the interpretation of the law rather than drafting it.

Why Marital Rape Should Be Criminalized in India?

Violation of Article 14 of the Indian Constitution

Article 14 of the Constitution of India assures that “the State shall not deny to any person equality before the or equal protection of the laws within the territory of India”. Even if the Constitution ensures equality to all, Indian criminal law discriminates against those women who have been raped by their husbands.

Earlier when the IPC was drafted in the 1860s, a married woman was not contemplated as a separate or an independent legal body. Instead, she was regarded as the chattel of her husband. As an outcome to this, she did not procure many rights, now guaranteed to her as an independent legal body, comprising the right to file a complaint against the accused under her own identity. Exception 2 to Section 375, IPC, which exempts sexual actions committed by husbands against their wives from being regarded as acts of ‘rape’, is largely persuaded by and acquired from the already existing doctrine of blending the woman’s identity with that of her husband. All Indian laws enacted during the 19th century have a greater impact of English laws and Victorian norms. Exception 2 to the definition of rape under Section 375, IPC, was drafted on the foundation of Victorian patriarchal norms that did not identify men and women as equals, did not allow married women to acquire property, and blend the identities of husband with a wife, under the ‘Doctrine of Coverture’. But time has changed now. Indian law now considers husbands and wives as an independent legal body, and sufficient justice in modern times is explicitly concerned with the security of women. This concern can be witnessed in the form of a plethora of statutes intended to secure women from violence and harassment, passed since the turn of an era, comprising the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act. Exception 2 to Section 375 violates the right to equality incorporated in Article 14 of the Indian Constitution as it discriminates against married women by disconfirming them equal protection from rape and sexual abuses. This exception produces two classes of women based on their marital status and exempts actions committed by men against their wives. Correspondingly, Exception 2 makes viable the victimization of married women without reason other than their marital status while securing unmarried women from similar acts, i.e., rape and sexual harassment. However, this distinction between married and unmarried women violates Article 14 hitherto as the classification has no reasonable nexus to the underlying object of the statute. In Budhan Choudhary vs. State of Bihar and State of West Bengal vs. Anwar Ali Sarkar, the Supreme Court held that any classification under Article 14 is subject to a test of reasonableness that can be passed only if the classification has some rational relation to the object that the act sought to achieve. But Exception 2 thwarts the object of Section 375 to protect women and punish those involved in the barbaric activity of rape. Immunizing husbands from punishment is wholly contrary to that objective. In simple words, the repercussions of rape are the same whether a woman is married or unmarried. Furthermore, it could be more difficult for a married woman to escape abusive situations at home because they are legally, and in most cases financially tied to their husbands. In actuality, Exception 2 persuades husbands to enter into sexual intercourse with their wives vigorously as they are aware of the fact that their acts are not penalized by law.

Since no reasonable nexus can be construed between the classification generated by Exception 2 and the underlying purpose of the Act, it does not comply with the reasonableness test and hence violates Article 14 of the Constitution of India.

Violation of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution

Exception 2 to Section 375, IPC, also violates Article 21 of the Constitution of India “no person shall be denied of his life and personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law”. This clause has been interpreted by the Supreme Court of India, with time and again in several of its judgments to stretch the meaning of this clause rather than confine it within the literal meanings of life and liberty. It held that the rights guaranteed under Article 21 include all the aspects which are essential for living a good life for example right to health, privacy, dignity, safe living conditions, safe environment, and many more.

In present times, courts have started recognizing a right to refrain sexual intercourse and to excuse oneself from unwanted sexual activity incorporated in the wider aspect of the right to life and personal liberty.

In the case of the State of Karnataka vs. Krishnappa, the Supreme Court said that “sexual violence except being a barbaric act is an unlawful interference with the right to privacy and sanctity of a female”. And also held that sexual intercourse without consent amounts to physical and sexual abuse. After that, in the Suchita Srivastava vs. Chandigarh Administration, the Supreme Court compared the right to choose alternatives related to sexual activity with that of right to personal liberty, dignity, and bodily integrity within the meaning of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. The Supreme Court in its most recent judgment has expressly acknowledged the right to make choices concerning intimate relations within Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. In the case of Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court acknowledged the right to privacy as a fundamental right of all citizens under Article 21 and adjudged that the right to privacy embraces “decisive privacy contemplated by an ability to build intimate decisions mainly comprising one’s sexual or reproducing nature and decisions regarding intimate relations”.

