Category: Imperialism

Introduction

Imperialism played a key role in the interaction of world cultures, resulting in new forms of literature, art and other forms of cultural expression. While there is no doubt that imperialism had a sinister side, scholars now realize that it was a platform for contact and cultural exchange between different communities.

Locals had a role to play in the reception of foreign culture from imperialists. Through an analysis of changes that took place during and after imperialism, this report will demonstrate that the phenomenon hybridized local culture. General focus will be given to the impact of imperialism on the local economy, culture, and architecture.

Imperialism

Definition of Imperialism

Imperialism is the process of dominating a region using cultural, economic, and territorial bias in order to create an empire. Imperialism may be extreme or progressive (Feuer 4). Feuer further claimed, The Nazis practiced the extreme form by eliminating unwanted peoples (4). Conversely, the British, French, and Belgians exerted progressive imperialism by assimilating the colonized people into their culture (Feuer 9).

The colonizers claimed that they had a civilizing mission in backward nations. In the instance of the orient, this can be seen when the journalist from France likens it to Europe. However, there are quite a number of different versions of the beliefs of the origins of imperialism.

Unlike the Europeans who feel like it was deeply rooted in their culture, the Americans feel like the orient is more associated with Japan and China. With all the colonization that the European nations such as Germany, Portugal and Spain associated themselves with in the region, came the synchronization of their cultures.

Imperialism and its impact on culture

Imperialism had a profound effect on native languages. Many locals learnt the language of their colonizers. Some individuals, such as Bisong explain that this is not necessarily a threatening situation (124). The author speaks about his native country, Nigeria, and how most parents want their children to learn English. He explains that many of them are motivated by the need to develop their childrens opportunities in the future and enable them to earn the right education.

Unlike various critics like Bisong who affirm that the imperial language  English  may potentially neutralize or replace local languages, the opposite is true (125). Children who are already competent in their mother tongue do not need to regard English as threat. They only spend three or four hours a day speaking English while the rest of their time is spent communicating in their native languages.

As a result, many of them are reaping the benefits of being multilingual. It is pointless to stay monolingual when one lives in a linguistically rich state; English forms an indispensable part of this aspect (Bisong 126). Learning the colonialist language enabled many individuals to expand their consciousness and thus become richer (Bisong 133).

In the novel Seasons of Migration to the North written by Tayeb Salih, the author explains why it was vital for Sudanese to learn the colonialists language. The Sudanese people were apprehensive of the government officials who tried to set up schools in their regions.

They even went to the extent of hiding their young ones when the officials came around for registration (Salih 20). Conversely, the book states that Mustafa volunteered to go to school, and he was proud of it since he stated that it was the first time he had ever made an independent decision in his entire life (Salih 20). He uses poetry to entice and captivate the women whom he influences easily with statements like I am like OthelloArab-African (Salih 33).

Additionally, the phenomenon also altered their worldviews. It affected their religious standing as well as their leadership structures (Gratale 95). Imperialism altered their conception of gender, collectivism, and health, as well. It should be noted that cultural imperialism could be either passive or active (Schumpeter 23). Active cultural imperialism occurs when the foreign culture subjects the dominated group to forceful adoption of their culture.

Passive cultural imperialism occurs when the colonized nation accepts different aspects of foreign culture passively (Schumpeter 15). In this regard, such individuals perceive their own cultures as partly deficient. Therefore, they presume that western culture would enrich them (Schumpeter 38). Usually, the local culture may not think actively about different dimensions of the culture as they presume that it is for their benefit.

A case in point was the character known as Hussain Kirsha in the novel Midaq Alley. He had grown up in the central location of the book, Midaq Alley, most of his life. His first job was as an attendant in his fathers job then he left this position for a vacancy at a bicycle shop (Mahfouz 39).

Later on, the British Army participated in the Second World War, and this paved the way for Kirshas subsequent job; he became a laborer for the Army. Hussain felt immensely proud of his accomplishments as an employee of the British Army and used his wages to live lavishly back in his community. He frequently told his friend, Abbas, to abandon his shop in Egypt and join the British Army. Mahfouz stated that Hussain even declared, The war is a blessing from God, rescuing Egypt from poverty and misery (69).

Clearly, Kirsha belonged to that group of people who believed that their culture was partly deficient. He felt that Egyptians would continue to live in misery unless they embrace what the imperialists had to offer. This was someone who felt that his culture needed to be enriched. One can deduce this attitude from the way he longed for approval from his British superiors and how he boasted about it when he got it.

Imperialism leads to low self-esteem and perception of the colonized cultured as inferior (Ferguson 80). These sentiments emanated from the colonizing bodies themselves. Said explains that most westerners often perceived Easterners as separate, exotic, and inferior (55).

They derived such thoughts from predominant literary and scholarly thinkers like Dante, Victor Hugo, and Shakespeare. Victor Hugo once wrote a poem for Napoleon and likened his rule to that of the Nile in the Orient. In the piece, the Orient is perceived as something exotic and peculiar (Said 83).

Therefore, the roots of the inferior-superior dichotomy were sown several decades ago. Another famous writer, Shakespeare, also contributed to these ideas through his legendary play Othello. Othello was the protagonist of the play but also happened to be a black man. In the narration, he encounters many racist attacks from the father of his European spouse and a jealous soldier in the Army. Othellos highly fulfilled life is never enough for those around him as they criticize his thick lips as well as his dark skin (Vozar 185).

In the end, he kills his wife because of a jealous fit. The individual thus fits into the stereotype of a savage black man (Vozar 185). Shakespeares portrayal of a non-European character had a profound influence on how others perceived the black man. Institutional structures created perceptions of non-westerners as worthy of sympathy and even backward (Vozar 186). It is these notions that were carried forth during interactions with colonized individuals. Many of them believed what colonizers told them and stuck to these ideas.

Imperialism and its impact on the economy

Imperialism perpetuated consumerism, in colonies around the world. Western nations introduced foreign products, which made life much easier for local communities than it had been before. They passively accepted the commodities without knowing that these products supported a capitalistic system (Ezema 10).

In essence, the products have hidden power or soft power since they could transform the way colonized countries managed their economies. Additionally, imperialism affected peoples understanding of trade through neoliberal thought. Western neoliberal ideology is centered on individualistic views. It is founded on the belief that competition and self-interest lead to economic prosperity.

These ideas eventually led to contradictions with local values (Ezema 10). Many communities abandoned their collectivist ideas in order to become successful. Ezema explains, The West had conveyed only the culture of economics (profit) rather than the culture of values (morals), which is dangerous to the future generation and African values (17). Others also took it to extreme levels by bribing, killing, and threatening their rivals in order to stay ahead.

A depiction of the dangers of these extremes was the central character of the fictional novel The Death of Artemio Cruz. Cruz grew up poor and dejected; however, he used his destituteness as a stimulus to become successful. Unfortunately, the character chose the wrong path to wealth creation.

He used his position as a soldier for the Mexican Revolution to negotiate shady deals with others after his side won the war (Fuentes 15). Therefore, his self-enrichment came at the price of other peoples well being. Cruz symbolizes the dangers of individualism and self-enrichment that imperialists taught the Mexicans.

Salih also manifests the same ideas in the fictional book Season of migration to the North. He was a well-educated Sudanese who got numerous opportunities because of European imperialism. However, his position in the government translated into no tangible results for the people.

He did nothing for his people because he was used to getting free things. In the end, he abandoned this passive attitude. In his book, Salih asserted, All my life, I had not chosen, now I am making a decision (169). These sentiments reflect the rot that emanates from the clash of cultures between imperialists and natives.

Imperialism and its impact on architecture

Imperialism also changed the built landscape of targeted countries; it altered religious infrastructure. For instance, many Muslims had unique architecture prior to the entry of imperialists in their nations. The novel Midaq Alley best describes how Egypts architectural landscape had altered after colonialism. The nation had streets and alleys that harbored several businesses (Mahfouz 46). Bakeries, barbershops, and several other enterprises are located in Midaq alley.

The novel also talks about a street of apartment buildings found on Pasha Street. It also has a University known as Al-Azar. It is likely that these physical structures would have been absent if the British Imperialists had not entered Egypt (Mahfouz 93). The book is fictional but bases most of its descriptions on real life events. Consequently, it is correct to assume that Egypt possesses comparable facilities to the ones mentioned in the book.

The institutionalization of the empire notion and how it affected the development of culture

The Spanish invasion and its impact on Latin American Life

Latin American life changed tremendously owing to the Spanish invasion and imperialist connection. They brought about alterations in communication and management of land. The fictional character of Artemio Cruz exemplifies these issues. He was a newspaper and property owner; such titles were almost non-existent prior to the Spanish invasion. Furthermore, his local culture would have placed many restrictions on access to wealth.

Too much concern was given to ones lineage, as well as ones upbringing (Fuentes 93). Therefore, Latin Americans did not have equal opportunities for wealth creation owing to this cultural bias. Cruzs family rejected him because of the Creole  Mulatoe differences that existed in that society. Imperialism introduced the notion of self-made wealth because it instilled the concept of neoliberalism in Latin Americans. Colonialists paved the way for optimistic tendencies among inhabitants of the region.

Imperialism and its impact on African art and culture

One of the most adverse effects of imperialism was manifested in Africa because Africans fought for independence bitterly, and almost all countries in the continent were colonized. Indigenous language was the first aspect to be affected by the presence of colonialists (Ezema 18). Formal institutions and access to economic opportunities were associated with knowledge of the English language or the Western language that had colonized a country. As a result, imperialists perpetuated the domination of African nations using language.

Various art forms in these nations are a reflection of imperialistic influences. The same phenomenon is prevalent in Caribbean nations or states that consist of black people. Jamaican popular culture, as seen through television, is a localized version of western culture (Gordon& Nickesia 312).

Its stations were initially government owned, but obligations from the World Trade organizations forced the nation to private its television companies. As a result, no safeguards were present to ensure that cultural programs were aired. Many of these stations borrowed concepts from dominant European cultures.

Many nations cultivate the development of art through the education system. In Africa, most schools were organized along colonial lines. This implies that their perceptions of what literature or visual art represented western thought (Gordon& Nickesia 312). Nonetheless, one must not ignore the fact that hybridization of cultures still occurs among numerous African nations.

Individuals still sing local songs although they often use modern instruments to enrich them. Furthermore, many sculptors and painters have a distinct Africa style, which unites concepts from western and local cultures. Therefore, influences from imperialism have created new forms of expressions that would otherwise have been non-existent in the continent.

Imperialism and its manifestation in Indian and Asia art and culture

Indians interactions with colonialists may have led to some positive attributes in their culture. Some of their religious beliefs were radical and violent. Rahman explains that prior to British occupation, Bangladesh managed to abide by strict anti-blasphemy laws (11). However, imperialism brought about a new worldview that challenged these aggressive stances. Islamic Asian nations still struggle with difficult laws, but progress is being made. Women, especially, have been downtrodden by religious penal codes (Rahman 12).

Some feminists, such as Dr. Humayun Azad have challenged the male-oriented ideologies of the Islamic faith. She is aware of the fact that women have an alternative way of life, which was propagated by imperialists and other people of non-Eastern origin (Rahman 18). Therefore, imperialism can liberate oppressed members of society if their laws are too extreme.

A further illustration of how imperialism affected India was through the fictional novel Sea of Poppies. One of the key figures in the book is Deeti, a humble Indian wife whose husband dies in her lifetime (Amitav 137). The Indians used to conduct a ritual known as Sati, in which a man is cremated along with his wife and most of his belongings. A man known as Kalua who plans to take Deeti as his wife rescued her.

Since the residents in Kaluas and Deetis villages do not accept such arrangements, the two individuals are forced to escape into an American ship. It was sailors such as these who brought imperialism to India. While the story may not have involved a direct case of colonization, it illuminates the excessive cultural practices of the Indian people. Burning someone to death was a cruel and violent act (Feuer 99). The imperialist established new laws that eliminated such cultures, and thus enriched those target nations.

In the book Burmese days, George Orwell, writes about British imperialism in Burma. In his description, he features two natives as main characters  Dr. Veraswami and U Po Kyin.

The latter was a magistrate in the country and was well respected. However, he often cheated people of their money and engaged in other vices. Dr. Veraswami, on the other hand, was a respectable doctor (Orwell 12). He was friends with one of the British colonists known as Flory. Veraswami often defended the British and lauded them for giving him an education and causing him to become a doctor.

Surprisingly, Flory despised the British, and claimed that they were in Burma simply to rob them off their resources. In essence, the Burmese character credited Britain for the introduction of education and various forms of infrastructure (Orwell 50). Therefore, one may assert that imperialism provided colonized subjects with a different viewpoint on life. Through modern science, they were able to prolong their lives using modern medicine and enriched it through ease of travel (owing to the newly built roads).

Therefore, the way of life of the Asian people diversified tremendously (Orwell 50). It should be noted that there were several problems that arose in these colonies, but after imperialism ended and the reins of power were restored to the Asians, the overall result was a hybridized culture.

Conclusion

Most imperialists had negative perceptions about locals, which stemmed from writings by predominant authors. Furthermore, many indigenous people were subjected to misery and suffering. However, this encounter with the colonialists was not a particularly unconstructive one for the individuals concerned.

It affected art and culture in various countries by hybridizing it. Sometimes foreign cultural elements intermingled with local forms of expression, such as language and enriched them. On the other hand, it also created individualistic thought, which led to materialism.

Imperialism opened economic opportunities for the colonized, and gave a chance to people who would have been marginalized by their communities owing to a traditional custom such as illegitimacy in parentage. It saved locals from aggressive laws, which oppressed them, and was especially useful for women. Therefore, the study illustrates that a need for more studies concerning imperialism and culture ought to be done in order to demonstrate both sides of the phenomenon.

Works Cited

Amitav, Ghosh. Sea of Poppies. Delhi, India: Penguin Books, 2009. Print.

Bisong, Joseph. Language Choice and Cultural Imperialism: A Nigerian Perspective. ELT Journal, 49.2(1995): 122-133. Print.

Ezema, Ifeanyi. Globalization, Information Revolution, and Cultural Imperialism in Africa. Information, Society and Justice 3.1 (2010): 11-22. Londonmet. Web.

Ferguson, Niall. Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. London, England: Penguin Books, 2004. Print.

Feuer, Lewis. Imperialism and the Anti-Imperialist Mind. London, England: Transaction Publishers, 1989. Print.

Fuentes, Carlos. The Death of Artemio Cruz: A Novel. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2009. Print.

Gordon, Ann., & Stacy Nickesia. Globalization and Cultural Imperialism in Jamaica. International Journal of Communication, 3.1 (2009): 307-331. IJOC. Web.

Gratale, Joseph. Globalization, Culture, and the Question of Cultural Imperialism: The Case of Goodys and the Greek Context. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 4.8 (2009): 93-100. Cgpublisher. Web.

Mahfouz, Naguib. Midaq Alley. London, England: Transworld, 2011. Print.

Orwell, George. Burmese Days. New York: Penguin, 2009. Print.

Rahman, Harisur. Cultural Imperialism and Its Possible Effects on Global Communication. Centre for Practical Multimedia Studies, 1.1 (2011): 1-39. Academia. Web.

Said, Edward. Orientalism. London, England: Vintage Books, 1978. Print.

Salih, Tayeb. Season of Migration to the North. London, England: Heinemann, 1991. Print.

Schumpeter, Joseph. Imperialism and Social Classes. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. Print.

Vozar, Thomas. Body-Mind Aporia in the Seizure of Othello. Philosophy and Literature 36.1: 183-186. 2012. Print.

Leonard, Valorie and Rolland LeBrasseur. Individual Assignments and Academic Dishonesty: Exploring the Conundrum. The Australian Educational Researcher 35.1 (2008): 37-56. Print.

The debate on the US imperialism is quite lasting. Many Americans see this word as the embodiment of the evil even though this is only a term for certain kind of foreign policy. The debate is still taking place as some Americans exaggerate negative sides of this approach. When talking about imperialism, some people talk about water tortures, horrors of war, casualties and violating principles of democracy (Hoar 1). However, even if sometimes such facts take place, and I believe those I very rare cases, they are an insignificant cost compared to the benefits of the spread of democracy in the western hemisphere. More so, these negative effects can be easily diminished and they will be eliminated with the US efficient governance and foreign policy. At the same time, the benefits of the US imperialism cannot be overestimated.

First, the US imperialism can enable the western hemisphere develop in peace. Roosevelt stressed that all the civilized and orderly powers should insist on the proper policing of the world (qtd. in Henretta, Edwards and Self 638). The USA is the country that has the necessary experience and enough resources to help new democracies flourish. We have built our democratic society that has become exemplary for the rest of the world.

We have helped many nations obtain their independence and we can help them build truly democratic societies. Of course, some people may be unprepared and, hence, unwilling to live in a new world as they are accustomed to corrupted systems of the old order. This is where the US force is needed to help the majority of people living in those countries develop new societies where corrupted leaders will not exploit the entire nation. No one can say that the desire to contribute to the peace in the region is an evil practice.

Secondly, this approach to the foreign policy is beneficial for the US economy. Developing proper relations with emerging democracies will enable our society to develop new financial ties. American entrepreneurs and companies will produce goods that will enter the international market. They will also get an access to various resources available in the countries of the Americas. This will be a beginning of the unlimited trade among nations of the western hemisphere. This can be a start of the new economic revolution in the history of the United States as availability of affordable resources will be beneficial for the US economy as well as each American in particular.

Besides, the US imperialism will make the USA an influential state in the world arena. As has been mentioned above, this will be an important stride to a prosperous American society as the ability to affect international affairs will be important for the country. We will have an opportunity to tell the rest of the world about alternative ways. We will be able to protect our national interests. We will not have to follow rules set by other empires, as we will be able to negotiate and develop laws that will take into account our interests as well. The influence of such countries as Britain, Spain and France in the region is still strong and it often creates certain difficulties for development of the US economy.

This will come to an end with efficient foreign policy of the United States. Everybody will agree that the desire to be an equal partner in the international politics is not an evil practice.

Apart from obvious international benefits, the USA will be able to improve its economy. Availability of resources and new markets will boost the development of the US economy. We will be able to create new jobs and attract investments to the spheres that most need it (Henretta, Edwards and Self 641).

At present, the US economy is stagnating and many people are unable to get employment. The government does not have funds to develop education, technology, science. This road leads nowhere and the US government should act immediately. The US imperialism is one of the most efficient ways to solve this issue. I doubt that politicians will convince people that they should not grab an opportunity that arises from the new foreign policy. I doubt that Americans will accept arguments about some hypothesized wrongs (which are yet to be proved) of the policy that can bring food to their tables.

In conclusion, it is possible to note that there can be some sentiments against the US imperialism. Some people may focus on some instances of seemingly unjust activities. However, it is clear that this approach to the foreign policy is advantageous for the country as well as other states in the western hemisphere in the long run. Of course, we should minimize all possible downsides of the process to avoid the use of force and casualties as well as destruction of cities. This is the task of the US diplomacy that has become mature and strong. I strongly believe that the US imperialism will bring peace and prosperity to the region and future generations will be proud of the choices we are making now.

Works Cited

Henretta, James A., Rebecca Edwards and Robert O. Self. America: A Concise History. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2012. Print.

Hoar, George F. Against Imperialism. Congressional Record. 57th Congress. 1st Session. 1902. Print.

Throughout the course of history, the countries were in a continuous struggle for power, prestige, and influence on the international stage. What is more, they always looked for ways to justify their desire to gain more might that became easier with the appearance of the theory of natural selection and struggle for life proposed by Charles Darwin in the second half of the nineteenth century.

The theory known as Darwinism has found practical use in sociology and politics to become known as social Darwinism and win millions of followers all over the world. In this paper, I will show that social Darwinism played a significant role in the expansion of European imperialism through two dimensions  relations of the strongest nations with the weakest ones and with one another.

Darwinism, in general, is a biological theory describing the appearance of new species and extinction of the existing ones defining species through the process of natural selection that is the core of Darwins theory and is based on The belief that each new variety, and ultimately every new species is produced and maintained by having some advantage over those with which it comes into competition; and the consequent extinction of less favored forms almost inevitably follows.

Within a course of evolution, long before Darwin, the concept of natural selection did not prove its value from the biological perspective because it might have been accompanied by the extinction of the species Homo sapiens. That is why interrelations between human became characterized by sympathy and collaboration.

Nevertheless, the theory was shifted to the social interactions among the members of human society and whole states, thus bringing to life what is known as social Darwinism. This phenomenon refers to the theories that originated after Charles Darwin published his work, On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, in 1859. The followers of social Darwinism, known as social Darwinists, believed that biological rules could be transmitted to sociology and politics. In this case, society is viewed as a single organism with people, and the government is its organs.

As every single organism, society undergoes the process of evolution and change of its organs to become fitter and more powerful and, as a result, survive in the struggle for life and power. The theory of natural selection was supplemented when Darwin in 1871 published his second book, The Descent Man, in which he claimed that the development of medicine and science results in the situation where the weakest of the species are kept alive bypassing the natural selection.