Coerced sexual living is a violation of the fundamental right, i.e., of Article 21. The above judgments do not differentiate between the rights of married and unmarried women and there exists no contradictory judgment declaring that the right to privacy guaranteed to an individual is lost by the marital alliance. Hence, the Supreme Court has observed that the right to avert or abstain from sexual activity for all women, notwithstanding their marital status, as conferred by Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Moreover, Exception 2 violates the right to live a healthy and dignified life as guaranteed by Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. As stated above, it is well established that the right to life incorporated in Article 21 is not solely a right to subsist. In this stratum, the courts have time and again adjudged that the ‘right to life’ encircles a right to live with human dignity. Still, the very subsistence of Exception 2, falls short to dissuade husbands from involving in acts of coerced sexual proximity with their wives affecting the physical and mental health of women negatively and sabotage their right and ability to live with dignity.

However, the Legal Service India recognized three reasons against the criminalization of marital rape:

1. Marriage is sacred and criminalization of such an act would lead to the destabilization of society.
2. There is a fear of a large number of fraudulent cases being filed against husbands.
3. To prove it medically is another lacuna that has helped the offenders to continue to molest or abuse their wives and excuse themselves from the crime.

United Nations on Marital Rape

On 25th June 2019, the UN urged countries to end marital rape and close legal loopholes. The United Nations said that the home is one of the most dangerous places for women to live, as an examination showed that only 4 out of 10 countries condemn spousal assault. Twelve countries allow offenders to avoid prosecution by marrying their victims, according to UN Women’s annual Progress of Women in the World report. “We have seen incredible improvement in taking out oppression against women, in laws, anyway it is no mishap that family laws have been the slowest to change”, – Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, executive director of UN Women, said in its foreword. “The stunning inescapability of intimate partner viciousness implies that factually, home is one of the most perilous spots to be for a woman”.

In 2017, almost 60% of female casualties of deliberate murder were killed by a relative, a pace of 137 women killed every day, the report said. Almost 1 of every 5 women aged 15 to 49 internationally experienced physical or sexual maltreatment from a previous or current accomplice or companion in the earlier year, the report likewise found, portraying brutality against women as ‘genuine and universal’.

Conclusion

Marital rape or spousal rape must be treated as a crime as it is nowhere a right of a husband to force or threaten his wife to enter into sort of sexual activities. Exception 2 to Section 375, IPC, is ultra vires the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India, i.e., Article 14 and Article 21. It is not justified to discriminate against a married woman to that of unmarried and marital status should not be a parameter to decide whether the rape has been committed or not. It is high time now that the legislature should wake up and strike down this provision from the statute as it’s the duty of the state to protect an individual whether married or unmarried from such acts which are barbaric. Therefore, by keeping in mind the fundamental rights of a woman and her right to be recognized as an independent legal body notwithstanding marital status new laws should be made and imposed more effectively.

History of Prostitution in India: Analytical Essay

Abstract

This research paper focuses on Prostitution. It focuses on the history of prostitution in India, types of prostitutes, prostitution in various places in India, prostitutes’ story, causation of prostitution in India, prostitution’s impact, legal perspective of prostitution, remedial measures, agencies for rehabilitation of prostitutes, and conclusion.

Prostitution is legal in India. What is illegal is soliciting sex in a public place or keeping a brothel.[footnoteRef:2]A large number of sex workers are driven to earn their livelihood by indulging in prostitution. Many prostitutes are said to be under-aged and have been drawn into sex trade at a young and impressionable age. The girls are often exploited by middlemen and pimps. They are an easy target for alcohol and drug abuse on one hand and the growing HIV/AIDS menace on the other. Immoral traffic is undisputedly repugnant to the human dignity and self-respect of the individual concerned. Prostitution involves added threats for women, dangers of rape and/or other forms of attack specifically affected by gender[endnoteRef:2]. [2: ] [2: ]

Introduction

Prostitution, flesh trade, whoredom, is one of the world’s oldest profession. Prostitution has been given a meaning under section 2(f) to refer to the sexual exploitation or abuse of persons for commercial purposes and the expression ‘prostitute’ shall be construed accordingly. A new definition has been coined for the word “prostitution” within the government of India’s” Prevention of immoral traffic act” (enacted in Jan 1987); which suggests that “sexual exploitation or abuse of persons for business purpose. The previous definition of prostitution within the “Suppression of immoral Traffic in ladies and ladies Act (1956)” was “an act of a woman providing her body for promiscuous sexual issues for rent etc., has been completely discarded. Public place as defined under section 2(h) means any place intended for use by, or accessible to, the public and includes any public conveyances. Example –

1. Keeping a brothel or allowing premises to be used as a brothel.
2. Living on the earnings of prostitution.
3. Procuring, inducing or taking a person for the sake of prostitution.
4. Detaining a person on premises where prostitution is carried on.
5. Prostitution in or in the vicinity of public places.
6. Seducing or soliciting for purpose of prostitution.
7. Seduction of a person in custody.