Nevertheless, it was not Charles Darwin who transmitted his biological theory to social and political spheres of life, thus giving impetus to further development of racial confrontation on national and international levels, as well as affecting the distribution of wealth, power, and influence in the international arena among strong and weak countries.

Among those bringing to life social Darwinism, were Herbert Spencer who saw a society as a constantly evolving living organism; Thomas Malthus warning that the rate of growth of population was slower than the rate of growth of food supply that would lead to starvation and the death of the fittest; Francis Galton believing that physical appearances and talents could be used for distinguishing the strongest from the weakest, thus explaining natural selection; Ernst Haeckel with his idea of racial hygiene promoting white supremacy, and many others.

Those people taking Darwins theory of natural selection as the basis are considered the fathers of social Darwinism, and becoming more popular this theory Has often been understood in this sense: as a philosophy exalting competition, power, and violence over convention, ethics, and religion. Thus it has become a portmanteau of nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and dictatorship, of the cults of the hero, the superman, and the master race.

Further promotion and keeping to this theory by the prominent people of that epoch led to its popularizing throughout the most influential states, and ultimately, social Darwinists employed their rationalizations to advance every conceivable right-wing-ism: capitalism, classism, elitism, ableism, scientism, racism, sexism, imperialism, militarism, and fascism.

As of imperialism, broadly speaking, it is the building of the empire, i.e., an extension of power and influence over boundaries and sometimes even continents, that is very often characterized by having politically and monetarily dependent territories. Typically the reason for bringing up imperialism is the increase of wealth.

That, at least, was the case of Europe after the Industrial Revolution. This wave of imperialism became known as the New Imperialism. It was motivated by the desire to boost economic growth by establishing new markets for the European goods and receive cheap raw materials for the factories as well as find a platform for employing the surplus population. What is more, one of the motives was the national rivalry because the more land the country possessed, the more power and influence in the international arena it received.

That is why imperialism was a source for gaining additional land, thus might. But more than that, it was motivated by moral superiority, the responsibility the white people felt to take over representatives of other races to save them from themselves. That means that Europeans believed they had a moral duty to spread their culture, customs, and morality all over the world no matter what was the desire of those who were to be civilized.

It was social Darwinism that was used by the European countries as a tool for justification of imperialism. Even more, the followers of this theory portrayed as a natural law the oppression of the weak, the poor and the so-called inferior races, as well as the elimination of the handicapped by the healthy, and small businesses by large companies, suggesting that this was the only way humanity could progress.

This belief that interracial and international conflict is a source of progress has captured minds on most leaders of the Europeans countries in the nineteenth century. It led to suffering and bloodshed brought by the Europeans to the inferior races instead of civilization and progress that was implied under their imperial activities.

Under the inferior races, they meant any other than white people that demonstrate the extremely high level of white superiority in the world of that epoch. What is more, it can stretch far beyond only interracial relations and reach relations between poor and rich states, weak and strong, those located in the core and on the periphery There is a struggle of a race against race and of the nation against nation. In the early days of that struggle, it was a blind, unconscious struggle of barbaric tribes. At the present day, in the case of the civilized white man, it has become more and more the conscious, carefully directed attempt of the nation to fit itself to a continuously changing environment.

The nation has to foresee how and where the struggle will be carried on; the maintenance of national position is becoming more and more a conscious preparation for changing conditions, an insight into the needs of coming environments. This struggle & is the source of human progress throughout the worlds history.

The influence that social Darwinism had on the pace of European imperialism can be viewed from two different perspectives. First, the way European countries treated smaller countries located in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Oceania. Second, how these countries built relations with other strong countries of the region in their race for global superiority. One more important issue is how they treated people of the so-called inferior races inside as well as outside the countrys territory.

First of all, the desire to become more powerful in the international arena by gaining more lands and resources led to further expansion of the European states over smaller countries located in Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America that found its way to live in a new wave of colonialism.

By 1914, every European country that was considered to be strong had many colonies all over the world. Among such influential countries were Italy, Spain, Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Austro-Hungary, Denmark, Netherlands, and Belgium. All of them were empires. Undergoing Industrial Revolution, they enjoyed additional wealth but at the same time felt the desperate lack of the markets for their goods, sources for cheap raw materials, and suffered from the surplus population that needed to be employed. Solving all of these problems became possible by means of extending control over foreign territories with the bonus of receiving more power and prestige.

Social Darwinism preaching the survival of the fittest, i.e., the survival and dominance of the strongest that have more resources, as well as the superiority of one race over all the others, has become a perfect tool for justifying such imperial aggression. It also justified the cruel way in which the Europeans treated those inhabiting their colonies and the promotion of racist ideology.

Europeans being considered a superior race were allowed to be cruel with the representatives of the inferior races. Among the inferior races were black Africans, East Asians, American Indians, and Australian Aborigines. One of the brightest examples of such cruelty is, of course, slavery. European countries such as Portugal, France, Spain, Netherlands, and Britain owned millions of slaves that were taken for nothing and treated badly. Even in the case of those of the inferior races did not become slaves, the colonizer ignored their rights to decent life, culture, customs, and language, so the expansion was not only political and economic but also cultural.

At the very core, social Darwinism also justifies it because Europeans felt that it was their moral obligation to civilize the rest of the world by spreading their culture all over the globe. It was represented by the British White Mans Burden and French civilizing mission (mission civilisatrice) preaching the unification of the world culture.

What is even more significant is that social Darwinism also justified the distribution of wealth inside as well as outside the country. That said, poor people or those who were of no economic benefit were allowed to die because they were unfit and could not survive. It was considered to be a representation of natural selection.

That means that those who could not work for the good of the colonizer and to add to its power either by being slaves or in any other way were no big loss. Moreover, the colonies were not allowed to make decisions regarding the use of their natural resources and workforce because the colonizers saw them as their property, not only as of the source of cheap raw materials and labor.

At the same time, one more representation of the survival of the fittest and the rule that the strongest were allowed to control the weakest was the fact that territories under control of the colonizers could not define the course of their foreign policy or make the decisions regarding the lives of their citizens, i.e., domestic policies, by themselves.

In other words, they were considered to be pawns used by the political forces in the cases when it came to solving military conflicts. Together with that, the citizens of the colonies were very often used as the food for the flames, and it was believed that it was better to send them to the battlefield because they were weaker and unfit before sending soldiers from the colonizers who were considered to be stronger and fitter and whose lives were of more value.

Moreover, the fathers of social Darwinism laid social hierarchy at its roots. That was one more justification for imperialism. Seeing the natives of the colonized territories as those located on the lower stair of development, it allowed the colonizers to feel free to mistreat them as well as have them as slaves. What is more, it implied that those people were to be controlled and could not make decisions regarding their lives on their own, i.e., they were taken away their fundamental rights and freedoms.

Together with that, social Darwinism promoted the keeping to Status Quo. That meant the further existence of slave trade, disrespect of the rights of the representatives of the inferior race seen as the lower and weaker creatures in comparison to those of the superior, and imperialism as such all over the globe.

So, generally speaking, colonialism was considered to be a natural law that was inevitable on a way to overall progress and the natives were seen as weaker and unfit while expansion and further growth of power and influence of the strongest was as well believed to be a natural process that had to be maintained by any means. What is more, social Darwinism justified imperialism by preaching that the weakest should be ruled by the strongest, as well as the inferior races could be mistreated by the superior.

Furthermore, the desire to acquire more land and power brought into life by the New Imperialism has also led to tightening relations between the strongest European nations. It should be borne in mind that this desire was focused not only on territories under control but also on the colonizers themselves since gaining control over colonialist meant power over all the colonies.

Such strive for becoming a nearly global empire resulted in the outburst of local conflicts between the colonizers to win control over their dependencies, for example, the 1988 Fashoda Crisis with Britain and France being parts to it or British and Dutch military activities in Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century.

But what is even more important, imperialism and desire to receive more power and influence in the world has led to the two devastating World Wars. Nevertheless, Germanys desire to conquer the whole of Europe led to its fall as the Empire, as well as the fall of empires of its allies.

Oppressing Germany as the result of the World War I gave birth to Nazism that was also justified by social Darwinism because of having racial hygiene as the basis and brought the international community to a global disaster embodied in history as the World War II.

What is more, it resulted in the birth of the eugenics movement that preached that the natural selection should be assisted by a human, thus resulting in genocides and demonstrating that sometimes even the superior races could fall victim to their ideology. So, social Darwinism had a remarkable impact on the pace of European imperialism. Preaching ideas such as the struggle for life, natural selection, the survival of the fittest, superior, and inferior races, it justified all that cruelty and bloodshed that the Europeans brought to the countries they aimed to civilize.

The fact of the matter is that such imperialistic aggression was by no means civilizing, and the only goal it was aimed at achieving was the further expansion of power and influence on the international stage as well as enrichment and establishing a new world order. What is more, it led to not only suffering and bloodshed among the inferior races but also to two World Wars that claimed millions of lives of representatives of all races, inferior and superior.

That said, preaching any ideology based on natural selection and social Darwinism, i.e., the superiority of one species over the other, always leads to cruelty and hostility and never ends in progress. It should be said that history has clearly demonstrated that the survival of the fittest may be a good rule for living among animals in the natural environment, but it fails to prove its value in human society.

Bibliography

Darwin, Charles. Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company, 1896.

Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Hayashi, Stuart K. Hunting down Social Darwinism: Will This Canard Go Extinct? Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015.

Himmelfarb, Gertrude. Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution. Chicago, IL: Elephant Paperbacks, 1962.

Kipling, Rudyard. The White Mans Burden: The United States & The Philippine Islands, 1899 in Rudyard Kiplings Verse: Definitive Edition. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1929.

Pearson, Karl. National Life from the Standpoint of Science in Readings in European History 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Pub, 1994.

Yahya, Harun. Social Weapon: Darwinism. Istanbul, Turkey: Global Publishing, n.d.

Introduction

Expansionist policies prompted by the desire to acquire territories, resources, and subject populations to exploit are as old as history itself. Still, European imperialism of Modern Times stands out in this respect as one of the greatest and most impactful expansionist movements in history. From the 18^th to the early 20^th century, most of the populated territories in the world came to be dominated by just a handful of powers from Europe of North America. This process went hand-in-hand with the corresponding development in the military art, transportation, communications, and ideology. European powers exercised their superiority in terms of technology and organization to subjugate less-developed societies, exploit their populations, and plunder their natural and cultural resources. European imperialism manifested in the perception of non-European societies as inferior, their relentless exploitation through superior tools of empire-building, including corporations, and ideological justifications of colonization  and imperialist legacies continue influencing the world after decolonization.

Western Views of Non-Western Civilizations

One common feature that united imperialist exploits of Modern European powers was the perception of non-Western civilizations as decisively and obviously inferior to those of the West. This approach was certainly useful in justifying expansion because it allowed framing it as bringing superior civilization to the societies devoid of it. In his famous poem The White Mans Burden, Rudyard Kipling refers to the colonized peoples criticisms as The blame of those ye better, openly stating that Westerners were superior to the population of their colonies.¹ Sometimes this perception of superiority went as far as the complete dehumanization of non-Western peoples. A painting from 1882 depicts the British royal family passionately praying while the artillery blasts Egyptian soldiers to pieces in the background, referring to the Anglo-Egyptian War that led to establishing British dominance in Egypt. The comment under the painting reads: Is it Christian to thank God for Islam Slaughter?² Admittedly, this particular painting is an American satire that mocks the hypocrisy of British colonial expansion. Still, the very fact that such satire was possible confirms that the perception of non-Western civilizations as inferior was very pervasive.

Some tried to put a humanist spin on this perception and interpret colonialism as a noble effort and even moral duty on the colonizers part. Kiplings The White Mans Burden may well serve as the manifesto of this approach, outlining it with great clarity. From the poets perspective, the titular burden of Western colonizers was to serve [their] captives need by creating infrastructure, providing education, and otherwise bringing civilization to them by any means necessary.³ Kipling went as far as interpreting colonialism as an essentially selfless task, as evidenced by the lines To seek anothers profit, / And work anothers gain.⁴ In a way, this approach was more appreciative of colonized populations  at the very least, it represented them as people capable of learning rather than irredeemable savages pathologically unable to maintain civilization. However, even if this perception depicted the colonized people as capable of eventually achieving the same heights as Westerners, it still portrayed them as decisively inferior to the colonizers at the moment of colonization. Moreover, the exploitation of the natural resources in the colonies severely undercuts Kiplings emphasis on the selfless civilizing mission.

While some proponents of colonialism, such as Kipling, assigned at least some agency to the colonized peoples  even if it was the role of the colonizers wards  others did not even bother about that. By the time when Modern European imperialism reached its height in the second half of the 19^th century, hardly anyone perceived non-Western societies as full-fledged actors in international relations. An 1899 cartoon from Punch magazine discussing the project of the Cape-Cairo railroad may serve as a clear example. The drawing depicts the British entrepreneur Cecil Rhodes and the German Kaiser Wilhelm II discussing the political concessions necessary for the project to succeed.⁵ The image is telling in itself: while the subject of the conversation is the railroad through the entire African continent, it is two European countries that discuss it. By the late 19^th century, Western dominance over non-Western civilizations was so complete that they were seen as unworthy of consideration even in the political decisions directly related to them. Thus, whether Westerners perceived the colonized peoples as wards to civilize or as savages to rule over, they viewed them as inferior in any case.

Tools, Means, and Methods of the Empire

Technological superiority was an essential factor in establishing and maintaining Western dominance over non-Western societies, and, first and foremost, it manifested in better weapons and equipment. Industrially produced modern armaments ensured the Wests superiority in military terms and, as such, were crucial in subjugating colonized peoples and keeping them in check so that they would not rebel. In the 18^th and early 19^th century, European armies were generally armed with smoothbore muskets that were not necessarily better than the weapons of their opponents. However, the introduction of breech-loading rifles, which were vastly superior in range and accuracy, in the mid-19^th century, gave Western countries a decisive advantage in infantry combat.⁶ The same applies to artillery, as large batteries of breech-loaded guns allowed dominating battlefields against the less developed enemies. The 1882 painting on the Anglo-Egyptian War illustrates this point by demonstrating Egyptian soldiers falling under the withering salvoes of shrapnel.⁷ To summarize, technologically superior and industrially produced weapons and military equipment were a key tool in ensuring Western dominance over subjugated non-Western territories as well as the acquisition of new colonies.

Yet the weapons of war were not the only technological means used to foster the constant expansion of Western empires because advances in transportation were just as  if not more  crucial for empire-building. In order to exploit the colonies efficiently, imperialist powers needed a way of transporting the resources acquired there at greater speed and volumes. This was where the railroads came in, allowing imperialist powers to penetrate deeper into the continent and to transport the resources to oceanic ports. A photograph demonstrates a bridge on one of such railroads  the Uganda Railway that was used to transport the diamonds mined in Africa.⁸ Steamboats were also essential among the means of empire-building, as they allowed going up the navigable rivers to reach the areas further from the coast and exploit the resources in the continents interior. The main character of the Heart of Darkness spells this importance outright: colonial trading companies cannot trade without using some kind of craft on that lot of freshwater  steamboats.⁹ These technological improvements in transportation were indispensable for colonialist expansion.

As for the methods of creating the empire, these combined the use of technological superiority previously described with the forced labor of the new colonial subjects. Colonization would most likely begin with trade, which would allow the colonizing powers to assess the resources of the area without too much effort. Upon establishing a presence in the area and assessing its resources, the colonizers were most likely to use their superiority in weapons and organization to use the local population as the pool of labor force. Direct subjugation at the coastal regions where the colonizers were already strong enough to exercise full dominion was combined with trade in the more remote areas where the Western presence was not yet strong enough. Heart of Darkness offers a vivid picture of these methods of empire-building at work in Africa. The author describes how colonizers traded manufactured goods, rubbishy cottons, beads, and brass-wire for ivory, all the while using Africans from the already subjugated areas as forced labor.¹⁰ These methods could vary from region to region, but reliance on technological superiority and trade that eventually turned into full-fledged expansion was fairly common.

Another important aspect of empire-building was the use of religion. Just as commercial relations, religious proselytism usually preceded genuine territorial expansion and administrative control of the territory. For the missionaries themselves, their motivation could have been purely religious and not linked directly to political and economic concerns of colonialism. Yet, regardless of whether the missionaries viewed themselves as agents of empire-building, they often functioned as such. The mere presence of even a small population of Christian converts gave colonialist powers as a support base and a pretext for intervention. Achebes Things Fall Apart sums this process up best: the white man had not only brought a religion but also a government.¹¹ Thus, much as commerce, proselytism often served as the initial phase of colonial expansion.

Exploitation Ideology and Pillaging of Resources

As mentioned above, the Western perception of non-Western civilizations provided ample ideological justifications for the exploitation of the colonies. At the very best, Westerners viewed those belonging to non-European civilizations as half-devil and half-child who had to be carefully guided by Western overseers to civilization.¹² In other cases, this supremacist ideology and the perception of the colonized people as inherently inferior allowed disregarding their interests completely and only be concerned with the opinions of great Western powers.¹³ The painting on the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War even demonstrates that it was not inconceivable to revel at the slaughter of the supposedly inferior peoples.¹⁴ Colonialist powers could talk much about civilizing their colonies, but, being convinced of their own superiority, were never shy to Exterminate all the brutes, to use Kurtzs words from Heart of Darkness.¹⁵ Overall, the perceived civilizational superiority of Westerners over any and all non-Westerners was the cornerstone of imperialist ideologies. It mattered little whether specific ideologists represented their cause a noble civilizing mission or were honest about their perception of the colonized peoples as sub-human because the result was largely the same.

The exploitation of the colonies natural resources was one of the main motivations behind the colonial expansion in the first place. Industrialized and affluent countries of the West had a high demand for raw materials and luxury goods and viewed the less-developed regions of Asia and Africa as a natural source of both. European (mostly Dutch) colonies in Indochina were the worlds largest supplier of rubber in the late 19^th and the early 20^th century. Entire transport lines, such as the afore-mentioned Uganda Railway, were used to transport diamonds mined in Africa to the ports, from where they could be shipped to Europe and America.¹⁶ Trading posts, expeditions, and thorough exploitation of the laborers from the local populations were seen as a good tradeoff as long as they provided a precious trickle of ivory in return.¹⁷ Other resources, whether minerals, cash crops, or anything else, were also valid targets for the colonizers. This pillaging of the colonies natural resources was the ever-present reality and, one might rightfully argue, the main motivation behind the expansion of the Western imperialist powers.

Yet it was not the only respect in which colonial powers deprived the colonies of their possessions because cultural legacies were also appropriated without any regard. As demonstrated by the cartoon from Punch magazine, the complete and utter disregard for the interests and claims of the colonized peoples was a staple of Western colonialism by the end of the 19^th century.¹⁸ As a result, cultural artifacts created by non-Western civilizations were also viewed as the colonizing powers rightful spoils, and many of these ended up as pieces of contested art. A clear example would be the bust of Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, an Ancient Egyptian king of the 14^th century BCE. The bust was excavated by the German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt in 1912.¹⁹ The date means that, by that time, Egypt was already thirty years under British rule following the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882.²⁰ As such, it possessed no political agency whatsoever and could not protest against Borchardt moving the bust to Berlin. This piece of at remains contested between Egypt and Germany to this very day as yet another manifestation of colonial legacies.

Corporations as Imperial Agents

It would be erroneous to represent the Western colonial expansion in the 18^th and 19^th centuries as mainly state-run  if anything, probate corporations were even more important as agents of imperial influence. Yet the fact that these enterprises were private did not mean they lacked in resources or economic and political leverage. Although Conrads Heart of Darkness does not refer to specific parts of Africa directly, its references to the true ivory-country and the authors own experiences suggest that the book is set in the Free State of Congo.²¹ This was a colony owned by King Leopold of Belgium, rather than the Belgian government, meaning it was a private corporation, which did not prevent it from having immense territorial extent and economic potential.

Another example of the role played by corporations would be Cecil John Rhodes, the founder of the British South Africa Company. A business magnate with immense leverage in diamond and, to a lesser degree, gold mining, he carved an entire colony of his own in the southern part of the African continent. His political influence was so significant that he engineered military provocations against the Boer states in the region and was one of the instrumental forces behind the Second Boer War of 1899-1902. Yet his ambitions went far beyond South Africa, as evidenced by his project of building the railroad through the entire Africa continent from Cairo to Cape Town.²² Rhodess example showcases once again how private corporations could act as the agents of empire-building

Finally, it is also necessary to mention that the functions of corporations went far beyond purely economic matters. In order to support their authority in the colonized territories, they had to invest in their own private armies. In order to maximize income, they had to explore the surrounding lands and assess their resources. Even most of the scientific research in eh British colonies was sponsored and carried out by private corporations rather than the government.²³ Thus, corporations were essential for colonization in many ways, and the largest among them could function as quasi-states in their own right.