General society and the governing bodies see prostitution as being basically about sex outside the bounds of marriage, degenerate sex, sex without the expectation to repeat, paid sex. This perspective has been overwhelming in forming the legitimate reaction to prostitution-that is, its criminalization. Venereal illness was both a genuine general well-being concern and, similar to prostitution, an image of social contamination. Syphilis and gonorrhea were known to cause birth abandons, newborn child visual deficiency, and general paresis (loss of motion and craziness). Be that as it may, the venereal malady was in excess of a physical well-being risk; it spoke to a danger to the social request also. Prostitutes, as potential ailment bearers, were portrayed as subversives, much like political dissidents or adversary agents. According to the P.I.T Act also in light of the fact that the S.I.T Act, prostitution naturally of itself isn’t an illicit movement. It’s the misuse of Prostitution. The trading of cash makes what she does unlawful, and the trading of cash is the reason she does it that is illicit and wrongdoing. Anyway, basically prostitution doesn’t exist without misuse. The cause of prostitution is camouflaged ever. Global participation to end the traffic in women for the point of prostitution started in 1899. In 1921, the League of nations set up the council on Traffic in women and adolescents, and in 1949, the worldwide association General Assembly received a tradition for the concealment of prostitution. All through Asia, the exchange keeps on prospering transparently till the mid-twentieth century, prostitution for all intents and purposes was the just occupation that was open defenseless and corrupted women who wished to win their very own keep. In nations generally, prostitution is a urban downside, anyway in the Republic of India, a greater part of prostitutes are in provincial moreover as urban regions. Female prostitutes are on a regular basis monetarily denied, are commonly unwed, and need aptitudes to help themselves. Many are drawn at an early age in to the social gathering of prostitution and related violations. They’re as a rule related with a male procurer, or pimp, or with a place of prostitution, or massage parlor, overseen by an administrator, or madam. In return for living arrangements, and security, a prostitute should share an outsized bit of her profit alongside her pimp or madam. Well-being dangers to female prostitutes epitomize pardonable sicknesses, non-inheritable through aimless sexual contact, and, in certain subcultures, sedate maltreatment.

Numerous young ladies swing to prostitution to fund-raise for their families or out of the requirement for cash to manage an obligation or an issue identified with their spouses. Some town young ladies are deceived into entering the exchange the urban areas with guarantees of good cash or another sort of occupation. One review found that 33% of all whore enter the exchange as a result of destitution and in excess of a forward move toward becoming whores after conjugal issues.

Research Methodology

1. To know the history of prostitution in India.
2. Prostitution, disease, and the state
3. Familiarity with the illicit
4. To comprehend the causes and outcomes of prostitution in the Republic of India.
5. To comprehend the classifications of whores in the Republic of India.
6. To comprehend the impact of prostitution on society.
7. To comprehend the methods of sex utilized,
8. To know the healing measures.

History of prostitution in the Republic of India.

The calling of prostitution in the Republic of India is as fast as in some of the different nations in the world. ‘The starting point of this foundation is covered in a riddle, anyway, some of the experts on the issues partner it with profound practices, that inside the start were of a standard sort. The clarification for disgrace kept it for a period from deteriorating into the permit, yet the string tide of situation constrained it into a hired fighter affair.’Various endeavors were made in the past to capture its development by the state through enactment with almost no outcome. There was the isolation of prostitutes in a very city and a stock of them kept by the state. Kautilya set down the establishments keeping the open women (whores) in check. The relevant of prostitutes also comes in religious content and Jataka stories, and all Hindu Shastrakaras like Manu, Gautam, and Hindu god prescribed for the concealment of prostitution. Amid Mohammad King had their quarters. In any case, the quick urbanization and industrialization all through a people sum expanded this malice, and beyond any doubt, authoritative measures were taken to stop it.

Type of prostitutes that exist in our society in today’s life are:

• The call girl
• The streetwalker
• Bar prostitutes
• Brothel prostitutes
• Camp followers
• Interracial prostitutes
• The Fleabag
• Dance hall prostitutes
• Beat prostitutes
• Adolescent
• Child prostitutes
• Elderly prostitutes