Impact of Decolonization

The main impact of decolonization, especially in the African continent, was creating significant potential for conflict between and within the newly independent states. As mentioned above, the great Western powers only considered each others opinions when carving spheres of colonial influence, which was especially evident in the Scramble for Africa.²⁴ As a result, they separated the continent into colonies without any regard for the ethnic affiliations of the population, and these arbitrary borders then transformed into national borders of the new states. The main result was the creation of split homelands when the historical habitat of a certain ethnic group is separated between several states. Such partitioned homelands have considerable potential for conflict and demonstrate a much higher incidence of both civil wars and military interventions from neighboring countries when compared to their non-divided counterparts.²⁵ Hence, even after the age of colonialism is over, its long-lasting effects still remain.

Conclusion

As one can see, Western colonialism was based on a wide range of factors and left a considerable impact. The ideological view of non-Western civilizations as inferior complemented the technological superiority crucial in establishing colonial dominance. Commerce and religion worked hand-in-hand to facilitate imperialist expansion and the appropriation of both natural resources and cultural artifacts. Even after the decolonization, the impacts of Western colonialism, such as split ethnic homelands due to arbitrary borders, still remain.

Bibliography

Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995.

1882. Is it Christian to Thank God for Islam Slaughter?Granger: Historical Picture Archive. Web.

Bridge on the Uganda Railway.Imperialism & Colonialism. Web.

Cape to Cairo.Punch. Web.

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness.Project Gutenberg. Web.

Description of the Bust of Nefertiti.Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Web.

Harrison, Mark. Science and the British Empire. Isis 96, no. 1 (2005): 56-63.

Kipling, Rudyard. The White Mans Burden.Kipling Society. Web.

Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou. The Long-Run Effects of the Scramble for Africa. American Economic Review 106, no. 7, 2016): 1802-48.

Shah, Nisha. Gunning for War: Infantry Rifles and the Calibration of Lethal Force. Critical Studies on Security 5, no. 1, (2017): 81-104.

Footnotes

1. Rudyard Kipling, The White Mans Burden, Kipling Society, Web.
2. 1882. Is it Christian to Thank God for Islam Slaughter?, Granger: Historical Picture Archive, Web.
3. Kipling, White Mans Burden.
4. Kipling, White Mans Burden.
5. Cape to Cairo, Punch, Web.
6. Nisha Shah, Gunning for War: Infantry Rifles and the Calibration of Lethal Force, Critical Studies on Security 5, no. 1, (2017): 6.
7. Is it Christian?
8. Bridge on the Uganda Railway, Imperialism & Colonialism, Web.
9. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, Project Gutenberg, Web.
10. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
11. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart (New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995), 51.
12. Kipling, White Mans Burden.
13. Cape to Cairo.
14. Is it Christian?
15. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
16. Bridge on the Uganda Railway.
17. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
18. Cape to Cairo.
19. Description of the Bust of Nefertiti, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Web.
20. Is it Christian?
21. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
22. Cape to Cairo.
23. Mark Harrison, Science and the British Empire, Isis 96, no. 1 (March 2005): 56.
24. Cape to Cairo.
25. Stelios Michalopoulos and Elias Papaioannou, The Long-Run Effects of the Scramble for Africa, American Economic Review 106, no. 7, (2016): 1804.

The aggravation of the social contradictions of the imperialist era (between monopolies and the leading strata of the nation) at the end of the 19th century gave rise to democratic movements. The league was formed in 1898 to fight the annexation of the Philippines (Burns, 2017). George S. Boutwell became the first president of the Anti-Imperialist League (Burns, 2017). In order to understand why this league claimed territory preservation, it is necessary to understand their motives and views.

First, anti-imperialists claimed that imperialism as a movement was irrelevant to society due to the immorality of its actions. In particular, imperialists neglected other cultures and forced them to follow the American culture. Besides, the advocates of this movement suggested that annexation would be economically burdening since territory separation is a time and finance-consuming process. Finally, the country would become divided because of the defeat.

The anti-imperialists planned to grant the Philippines liberty because they have been fighting for it for a long time. What is more, the movement proponents tried to fight against reelection. They wanted to contribute to the failure of any person or party who voted for annexation (Burns, 2017). In general, Anti-Imperialist League opposed those in power who wished for the Philippines to be cut off from the country.

In summary, I would have felt dubious about the situation since the country is allowed to have freedom. But, on the other hand, after receiving its own independence, the state may be overwhelmed and ruin its societal order. In this way, America could help stabilize the economic and political situation in the Philippines. In addition, they could become reliable trading partners. However, America was not supposed to control the country entirely but only take part in its management.

Reference

Burns, A. (2017). American imperialism: The territorial expansion of the United States, 1783-2013. Edinburgh University Press.

Introduction

Industrialization changed the course of the American nation forever converting it from a formerly traditional agrarian society, into a highly industrialized economy. During this time, America not only went through very rapid technological growth that gave rise to the growth of factories, industries, and better means of communication; but it was also a period during which she became aware of her tremendous growth and sought to establish herself as a superpower. A lot of innovations taking place during this period such as the steam engine gave rise to the use of machinery to carry out various tasks that were previously performed manually. The discovery of iron and steel enabled the construction of factories, railways, industrial machinery as well as modern housing. The post-war era became a period of the tremendous growth of industries and modern businesses; giving the nation a new economic and political power both locally and abroad (Kevin & Laurie 45-46; Brezina 9-10).

Industrialization and Imperialism in America

During the industrial revolution, a lot of innovations took place such as the invention of the steam engine which enabled the use of machinery to carry out various tasks that were previously performed manually. Production of goods changed and industry the manufacturing of goods became the driving force towards a modern economy. Animal and manual labor was replaced by machines while various innovations enabled the easier conversion of raw materials into manufactured products. Americas transformation was very striking during the industrial revolution and between 1790 when the first factory was built on American soil and Henry Fords invention of the first average Americans car in 1908, the U.S.A had been transformed from a thinly populated agrarian society into one of the worlds most industrialized and urbanized societies. It is the technological developments of this time that set the stage for Americas gradual rise to super-power status in the world (Brezina 5-6; Kevin & Laurie 145, 259).

With improved technology, manufacturing of goods became much easier and faster and most of the population could now access goods that were previously considered luxuries. Costs of production had decreased through the use of machinery and most goods, therefore, became affordable for the majority of the population. Expansion of factories and industries created employment for the masses and the standard of living subsequently improved for many Americans; while increased consumer spending combined with increased exports gave rise to tremendous economic growth (Kevin & Laurie 81-82). Technological development however gave rise to new social perils; sweeping jobless artisans and farmers into the industrial cities where labor was in high demand in the factories and industries. The high demand for labor soon drove women and children into the labor force while the gap between the rich and the poor continued to widen because industrial power was in the hands of a few wealthy people who used the masses to labor provisions to expand their economic empires. Cheaper production of goods led to an influx in the market and therefore cheaper prices which also meant lower wages for the workers. Working hours became longer due to the high demand for production and working conditions also worsened as goods had to be produced at breakneck speed. With time, transportation improved and movement of people and goods became easier and cheaper leading to the growth of urban centers. But urban growth resulted in overcrowding and subsequently to the spread of tuberculosis and other airborne diseases. Drinking water was mainly sourced from wells that were poorly maintained and water-borne diseases also became very common (Horn & Schaffner 493-494, p. 645).

Industrialization led to a growing need for skilled labor to man the machinery in the factories and industries and this led to the development of public education to cater to this new demand. Technological innovations such as the telegraph improved the means of communication making it easier for business ideas to spread out over vast regions. Better communication also opened up America to other parts of the world making trading much easier and subsequently leading to a vast growth of the economy. Construction of railways, roads, and waterways also took place making importation of raw materials as well as exportation of produced goods much easier. The invention of the steam engine led to the growth of the printing industry whereby newspapers and other literature could now be produced in large quantities; improving the growing literacy needs and also opening up America to the outer world (Horn & Schaffner 160; Kevin & Laurie, p. 142-149).

Towards the end of the 19^th century, however, a new realization had hit the U.S whereby the nation became aware of its potential as a world power. By the time, America had grown tremendously as an industrial nation and was also the leading producer of cotton and wheat. She had also developed a proud past of successful international treaties that had fulfilled her desires for expansion. Economic success and the fear of growing European colonization made her reconsider her isolationist policy as the time appeared ripe for an expansionist policy. One of the advocates of the new foreign policy, Alfred T. Mahan proposed various developments such as the construction of the Panama Canal and the development of U.S naval bases in Hawaii, the Caribbean, Cuba, and the Philippines. He also advocated that the U.S become the world watchdog; speaking softly on behalf of weaker nations but carrying a big stick. Mahan had the support of President Roosevelt, other politicians as well as the American public who all held the popular belief of manifest destiny that created a general feeling that the U.S was right in getting involved in the conflicts of other nations so as to help those that were inferior. U.S military bases were subsequently established overseas and in about 10 years, American imperialism had overgrown her previously isolationist policy of about 10 years (Wallace, pp.1-5).

Conclusion

Industrialization and imperialism worked greatly to change the course of the American nation and are responsible for her growth into a highly industrialized nation and world superpower. Industrialization set the platform for American imperialism because of the tremendous economic growth that resulted from industrial growth. Economic wealth became the tool through which America was able to annex new territories either for political or economic reasons.

Works Cited

1. Brezina, Corona. The Industrial Revolution in America: a Primary Source History of Americas Transformation into Industrial Society. Buffalo, NY: Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, pp. 5-10.
2. Hillstrom, Kevin and Hillstrom Laurie C. Industrial Revolution in America: Automobiles, Mining and Petroleum, Textiles. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006. 45-46, 81- 82, 145 & 259.
3. Van Horn, Carl E. and Schaffner Herbert A. Work in America: An Encyclopedia of History, Policy, and Society. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2003. 493-494 & 645
4. Wallace, Julia. American Imperialism in the 20^th Century: Turning from Isolationism. Associated Content, 2008.

Umuofia (the geographical setting for the novel) was altered permanently by the arrival of European imperialists. Using a series of political, religious, social and economic examples, the paper will illustrate how colonization was not just a minor disturbance but a phenomenon that modified Igbo/ Ibo society for good. These inhabitants had to accept and adjust to the intricacies of a new reality.

European Imperialisms Impact on the Ibo Society

The economy

Prior to the arrival of white men in Umuofia, the society was heavily dependent on agriculture. Almost every part of their lives symbolized the agrarian lifestyle. For instance, the villages had rainmakers that would assist in attracting rain and thus enhancing the success of their crops. (Achebe, 26) Okonkwo was essentially a wealthy and prosperous man owing to the immense efforts he placed in farming. (Achebe, 26) However, the arrival of the British altered this as trade became a new method of earning ones fortunes. The natives no longer had to place too much emphasis on strength and endurance  which were essential elements in the agricultural landscape. In fact, it can be argued that so great were the benefits emanating from trade that the people of Umuofia were willing to forego independence just so that they could continue reaping the benefits of this new economic phenomenon. (Achebe, 176)

Numerous infrastructural changes were introduced in Igbo land after arrival of missionaries and colonialists. For instance mud huts were replaced by houses as initiated by churches. Also, transportation was transformed through the use of rail. The natives described the train as an Iron horse (Achebe 120). This signified how alien and bizarre the new economic tools were to them.