The prostitutes are introduced to “the line” either by associating with, and/or being persuaded and convinced by other’ “sisters’ already in the profession’ “ madams”, contacts or persons involved in the activities; “friends” and “acquaintances” who are in the ‘sex trade. The ‘novice’ learns the techniques of their ‘sex trade’ form well-established prostitutes or the madams who have long passed the age for having sexual intimacy, but who are experienced or either by associating Dealers/procurers/pimps. These are the people who accumulate a number of young and attractive ladies. Ladies loosing procuring limits are before long supplanted by the ‘new merchandise’. A qualification has been drawn between a ‘procurer’, and a ‘pimp’. ‘A procurer is an individual whose business is to discover an unfaltering supply of young ladies, think about the interest in the zone they are serving, look for their unfortunate casualties in troubled regions of towns and villages, dismiss the individuals who have lost their appeal and freshness furthermore, have maybe turned out to be sick and supplant them with new exploited people though the pimp is one who conveys to every whorehouse the proper customer – the person would realize where to suit the unique inclinations of the client, publicize the charms of the detainees of the exceptional hands, and entice the strides of those who need amusement to a certain particular house. The secures are frequently the old whores who have surrendered the calling, while the pimps might be cab drivers, rickshaw pullers, tongwala’s or specialists working. ‘Pimps are for different sorts, for example, I. some of them are found in the nights in the whorehouses territories, round the image houses, lodgings or on the other hand at the ocean shores.’ ii. There are other people who don’t wander about but, just sit at home and supply data to the clients who approach them for the ‘merchandise’. They are extremely cunning and frequently entangle clients while on the train or somewhere else. These procurers and pimps have been portrayed as the ‘dirtiest, filthiest parcel in the creation, by Dr. Edwards; Reginald Bennet calls them ‘the Monarchs of Industry’.

One Prostitute’s story –

Manju Biswas, a whore from Calcutta, revealed to Newsweek she didn’t enter her calling by decision. When she was 13 she was sold for $30 by a corrupt neighbor to a house of ill-repute attendant and after that medicated and assaulted and showcased as a youngster prostitute, ‘These men, 10 to 15 per day, would come to visit me.’ She additionally said she was roughed up and embarrassed by neighborhood punks. ‘In the event that I challenged they would remove my cash as well as stub out cigarettes all over and arms.’

Prostitution in various places in India

Causation of Prostitution in India

The central reasons for prostitution can be characterized by the following classes:

• Economic causes: Through the monetary impulses establish the main consideration in the causation of prostitution, it is in no way, shape or form the main and selective reason for the marvel. It isn’t the reason that each whore acknowledges cash for her administrations or that all whores hail from impoverished homes. There are numerous whores who hail from well to – do families. In India, obviously, there are numerous whores who are constrained to embrace prostitution to nourish themselves and their wards. Be that as it may, neediness isn’t the main monetary factor, there are numerous different elements that are monetary. The financial factors are involved: I. destitution, ii. Underage business. iii. Unfortunate working conditions, iv. The contamination and debasement in Industrial focus and v. Indecent traffic in ladies what’s more, kids.
• Destitution: As alluded to prior, neediness is the primary financial factor in charge of prostitution. A lady who is helpless to get any beneficial business and who has no support should either starve to death or win her vocation through prostitution. The unskilled semiliterate ladies can only with significant effort get business. Usually, they need to explicitly delight their imminent bosses. As a general rule they need to explicitly delight their imminent bosses. Numerous guardians feel so totally defenseless that they prostitute their own youngsters. The cleaning specialist workers are after objects of the desire of their bosses. The idea of destitution anyway is relative. Lady may prostitute herself so as to live well and give top-notch instruction to her youngsters.
• Under-age business: Many females need to work in inns, officers, and industry and shop at a youthful age, at this naive age they are effectively deluded by desire searchers.
• Terrible working conditions: In India, numerous ladies can get work through delegates. These go-betweens and specialists enlist ladies and keep them at their leniency at whatever point opportunity offers itself they misuse it completely and regularly prevail in accepting sexual influence. When a lady falls prey to their desire they in a matter of seconds makes an expert out of her.
• Contamination and Corruption in Industrial Centers: The living conditions in the greater part of the modern focuses are brutal in India. Living settlement is alarm and whatever is accessible is in ghettos. ‘Because of lack of convenience a large portion of the specialists are constrained to disregard their family and live. In the nonattendance of the family, film going betting and so forth. Make prostitute mongers of these people. Modern towns have occupied massage parlors and incalculable whores. In India ladies are paid less wages than men. Along these lines, temporary workers make it a point to enroll most extreme number of ladies in the work drive. These ladies in the work drive. These ladies are simply prey to the desires of contractual workers and their companions. Because of destitution and propensity, the labour ladies wear meager garments and frequently their crude bodies are presented to full perspective on these desire searchers. In ghettos unmarried young ladies need to observe the sexual exercises of their relatives and are regularly tempted rashly. The gifted improvement of sex regularly drives ladies of prostitution.
• Unethical Traffic in Children Women: Many delicate young ladies are grabbed from their homes by deceitful criminals. They legitimately train them in the craft of prostitution and when these young ladies develop they are sold.
• The Social Causes: The social causes are critical factors in empowering and advancing prostitution. The social factors are involved: I. family causes, ii. Conjugal components, iii. Terrible neighborhood and iv. Ill-conceived parenthood.
• Family Factors. Majority of the prostitutes are associated with family inconveniences. Their folks were either living independently or their family relations were strained to the point that as kids they were left to their own plots and got no affection. A disliked kid when she grows up offers all of herself to anyone demonstrating any level of adoration and love. The offspring of lawbreakers demonstrate a checked inclination to turn into whores. It the mother is characterless and needs to convey her undercover contacts, she once in a while gets away from according to her girl. Frequently it occurs, a man laying down with his mother succeeds effectively in tempting the little girl.
• Conjugal Factors: Many superstitions common in India compel ladies into prostitution. For example, widow remarriage is still disapproved of. Widows helpless to remarry because of social disgrace may end up becoming whores. In India especially in locals and poor, unlawful interchanges are normal. Because of the unpredictable security, and helplessness to satisfy their wants, they accept prostitution if all else fails.
• Ill-conceived Motherhood: The ladies who end up pregnant because of their contacts and who can’t get premature birth get uncovered in the public eye. No one wants to marry them yet everyone needs to appreciate them explicitly. Such ladies want to wind up normal whores.
• Natural Factors: The people brought into the world with faulty sex organs or over-dynamic organs may feel constrained to look for sex satisfaction in an odd way.