Effects on political structures

Before colonization or arrival of the missionaries, the Ibo mostly ruled by consensus through a council of elders. These individuals were chosen on the basis of their age, prosperity and their wisdom. Additionally, religious leaders played an essential role in governance as well. An example was the priestess of Agbala. Their word was supposed to be respected and followed. As seen on chapter eleven  Beware Okonkwo! She warned&. Does a man speak when a god speaks? (Achebe 89). However, after arrival of European imperialists, this pattern was dramatically altered. The British took over governance structures and their representatives in the Niger delta region were answerable to one commissioner whose allegiance was to the queen. Consequently, these white men then became figures off authority. The council of elders was rendered powerless after the arrival of colonialists as seen on chapter twenty three when they were arrested, imprisoned and treated inhumanly by the British messengers who had been given a duty for caring them. (Achebe 168) therefore European imperialism minimized political participation by the natives as they no longer had power to participate in solving their problems. The British governors decided to select some natives to assist them in carrying out minor duties. However, colonizers intentionally selected individuals who were not respected by natives thus minimizing involvement of the natives in this arrangement. (Achebe 129)

The judicial system was changed as some well known Igbo rituals were immediately criminalized. For instance, the Igbo would kill children given to the community as prisoners of war (Achebe 56) but this phenomenon was seen as murder in the European judicial system. Punishment was administered very differently in these two eras. Before, the Igbo would send wrong doers to exile as was the case with Okonkwo when he accidentally took someones life. Redemption was a central system of the justice system in Igbo land. This was witnessed when Okonkwo came back and was accepted back in his society as an ordinary member. (Achebe 113) However, Europeans introduced the prison system as well as the use of fines.

How social norms were altered

Social structures in Umuofia were perhaps the most radically altered institutions within this society. Everything from their language, gender roles, their cultural values to their rites and rituals were transformed. For instance, prior to the entry of the missionaries, individuals were named exclusively by Ibo names. However, after arrival of the missionaries and Imperialists, the natives changed their names as was the case with Okonkwos oldest son who changed his name from Nwoye to Isaac (Achebe 155)

Additionally, the social value of certain traditions was radically transformed. Here, aspects that were key to the Ibo way of life became senseless after the introduction of European values. For instance, collectivity was instrumental in Umuofia as seen by the manner in which Igbo children were reprimanded. European imperialism altered this by promoting individual responsibility for ones actions (Achebe 160-170)

It can be argued that societies in the mid nineteen fifties were highly patriarchal and that this tendency of men to dominate women was not exclusive to one society. However, the intensity and relative insignificance of women in Igbo society was a factor that minimized dramatically after colonialism. The British colony was under the supreme authority of the Queen and this respect for women was taught by European schools. Some of the assertions made by Okonkwo earlier in the novel would then become a thing of the past such as the use of derogatory statements. Okonkwo once asserted that a man was not really one if he could not rule over his women (Achebe, p 45)

An old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb. Okonkwo remembered his own father (Achebe 21). The people of this society valued the use of rhetoric and constantly serenaded their words with numerous proverbs, metaphors and the like. These elements were altered after colonization when natives learnt the English language and its way of life. They had to embrace direct methods of communication.

Throughout the novel, it can be seen how cohesive the Umuofia society was. Part of the reason behind this was the respect for the family unit. (Achebe 156) However, colonialism changed this factor; cases were referred to the judicial system and the sense of communality revered by the natives no longer held any relevance in their lives. Even the polygamous nature of the people as well as the manner in which they earned titles was transformed. This was why Okonkwo asserted that the clan no longer acts together and has fallen apart. (Achebe 152)

Changes in religious traditions of the Ibo

The people of Umuofia had their gods and their own spiritual values. Although they had wooden representation of their divinities, this did not imply that they actually worshipped those idols- a popular misconception by European imperialists. Since their beliefs were categorized as barbaric, the Europeans preached against them and perpetuated their own beliefs. (Bentley and Ziegler 570) The deep superstitious nature of the Igbo people became a thing of the past after European imperialism. For instance, the latter society was permitted to get rid of twins who were a bad omen. They also believed in spiritual reincarnation as was the case with the Ogbanje  a bad spirit that impedes births and reincarnates in subsequent children. All these elements were eliminated after arrival of whites in this society.

Conclusion

Things fall part illustrates that European imperialism was a stressor in this once cohesive society that touched all facets of their livelihood. The heritage that was distinct to this society no longer became relevant as its residents accepted a new religion, language, social values, governance system, judicial system and cultural values.

Works cited

Achebe, Chinua. Things fall Apart. NY: 1st anchor books, 2003

Bentley, Jerry & Ziegler, Herbert. Traditions and encounters  a global perspective on the past. London: McGraw hill publishers, 2007

Imperialism is the act of powerful nations exerting control either politically, socially, or extending of countries influence over other people or nations. It can involve influencing another country through diplomacy, trade among other things. Though imperialism has existed for many years, the period of imperialism in most cases refers to the activities of various states like the U.S, Britain, and Japan among others in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The term can also be used to refer to the extension of practice, to acquire dominion, control by to the distant or closer union of territory/ nation.

American imperialism has existed ever since its revolution. Over many years, there have been many instances where Americans have been seen to take over other peoples countries. As pointed out by Sidney, a historian argues that the United States used every available means from economic, political, and even military actions to dominate other states. It was in this era, late 19th century and early 20th century that America pursued an aggressive policy to extend and expand its economic and political influence around the world. According to the Monroe doctrine of 1823, Cleary stated the U.S interest in the western hemisphere by ensuring that European powers were denied to interfere with the affairs of the developing countries (Neil, 1969). The other instance where America used imperialism was when it sent its troops into the Mexican 1866 to intimidate the French.

Some of the causes of imperialism were the fast-growing economy and the overabundance of industrial goods which forced it to look for new markets. Just to mention, there was also the Spanish-American War. Americans were not happy with how the Spaniards were treating the Cubans. Though Spain declared war on Americans, they were easily defeated. As a result, Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. This forced Spain to concentrate on its issues within the country and not overseas. At this point, Americans were becoming very powerful and expanding their territory to an extent most people suggesting America assume the role of being a world power. Though America initially being opposed to imperialism, event in Latin America following the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, the US began to challenge Englands commercial dominance of the region. An example is the boundary dispute of Venezuela. Since the British wanted to draw a border that infringed Venezuela, Americans set in as the mediator and eventually solved the dispute. The taking of the Panama Canal by the US helped much in linking its east and west coast. This helped the US to extend its imperialism through the use of this canal (Beisner, 1992).

The US was never isolated from another part of the world. The US through trade became an active member of globe dealings. It is this period of the 1890s that made the US foreign policy subjective to imperialism. At this period, the US became a major state in the industrial power of the world. This led the US to look for new markets for its products as well as explore where to obtain law materials. The US military had also started penetrating the areas it had not been able to go to before. Some of these factors made the US become a major military, economic and imperialistic power. With the above factors, it became really easy to adopt the policy of imperialism (Neil, 1969).

Around the late 19^th century and early 20^th century, there emerged a group of people who were totally against imperialism. This movement started in European colonial empires and the US takeover of the Philippines. It reached its climax when the colonized countries formed various national liberation movements. These movements achieved a lot in the decolonization process of the 1950s and 1960s. These movements bore fruits for it is at this time that most colonies in Africa, Asia, and the west achieved their independence. Anti-imperialism also voiced concern on how their racial stock was going to be diluted through contact with colonized states (Bisner,1992). In their view, they found it hypocritical to hold /colonize others whereas to them (Americans) they had independence and having passed the bills of rights. Some of the key figures in the war against imperialism were William Jennings, Oswald Garrison, and many others who formed a league to opposing imperialism. However, to counter the anti-imperialist by the state, they formed a four-pronged attack using the social Darwinists principle of a more fit species

The main goal of imperialism was to dominate and exploit the population and wealth of Asia, Africa, and Australia among other colonies. They commonly apprehended a belief, that it was the white men who were supposed to bring western civilization to the world. Individuals were sent to change the local populations to American ways of living. They used military oppression and economic pressure to manipulate and change the world into the imperialists way of thought.

Towards the twentieth century, many countries had started to realize that they were being oppressed by their colonizers and worked towards expelling the foreigners and demanding independence. One of these movements was the boxer rebellion from china that began a campaign of terror against Christian missionaries for it was believed that missionaries assisted a lot in colonization. As more and more people demanded their independence, more fight was experienced worldwide leading to colonizers give to the most nation their right to govern themselves (Ngigi, 2001).

In conclusion, America has come from far and its domination has not started now. It was as a result of dedication and courage that it was able to colonize many states as well as making good use of any opportunity that presented itself on the way. Up to now, America has remained one of the powerful states in the world and it still wants its impact to be felt by the world.

Reference

Beisner.Robert L, (1992). Twelve Against Empire. Chicago: Imprint Publications.

Harris. Neil,(1969). The History of the United States. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ngigi.J,(2001). Decolonization of Africa. New york: Macmillapublishers.

Introduction

The term imperialism is often used by different scholars and theorists in varying perspectives to refer to a number of ideologies. In most cases, the concept is defined as a measure of expanding the power and influence of a given nation. The process is achieved through colonisation. It entails the use of military force or other means to suppress the host nations (Callari 1996). Some people use the term in a broad manner. They use it to describe a system of subordination and control. The network is organised around an imperial core and peripheral territories. From an economists point of view, imperialism is a normal attribute of a developed capitalist nation. It is a common feature of a state that is progressing towards monopolistic capitalism.

To form a clear and uncorrupted understanding of imperialism, one must be able to clearly distinguish between the concept and colonialism. Imperialism operates from the centre as a state policy. In addition, it is developed for ideological and financial reasons. On the other hand, colonialism is viewed as a form of development for settlement or commercial reasons. As such, one can say that imperialism includes some form of colonialism. However, colonialism itself does not automatically imply the presence of imperialism (Callari 1996). Many theories, such as those in political science, conservative thinking, liberal idealisms, and Marxist arguments, have been formulated to explain imperialism. Each of these theoretical frameworks explains a specific aspect of the concept.

In this paper, Marxists and Lenins theories of imperialism will be critically reviewed. A comparison between the two models is carried out to clearly bring out the similarities and differences between them. A case study of the Soviet Union is used to help the author in discussing the two theories.

An Analysis of Marxist Theory of Imperialism

Karl Marx sought to provide answers to a number of problems in the society. Such issues include the reasons why some people are rich, while others are poor. To address these problems, he made efforts to understand how the capitalist economy works. He sought to know the beneficiaries and victims of the system and how it arose from feudalism. In addition, he theorised on where the system was most likely to lead human society (Brewer 2001).

Karl Marxs studies and theories mostly focus on the social and economic relations within which people earn their living (Arriggi 1994). The scholar thought past the capitalist laws into the struggle between the two main classes in the society. The clusters include the capitalists and the workers. The former owns the means of production. On their part, the latter have to work to survive. The analysis of the complex and developing relations between these two classes gave rise to Marxism. The new paradigm provides a critical analysis of political goals and action. It is clearly seen in the way Karl Marx portrays capitalism as an unsatisfactory system. In his theories, he expresses his desires to get rid of this economic way of life through any means possible. Such means include violent revolution and the establishment of a communist society (Brewer 2001). His theory brings out imperialism by highlighting the direct and indirect control that the capitalists have over the working class (Wait 2003).

Marx argues that the economic situation is a major determinant of other elements of the society. The arrangement is expressed through a form of production network. It impacts on social institutions and ideas, such as the system of law (Brewer 2001). In the process of developing his theory, Marx begins by arguing against the claims made by reformers. The reformers believe that simple alterations in ways of thinking can transform a society. However, Marx feels that dominant ideas emanate from material and economic developments. He then distinguishes the different types of societies during that time and how they relate with one another (Ehrenberg 1998). The main types of societal formations highlighted by Marx include primitive, slave, feudal, and capitalist arrangements (Wood 2003).

The major element in Marxs theory is the analysis of the capitalist mode of production. In such a society, capitalists regulate productive resources. The resources include capital. On their part, workers only control their labour. They are under the capitalists. The capitalists then own the product and sell it at a profit (Campbell & Mommsen 1981). Marx creates a distinction between the value of a commodity and its use. He analyses the issue of the exchange value associated with a commodity (Cooper 2005). The scholar argues that the exchange value is explained and determined by the worth of labour. He then reviews the source of the surplus value, which a capitalist acquires from production. The value leads to increased growth of capitalism. He holds that at times, the value created in production exceeds the costs incurred. In such cases, surplus is realised. The glut benefits the capitalist after they sell the product (Bowen & Semmel 1995). Continuity of this process is what leads to the growth of capitalism.

The growth of imperialism is brought out in Marxs explanation of how different capitalists take control of their workforce to increase profits. According to him, once established, capitalism is sustained and propagated through innovation and competition (Doyle 1986). Marx makes a couple of predictions in his theory of imperialism. First, he foretells an increasing misery of the waged people. The misery will lead to a class struggle with the bourgeoisie, bringing about a communist revolution (Harvey 1964). According to Marx, the revolution was more likely to occur in England. Secondly, the theorist foresees the fall of capitalism. However, it is apparent that he never factored in the rise of imperialism. The reason is that when he was formulating his ideas, the imperialism had already set in.

According to Marx, capitalism had a bleak future. It could not possible change into imperialism. On the contrary, it is supposed to undergo internal contradiction and collapse (Harvey 1964). The capitalists are the ones who will unwittingly facilitate the ultimate destruction of the system. Each capitalist would seek to increase their profits by lowering the production cost through enhanced and efficient production (Wood 2003). The development then led to a rise in scale of production. The threshold of efficiency needed to overcome rivalry increases. As a result, the means of production will become centralised under the auspices of a few businesses. In extension, the ownership of these businesses is limited. They are controlled by a small number of capitalists in the society. According to Marx, one capitalist will end up killing the remaining ones. As a result, it will be easy to achieve expropriation using the masses (Wood 2003).

Analysis

Lenin came after Karl Marx. His popularity increased at the early stages of the First World War. His arrival initiated a new era of Marxism. At the time, Marxism was undergoing an internal crisis brought about by the development of competing factions (Heath & Lenin 1934). The core issue was the fact that history had unfolded in a very different manner compared to what Marx had envisaged.

Lenins theory was used to salvage Marxian economic thinking. It salvaged it from two of its major forecasts. The two were the increasing misery of the working class and the severe economic crisis that was expected to bring capitalism to an end (Heath & Lenin 1934). Lenin developed his theory under unique circumstances. At the time, the interaction between Europe and the periphery was at its highest. The interaction had started at the beginning of the second half of the 19^th century (Ghosh & Patnaik 1987). The domestic market was undergoing significant transformations. For example, monopolies were increasingly controlling a large chunk of the capital available in the economy. The corporations were led by a few capitalists. Lenin theorised that these two developments were basically linked. Accumulation of resources in the hands of the few led to inequalities. The situation limited aggregate demand in the economy. As such, consumers were unable to absorb all the commodities produced. The situation led to reduced profits. The falling profits necessitated the creation of new regions of investment to increase opportunities (Heath & Lenin 1934).

Lenin assumed that the capitalist class controlled the state politically. Based on this, the scholar theorised that these individuals must have used the state machinery to colonise the periphery. Capitalists would then use the cheap oppressed labour to produce primary commodities and raw materials cheaply (Resnick & Wolff 2013). They then created an elite class of people in the periphery to consume expensive commodities imported from the new regions. Consequently, the imperialists were shipping the wealth of their territories into their local economies. The wealth from these countries solved the problem of fall in profits (Sweezy 1953). It is these set of circumstances that Lenin referred to as imperialism.

According to Lenin, imperialism has a number of significant implications on the socio-economic element of the society. One, surpluses allowed the development of labour nobility. The latter was a class of highly paid workers that were faithful to the capitalists. Lastly, competition between states in the imperial system increased levels of nationalism among the masses. The intensification deflected class struggle (Fletcher 1979). The nation state competition highlighted in this theory is seen in the tense relations between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. However, the two effects increased the power of the capitalists over the waged people.

The strategy envisaged by Lenin was strong enough to work in the short term. However, in the long run, Lenin believed that the approach would undermine imperialism and capitalism in their home nations. Nation state rivalry would lead to inter-imperial wars, which would weaken the core nations due to the financial drain and destruction of productive capacity (Ghosh & Patnaik 1987). Core nations would be weakened because of two major reasons. One, the losers would find themselves in an unfavourable position and with a diminished capacity to exploit the periphery. Two, the nationalist movements in the periphery and the anti-colonial wars would undermine the capacity of the victorious core nations to exploit the colonies (Ghosh & Patnaik 1987). Losing control over the territories was expected to affect the imperialist nations significantly. For example, their domestic influence would stagnate.

A Critique of Lenins Theory

There are numerous criticisms directed at Lenins theory. First, critics argue that the theory overlooks the deep-seated exploitative capitalist relations between the periphery and the core nations. The relationships existed for several hundred years before the imperialist phase, calling into question the claim that Lenin is describing something truly unique (Heath & Lenin 1934). What Lenin describes as a phase of colonisation is something else. It is an enhanced development of colonialism. According to critics, imperialism entails advanced colonialism. It is not a new phase of capitalist development (Wolff 2000). It is a fact that much of what Lenin predicted came to pass. However, capitalism was not undermined in the period that most closely resembles the condition he claimed would cause the core socialist revolution (Ghosh & Patnaik 1987).

A Comparison between Marxism and Leninism in Relation to Imperialism

Marxism is largely theoretical compared to other models. Lenin tried to incorporate these ideas into the real world (Sweezy 1953). In his attempt, he made adjustments to Marxs way of thinking to make it work in Russia. One of the differences between these theories is the way through which they bring out the economic perspectives of the two scholars (Bronfenbrenner 1992). Lenin looked at economic matters in highly detailed way compared to Marx (Evans & Kautsky 1995). Marx had predicted that communist uprisings will occur in the developed capitalist economies. He never saw imperialism taking part in less developed nations. Lenin, on the other hand, implemented communism in Russia. At the time, the country was mainly a stagnant economy inhabited by peasant farmers. Economic and industrial development became the main task of Leninism (Ghosh & Patnaik 1987).

Another difference that is clearly seen in the two theories is the role played by politics in the society. Marx believed that the workers would instinctively develop class awareness and push for proletarian revolution (Marx 1996). Lenin did not believe such a scenario would occur. As a result, he took it upon himself to help in the formation of a political party that would inform the working classes and direct their efforts against the capitalism system (Callinicos 2009). He believed that it would take a well thought-out political party to break the workers away from the capitalist trade union mindset and turn them into a revolutionary state (Heath & Lenin 1934). Consequently, Lenin formed the Bolshevik political party. The party seized power in 1917.

Another difference between Lenin and Marx is seen in the way political parties were to be governed according to the two theories. In Marxs theory of imperialism, dictatorship was ideally supposed to occur only in the working class (Marx 1996). On the other hand, Lenin came up with the notion of a party to promote the proletarian uprisings. The idea morphed into a centralised governing institution. The party would rule on behalf of the working class (Heath & Lenin 1934). It was assumed that the leaders of the party knew what was best for the working class (Arriggi 2007). Lastly, Lenin saw imperialism as the last development stage of capitalism. He also described a revolution through a union of workers and peasants under the leadership of a political party (Heath & Lenin 1934). Such thoughts contrast Marxs theory. Marx only considered workers as the revolutionary force.

Application of Marxs and Lenins Imperialist Theories: A Case Study of the Soviet Union

The term Soviet empire is commonly used by critics of the Soviet Union to refer to the countrys perceived imperialist foreign policy during the cold war (Tokaev 1956). The nations said to be part of the empire were officially independent countries with separate governments (Kruger 1955). To some extent, the nations set their own rules, which had to remain within the limits set by the Soviet Union and enforced by the threat of intervention (Tokaev 1956). For a long time, the Soviet Union reaped the benefits of an imperialist nation. However, at the same time, the union maintained a socialist facade.

A popular instance of the soviet imperialism is seen in the unions invasion of Hungary. The occupation came to a climax during the rebellion of the Hungarian people against what they saw as the governments rule run amuck (Sanborn 2014). At the time, Hungary was facing a number of challenges. They included food shortages, high prices, and social instabilities. The ethos of communism was totally opposite to the Hungarian belief structure (Tokaev 1956).