Religious and Cultural Factors:

In India there has been religious assent to prostitution. In south, every family was expected to offer one little girl to the sanctuary where clearly she should serve divine beings with all her commitment. They were known as devadasis – god-slaves. Yet, in real practice, they carried on with a real existence of prostitution. In old and medieval Indian whores delighted in the status of prostitutes, that is, joy young ladies of retainers and rulers. Their mistresses appreciated high status in the public arena. Polyandry and polygamy authorized by numerous social orders are sophistications of prostitution.

Impact of Prostitution

1. Prostitution causes individual, family and social disruption. The prostitutes experience the ill effects of disintegration. The prostitute and the individual who approaches her lead a kind of ‘twofold life’. They experience the ill effects of good breakdown and free their status and position. Therefore, the pimp and the whore move toward becoming ‘abhorred and secluded ‘. They lead an existence with their own meaning of indiscriminate and wanton sex.
2. The man who approaches a prostitute might be polluted with venereal infections. Whenever wedded may spread the illness to other and kids. There is clinical and psychoanalytic proof to demonstrate that numerous young fellows who had pre-military sex – association with whores experience the ill effects of ‘clairvoyant – impotence in wedded life.

What does Indian Penal Code say about Prostitution?

Under

• Section – 354: A penalty of two years imprisonment or fine or both was given for the offense of assault or use of criminal force upon a woman with an intent to outrage her modesty.
• Section -366: Kidnapping or abducting a woman, in order that she may be forced or reduced to illicit intercourse with any person, including a woman to go from any place in order that she may be reduced to illicit intercourse by criminal intimidation or by an abuse of authority or under any other compulsion inducing a girl who is under 18 years of age, by any other means, go to from any place or to do any act, in order that she may be forced or reduced to illicit intercourse, kidnapping or abducting any person in order that she may be subjected to the unnatural list of any person, each of these was a grave offence punishable with imprisonment of either description for 10 years or fine or both.
• Section 372: Selling, Letting for hire or otherwise disposing of. Or buying, hiring or other obtaining possession of any girl under 18 years of age for any unlawful or immoral purpose was made an offence.
• Section 375: Sexual intercourse with a woman under 16 years of age was treated as rape notwithstanding that she may have consented to it and punishable for rape was up to 10 years.
• Section 497: Sexual intercourse by a person with the wife by another man without the consent or connivance of that man constituted the offense of adultery punishable with imprisonment up to 5 years or fine or both.
• Section 498: The woman herself was declared free from any liability as an abettor. Enticing a married woman, in order that she may have illicit intercourse with any person or concealing or detaining her with such an intent with imprisonment for 2 years or fine or both.