Communism was oppressive and downgrading to Hungarians. The idea of collectivism was not a welcoming concept. The idea of working for the benefit of the state, rather than for gratification of individual needs, irritated the people and pushed them to revolt. The Soviet practice of taking raw materials cheaply and selling the finished products back to the Hungarians at inflated prices was another cause of agitation (Sanborn 2014). Such factors, which amounted to imperialism, created tides of rebellions, which swept through the country. Many people were concerned about the ability of the Soviet Union to retain its control over Western Europe (Sanborn 2014).

The case study of Soviet Union has brought to fore various aspects of the theories promoted by Marx and Lenin. For instance, it is made clear that the capitalist nations use the various machineries at their disposal to increase the reach of their economies and exploit new opportunities (Hunt 1992). For instance, the Soviet Unions military reacted harshly to the uprising. The reaction led to the death of over thirty thousand Hungarians.

Conclusion

Karl Marx and Lenin provided solid theories on imperialism. However, Marx did not address the issue of imperialism directly. In fact, he did not mention the word in his works. In spite of this, his theory carries as much weight as Lenins, who addressed the issue directly. In both theoretical frameworks, it is clear that countries feel the need to expand. Accumulation of property is the major force behind this desire. In fact, it is the very essence of capitalism. The need for nations to utilise the resources of other countries to achieve this accumulation process is discernible in all stages of capitalist development. The Soviet Union is a classic example of how the two theories work in real life. The case study highlights the factors that lead to imperialism. It paints a picture of Russias economy at that particular time.

References

Arriggi, G 1994, The long twentieth century, Verso Press, London.

Arriggi, G 2007, Adam Smith in Beijing, Verson Press, London.

Bowen, H & Semmel, B 1995, The liberal ideal and the demons of empire: theories of imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin, The Economic History Review, vol. 48 no. 1, p. 212.

Brewer, A 2001, Marxist theory of imperialism, Routledge Press, London.

Bronfenbrenner, M 1992, Marxist theories of imperialism, History of Political Economy, vol. 24 no. 3, pp. 753-755.

Callari, A 1996, Aronsons Marxism is dead: long live Marxism, Rethinking Marxism, vol. 9 no. 3, pp. 79-84.

Callinicos, A 2009, Imperialism and global political economy, Polity Press, Cambridge.

Campbell, J & Mommsen, W 1981, Theories of imperialism, Foreign Affairs, vol. 59 no. 4, p. 945.

Cooper, F 2005, Colonialism in question, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Doyle, M 1986, Empires, Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

Ehrenberg, J 1998, Problems of Leninism. Historical Materialism, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 65-72.

Evans, A & Kautsky, J 1995, Marxism and Leninism, not Marxism-Leninism: an essay in the Sociology of Knowledge, Russian Review, vol. 54 no. 1, p. 148.

Fletcher, R 1979, A revisionist looks at imperialism: Eduard Bernsteins critique of imperialism and kolonialpolitik, 1900-14. Central European History, vol. 12 no. 3, pp. 237-271.

Ghosh, J & Patnaik, P 1987, Lenin and imperialism, Social Scientist, vol. 15 no. 4/5, p. 122.

Harvey, D 1964, The new imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism, Progressive Publishers, Moscow.

Heath, J & Lenin, V 1934, Imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism, Royal Institute of International Affairs, vol. 13 no. 3, p. 447.

Hunt, A 1992, Can Marxism survive?, Rethinking Marxism, vol. 5 no. 2, pp. 45-63.

Imperialism & Colonialism. 1989. Anthropology News, 30(2), pp.20-20.

Kruger, D 1955, Hobson, Lenin, and Schumpeter on imperialism, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 16 no. 2, p. 252.

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Resnick, S & Wolff, R 2013, Marxism, Rethinking Marxism, vol. 25 no. 2, pp. 152-162.

Sanborn, J 2014, Russian imperialism, 1914-2014: annexationist, adventurist, or anxious?, Revolutionary Russia, vol. 27 no. 2, pp.92-108.

Sweezy, P 1953, A Marxist view of imperialism, Monthly Review Press, vol. 4 no. 11, p. 414.

Tokaev, G 1956, Soviet imperialism, Russian Review, vol. 15 no. 4, p. 289.

Wait, E 2003, Imperialism, Nova History Publications, New York.

Wolff, R 2000, Marxism and democracy, Rethinking Marxism, vol. 12 no. 1, pp. 112-122.

Wood, M 2003, Empires of capital, Verso Press, London.

Introduction

World War I occurred during the period of mid-1914 following the shooting of Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke of Austria. However, historical records present the war as a culmination of numerous factors, some of which could be traced to the nineteenth century, including the rise of nationalism, imperialism, and the heightened militarization by various nations. Nationalist efforts entailed the spread of Pan-Slavic beliefs around Eastern Europe and the rise of nationalism in German-speaking states. These strategies created room for the aggregation of like-minded individuals who exhibited mistrust of non-Germans. Eventually, the United States would join in the war after remaining neutral for nearly three years.

Major Forces That Led to WWI

Nationalism contributed considerably to raising tensions that later culminated in WWI. States formed alliances with other like-minded countries against their perceived enemies. As a result, two major alliances emerged consisting of nations that opposed their rivals ideologies. Xenophobia also emerged as a leading cause whereby people joined hands to attack other countries (Burgess, 2013). Foreigners were perceived to be accomplishing spying missions for their countries. For example, in Britain, particular laws had been enacted limiting the rights of aliens following years of intense naval rivalry with Germany.

The rising of nationalism in German-speaking countries contributed to the outbreak of WWI. Since his ascension to power, Wilhelm II had been displeased by Britains apparent dominance of Western Europe (Burgess, 2013). The aggregation of all German-speaking countries enforced the nations political position in the region. Consequently, the Pan-Slavism doctrine emerged. It brought together nearly 30 German-speaking countries. Under this philosophy, a single powerful nation, Greater Serbia, would be formed in the eastern part of Europe. This alliance system led to the outbreak of WWI because it continued to increase suspicion among rival countries.

In particular, the coming together of various allied countries painted a picture of their engagement in secret diplomatic agendas that were aimed at attacking opposing nations. In response, Britain and its allies positioned themselves to counter this move through military struggle. Consequently, following the piling confusion, Franz-Ferdinand was shot, an occurrence that brought to fruition war tensions that had been building up for years.

In the years leading to WWI, European nations increased their spending on military weapons. Particularly, Germany and Britain were locked in a competition where each side wanted to be viewed as powerful based on the number and strength of weapons it possessed (Kelly, 2018). With time, mistrust between nations increased because they feared military attacks from their neighbors. Furthermore, being in the custody of weapons brought a need to try them in the actual battle (Burgess, 2013). At the same time, the use of diplomacy to solve disputes became increasingly popular in the period before 1914. This attitude was fueled by the rising number of powerful and military-minded leaders such as Wilhelm II and Ferdinand I of Bulgaria.

Accompanying the growing sense of nationalism was imperialism, where nations wanted to prove their territorial superiority. In particular, western European nations viewed the issue of having numerous overseas colonies as a show of might (Kelly, 2018). For European superpowers, such colonies not only provided a sense of pre-eminence but were also a source of raw materials for overseas factories. Additionally, powerful nations were seeking markets to export surplus goods produced by local factories. When it seemed to Germany that Britain and France had won in this contest, Wilhelm II resorted to building arms in anticipation of an attack from both countries. Britain and France also responded by expanding their military stock, thus further escalating the already existing tension.

The Entry of America into WWI

The United States maintained an attitude of neutrality between 1914 and 1917 due to its foreign policy that seeks to avoid any entangling alliances. After President Wilson announced the neutrality agenda, most Americans welcomed the move since the rest of the countrys policies would not be subjected to any risk (Neiberg, 2014). It was crucial for the stable American economy to be maintained, despite the raging war among various countries. The president chose the policy since it was important to offer security to diverse populations in the U.S. (Neiberg, 2014).

In an address to Congress, President Wilson asserted that the allegiance of ethnic minorities to their countries of origin was against the neutrality policy. Hence, media platforms were supposed to report positive information from the public and politicians because capturing ethnic differences would result in tensions and, consequently, combat. As a culturally diverse nation, immigrants contributed hugely to the economy of the U.S. (Neiberg, 2014). However, they still practiced the traditions and customs of their countries of origin.

News regarding Germans atrocities in Belgium fuelled the move by America to join the war after media agencies ran stories of the killing of unarmed civilians while others were left with life-threatening injuries. As a result, most Americans of German origin flocked to the countrys (German) embassy to be allowed to go back home to join the war. In addition, the United States businesspersons supported the Preparedness Movement, which campaigned for military strengthening to engage in the war. J. P. Morgan, an American banker, and financier, funded French and British armed forces to a tune of $3 billion (Bowman, 2014).

In 1915, a passenger ship, Lusitania, sunk off the coast of Ireland with over 1000 passengers on board. This accident, which was blamed on a German submarine, further triggered the conflict between Germans and Americans. After the decision to join the war was reached, America contributed hugely by providing financial and military support to allied troops in Europe. This input threatened the participation of the already exhausted German and Russian soldiers. Hence, the U.S. contributed to the conclusion of WWI, especially through its supply of excess weapons and armed forces that forced German and Russian troops to surrender, thus leading to the end of the combat in 1918.

Conclusion: The Treaty of Versailles

The defeat of the Treaty of Versailles is primarily linked to President Wilsons inability to advance his Fourteen Points to the designated European forces. This situation led to a unanimous disproval of the proposed ideas that did not emphasize the expected justice. Wilsons proposal was met with stiff opposition since it was seen as an effort to stifle diplomatic relations (Bowman, 2014).

Henry Cabot Lodge, the Republican leader of the Senate, vehemently opposed the treaty since the interests of the U.S. were not well represented. Wilsons failing health made him unable to rally support for his ideas, thus resulting in the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles. Before the end of the war, President Wilson outlined his plan labeled just peace, which was meant to conclude the war that had breached countries international relations. Woodrow explained the need for having a safer world that included a reduction in trade barriers, an end to increased secret diplomacy, and transportation freedom in various seas.

Following the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles after WWI, America continued to hold a strategic position in the period between 1920 and 1930 (Bowman, 2014). It steered the formation of an international organization, the League of Nations (LN), which aimed at preventing such conflicts in the future. This intergovernmental agency sought to offer a platform where countries could address global conflicts. Although the U.S. declined to be part of the LN, the organization helped in healing the world after WWI.

References

Bowman, J. (2014). The forgotten honor of World War I. New Atlantis: A Journal of Technology & Society, 42, 25-33.

Burgess, E. (2013). The First World War. Library Journal, 138(18), 52.

Kelly, M. (2018). Top five causes of World War I. Web.

Neiberg, M. (2014). Blinking eyes began to open: Legacies from Americas road to the Great War, 19141917. Diplomatic History, 38(4), 801-812.