The above-given arrangements made in the Indian Penal Code did not make prostitution unlawful, nor did it make acquiring a criminal offense under all condition. However, to the extent grown-up females were concerned the arrangement was that it must be joined by abducting or criminal terrorizing. Though it was an offense on account of minor young women under 18 years old for their purchasing and utilizing for corrupt purposes, bringing into India young ladies under 21 years old for corrupt purposes. In this manner, the endeavors with respect to the Government of India to check prostitution were helpful. The credit goes to Bombay state when the Bombay Prevention of Prostitution Act was passed in 1923. Some different acts were additionally passed to secure certain young ladies who were made prostitutes under certain social customs. These demonstrations were the U.P. Naik Girls Protection Act 1929, the Bombay Devdasi Protection Act 1934, Madras Devdasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act 1947. Notwithstanding all these Acts, The issues of prostitution couldn’t be effectively handled.

Remedial Measures Universal concern: The global participation to end the traffic in ladies for reasons for prostitution started in 1899. In 1921, the League of Nations designated an advisory group, The board of trustees on the Immoral Traffic in Women and Children. In 1949 the United Nations General Assembly embraced a tradition for the concealment of prostitution. In 1977 in America’s Los Angeles a universal gathering was sorted out. Around 1000 sex specialists took an interest in this meeting. It drew global consideration toward prostitution and the issue of whores

Preventive Measures to Tackle the Problem of Prostitution

Numerous endeavors have been made to close places that support prostitution. The enactments have been instituted. Furthermore, some fundamental measures that are taken are:

Sex Education:

Both types of people ought to be instructed about and perils of venereal ailments or explicitly transmitted infections and the wellsprings of such ailments and their negative sway on conjugal and well-known relations, there are different advances to instruct individuals. The estimations of restraint ought to be instructed at an early age. There ought to be an arrangement for sex instruction to youngsters in schools and universities. Appropriate writing for sex instruction ought to be dispersed to the youthful ones by a few social welfare offices. The sex instruction is additionally useful in keeping away from undesirable pregnancies prior to marriage and furthermore after marriage.

Business open doors for Women:

Girls and ladies are compelled to take up this calling due to extreme destitution. Consequently, preparation and training ought to be given to them. Bestowing instruction, preparation and abilities will expand the employability of ladies in occupation showcase. Financial strengthening can keep the poor ladies from entering this debased calling.

Annulment of Certain Social Customs:

Widow Remarriage ought to be supported. With Window, Remarriage Act window turned out to be allowed to wed. The arrangement of endowment which suspended numerous young ladies from getting hitched ought to be disheartened wholeheartedly by and by. There is an earnest need to change the general public’s frame of mind towards widow marriage, share, and devadasi.

Double standards of Morality need to be discouraged:

The Double standard of morality expects women to be chaste and, and anticipates that men should be sporadic and there create endured bad habit’.

Attention and purposeful publicity: Public ought to be edified on the enactments and if any such disturbances in the encompassing regions are discovered at that point, promptly one should approach to report this occasion. In addition, films animating sex intrigue and obscene writing need to be discouraged. Today’s youth has a free access to the Internet. In web there are numerous locales are there that are equipped for cutting down the ethical measures among adolescents, therefore, guardians need to be careful about the web propensities for their children.

Foundation of Venereal Disease Clinics: Special Venereal Sickness Clinics ought to be opened to treat the casualties of venereal infections. Symptomatic offices ought to be given to helpless bunches like whores and lorry drivers.

Notices: Pamphlets ought to be issued to make open mindfulness about substance exchange. Open ought to be encouraged to look for treatment quickly in the event that they are experiencing such venereal infections. In addition, there ought to be free blood test examination and treatment of every single antenatal case to guarantee the birth of ordinary, solid youngsters free from all intrinsic imperfections.

The job of Voluntary Agencies in Rehabilitating Prostitutes

Various associations have approached such ladies. Some vital organizations are effectively attempting to change and restore whores and find their valuable work. They will be They Women Home, Chennai; Shardhanand Anath Ashram, Mumbai; The great shepherd Home, Chennai; Chris pins Home, Poona; The Salvation Army Home, Bengal; Khusalbagh Mission halfway house, Gorakhpur; Mahila Anthalaya And Varanasi, These organizations focus on the restoration of fallen women.

Conclusion

Prostitution being a hydra-headed snake that has numerous features, must be managed at different dimensions and from different edges,. It requires a radical change in the general public. Which would include an extensive survey of the entire issue of social traditions and mores concerning, separate, sex training just as financial conditions, and furthermore developing an appropriate and thorough program to raise the financial dimension and the socio-moral and enthusiastic dimension of the general population. Hence, endeavors need to be made not exclusively to reduce each assortment of mental pressure, but also to give compensatory youth the love, friendship, legitimate information of unavoidable truths that apply to everyone, and feeling of security and belongingness that is fundamental for their ordinary life, we can’t anticipate that them should lead a typical life. One needs to understand that women are the sole owners of their bodies and have the unarguable right to decide what to do with it as long as they don’t physically harm someone. You don’t get to decide what someone else does with their own bodies. Because prostitution per se is not illegal in India, Prostitutes cannot be seen as individuals with half-rights or no rights; the Constitution of India guarantees them all rights as are available to all other citizens of the country; legalize activities of sex workers, but as to how to regulate prostitution in India flesh trade is an $8.4 billion industry in India,? The only good that can be done to uplift the prostitutes from their situation of crises is to acknowledge them as human beings, not only of ‘flesh’ but also of emotions; rights; privileges and liberties; and to make them realize that the Constitution of India shields them, protects them and embraces them, as it does to all other citizens of the country.

Leadership Characteristics Of Mahatma Gandhi

Many leaders in the world guide people and help their followers through situations and events with truly remarkable talent that many people remember that leader for his extraordinary characteristics. One such leader that comes in this category is Mahatma Gandhi, the legendary freedom fighter and one of India’s founding fathers who opposed the tyranny of British rule and gave India its freedom. Mahatma Gandhi was born in Porbandar, Gujrat in 1869. In 1883 Gandhi was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Makhanji, it was an arranged marriage that happened according to the custom of that time. His wedding was also taken place as a joint wedding with his brother and cousin. In 1885 Gandhi’s father passed away he was 16 years old at the time and his young bride was 17 at the time. They tried to have a baby which only survived for a few days due to lack of medical facilities. This extremely saddened Gandhi and he went abroad to take his mind off and further study his Major. He went to London to study law at the age of 22 in London 1891, Upon failing his Law Degree he moved to South Africa as an Indian merchant where he would raise a family, and also started his non-violent resistance campaign for Civil rights. He returned to India in 1915 at the age of 45 and assumed the power of the Indian National Congress in 1921. Upon assuming control of the Indian National Congress he led Nationwide campaigns to decrease poverty, increase women’s rights and decrease tax, and above all of them achieving Swaraj or self-rule for the country which in simple terms means to promote democracy. In 1930 he led the most challenging protest throughout his life which was called the Dandi salt march which was a protest march against the tax which was imposed on salt which is an everyday commodity used in households. His vision was cleared when he returned to India in 1915 was to get India free from the shackles of British rule and to establish Swaraj or self-rule for India and its future generations.

Gandhi was imprisoned for many years due to his beliefs and ideologies his vision of independence was based on religious Pluralism. In 1942 he launched the quit India movement also known as the Civil Disobedience movement in which riots would break out at different parts of the country as every civilian in the country was disobedient to the rule of the British and was doing everything to oppose the British rule. This was an immediate call for independence by Gandhi to drive the country towards freedom. This movement was supposed to be non-violent and harmless but people caused riots and started a breakout and civilians not only caused destruction to the infrastructure but also started to fight against the British. Gandhi believed in the Philosophy of non-violence when he heard about the situation he was extremely displeased and called off the movement immediately. Gandhi continued to launch protests and other Civil disobedience movements to oppose the tyranny of British rule. India at the time was divided into multiple different groups because of religion and cast. Gandhi influenced and empowered all sections of society to gather up and oppose the tyranny of the British. There were many ways he was admired when he was opposing British rule. The way he dressed symbolized peace and security. He wore a cotton cloth which was called dhoti shawl a pair of glasses and a watch. He didn’t wear any of the clothes which were made by the British, he wore that to boycott foreign goods and represent India at the time which was poor and miserable from the British rule. This shows that he represented the people and the place where he was from, as not only did he wear his traditional dhoti at home but also outside his home where the congress meetings were held. He did not change for anyone and was very persistent and dedicated to his words. He strongly believed in his philosophy which was called Ahimsa, which means non-violence. All of his actions motivated people to follow his path attracted people in huge numbers to follow his cause. Throughout his fight against the British, he strictly followed all of his principles and never gave up. He was also a very kind and caring individual who had a lot of charisma and helped anyone who was in need. These are the characteristics shown by a motivational leader and also a transformational leader.

Gandhi not only influenced people but also united every individual which was his follower from different sections of the society. India at the time was a hostile place for people to live in. The Hindus hated Muslims and the Muslims hated the Hindus. They would often have religious conflicts and fights between them which would turn bloody from time to time. When the British came about the situation got much worse as the British would use this to their advantage. The lack of coordination between people made it easy for the British to ravage Indians and spread rumors among Hindus and Muslims which added more fuel to the fire and hence people fought more among themselves more. Gandhi was a transformational leader as he united both the Hindus and Muslims during a hostile period when war and bloodbath were going on between both the communities. Gandhi spread his message across various parts of India to influence and empower people. He not only helped India but also South Africa. During his stay in South Africa, he bought many social and economic reforms to the country which helped the country a lot during that time. In 1894 he formed the Natal Indian Congress in South Africa which led a peaceful protest against the oppressive treatment of the native Africans and Indians who were living there at the time. In 1906 Gandhi first organized the first Satyagraha a protest to fight against discrimination by the white people. In 1907 he launched another Satyagraha for his African peers. He also fought the nullification act of non-Christian marriages in 1913 so Indians could marry anyone who they wanted to and not based on race. Wherever Gandhi went he fought for equality and peace he influenced tons of people for his cause and motivated people to join him in his cause.

Ever since Gandhi was young he had leadership characteristics and traits which made him stand out more than others. In the beginning, when Gandhi was young he saw that the world was unjust and unruly he saw that a lot of people didn’t have the basic right to live which was a human right. This made him determined and he thought about fighting this issue and making everyone equal. He believed that he should stand up for what’s right and help his people who were suffering from the tyranny of British rule. During his famous protest the Dandi March which was led by Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi a 240-mile walk in which he led millions of people across the state to join his cause and eliminate the British monopoly of salt tax which was burdening millions of Indians during that time. It is seen that his leadership traits were very likable among people because he was able to influence millions of people to march across the country to protest against the British which at the time a lot of people were afraid to do. He was also a very compassionate leader and cared about everyone. He not only limited people of his race to join the cause but also the Africans which at that time was a big thing as a lot of Indians were not ready to accept Africans. This shows that he was also Open-minded and understanding of people. This shows that Gandhi had the necessary traits to be a transformational leader and can lead his people when the need arises. Gandhi has the traits to be a reliable leader and can be counted on when things go bad. Gandhi seems to be very persistent when it comes to his philosophy. He follows his philosophy first always when he is leading his people, when he launched the Quit India Movement he told his followers not to resort to any kind of violence and hurt anyone, his beliefs and morals are always come first before his leadership. Therefore it would seem that Gandhi is an effective leader and a good mentor who people would like to follow and look upon.

Gandhi not only taught discipline but also resistance and non-violence to millions of Indians who were hungry for blood. Due to his philosophy and his beliefs, Gandhi is regarded as one of the best leaders across the world who is also considered the father of the nation for India. Gandhi is the best representation of the people in India who couldn’t raise their voices against the British. Because of Gandhi’s peaceful approach and determination, a lot of countries were inspired by him and also continued to fight for their independence against the British. Gandhi’s approach not only made everyone more strong but also made influenced a lot of people to stand up and fight for their freedom. Overall Gandhi was considered a great leader by a lot of people and it’s understandable the reasons why would people like to follow him. Gandhi’s principle changed the world and people, it changed perspective and how people would continue to fight for peace.

Positive Interconnection between International Trade and International Relations: Example of India and Pakistan

Does trade reduce conflict, or conflict reduce trade, or both, and why?

It is an open secret that in the 21st century sometimes impossible to avoid war. Where every country is against the war, violence and vehemence, trade comes for help. In international relations, it is worth to mention to establish peace everywhere, because of the consequences of the war are always victims suffers the pain of bereavement. As a spineless and constructive tool, it creates the peace, stability, and constructs trade-relations among different countries. And today, I will talk about the international trade between Pakistan and India to show that trade reduces conflicts. In my humble opinion it renews the relations between countries and encourages the others to do so.

First of all, I want to mention such a term as “Independence”. Everyone knows that independence reduces the conflicts. If we take an example of USA and China, we will see that they trade with each other’s for their interest, Pakistan and Iran despite being neighbors, have hard trade-relations that are not good-connected one. Let’s agree that exchanging goods is more beneficial than causing and creating the conflicts which can affect bot political and military cooperation. As the liberalism theory says trade is a vital tool for the promotion of peace. Pakistan and India trade example is one of the best examples that show the real importance of trade.

As many sources say, everything started because of Kashmir Issue. Both countries claimed that Kashmir is a part of their territory. As a result, the issue became the cause of the war in 1948, and trade-relations declined by 18-20%, but got improved until 1971. And again, because of the war trade-relations almost were equal to zero.

In fact, that number leaded both countries to sign the agreement in which railway passageways would be constructed for better trade-relations and goods-exchange. A decade later, Indian Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh visited Pakistan to make an agreement or creating and supporting bus-services between these two countries, and reducing the barriers. In 2004-2007 economic activities like making, providing, purchasing, or selling goods or services between both countries became better only due to agreements and diplomacy. And again, we can state that International Relations and Diplomacy are important parts of our world.

By trade-relations with India Pakistan export to India has increased from $156 million to $2 billion in 2014, which I think a great number for India.