Category: Immune System

In relation to Michael Sandel’s Justice, Jeremy Bentham’s theory draws a fine line between the decision on whether to vaccinate or not to vaccinate. According to Bentham, utilitarianism is defined as “maximizing the happiness of the community as a whole” (Sandel 34). In relation to Biss’ argument, although being vaccinated results in this “euphoria” that consists of happiness, pleasure, and the idea of being pain free, what is the real cause for this jolt of skepticism? There is some understanding behind why people assume that vaccination “fails to respect individual rights”, but, it comes to point where we need to accept the risks. One of the reasons why utilitarianism is not effective is because of the idea of fear. The moment we let stress and anxiety rule our decisions is when we neglect the possibility of success to take place. Ultimately, fear inhibits “subtle coercions” which eventually stirs up failure.

In one of Jeremy Bentham’s examples of utilitarianism, he mentions a project called the Panopticon. The Panopticon is a concept where a watchtower would be placed in the middle of a prison in order to allow the guard to “observe the inmates without them seeing him” (Sandel 35). This presumably caused great distress amongst the prisoners and this “tower” was symbolic of some type of fear. As a result, the project was cancelled indefinitely. In relation to Biss’ On Immunity, Bentham’s proposal surely narrows in on the idea of terror and how there is this conscious factor that each person feels. This “fear”, as you can say, is not visible; however, it is present in the minds of each individual and guides a person to be “self governed”. For example, in Biss’ argument for vaccination, people are frightened by what the vaccine will cause and the consequence of how their bodies will react. It is the notion of the “unknown” which motivates the person to decide whether to vaccinate or not to vaccinate. But, as said earlier, it is essential for society to take these risks. Would you rather hide and wait for a disease or illness to slowly creep in, or would you rather take a chance for a better life and opportunity. Eula Biss is an advocate for giving towards the “herd” and stresses that if we refuse, our society will suffer the consequences of evaluating the risks.

On the other side of the table, being mandated to promote towards the herd, or anything in general, is a violation against our individual rights as humans. For one reason, we are the sole proprietors of our body. We should and can decide what we do with our bodies and what we put in it. And the same case should be applied towards vaccination. There may be a strong case that vaccination is in fact beneficial, but nothing is factual. Time and time again we see examples of the harmful consequences that vaccines can do to the body. From the Dengue vaccine which ultimately resulted in life-threatening bleeding to the Gardasil vaccinations which increased the likelihood of cancer, these are just two examples of immunizations gone wrong. Therefore, in regards to our bodies as temples, it should be necessary for us to have the right to oppose a decision that involves our physical self. According to Sandel’s belief, libertarianism reflects on the claim that each of us has the “right to do whatever we want with the things we own, provided that we respect other people’s right to do the same” (Sandel 60). This school of thought may seem agreeable and beneficial to our culture, but, what kindles controversy is the idea that we must respect other people’s individual rights as well. In reference to Eula Biss’ On Immunity, she stresses this attitude of giving to the community. Saying that we must all contribute towards the “herd” and if we disagree, then our society will suffer the repercussions of those who fail to immunize themselves. Therefore, the question that we need to answer is when is it acceptable to intrude upon a person’s rights and when to back off. It is a controversial subject because of its pure broadness; however, I feel as if there has to be a solution to mitigate both sides of the table.

Is there a solution? Is there a social contract that our society can follow without interfering with the rights of others around us? The answer will always be no and the reason for that is because we as humans are not programmed the same way. Each of us carry different values, beliefs, interests and when we explore any type of subject, there is bound to be disagreement from each side of the spectrum. Although we may not have the ability to formulate a perfect solution, there is always the ability to make something “better” for the wellness of society. With that in mind, I believe that when an issue affects the society as a whole, we need put down this individualized barrier and aid in the betterment of mankind. Going back to Biss’ argument, “herd immunity” is a great example of a necessary issue that needs to be resolved as one. (Lay out example) Vaccination impacts the wellness of every one of us. What you do with your body will determine the health and wellness of my body. We are all somehow interconnected through this ideology and when we fail to acknowledge its imperativeness, that is the moment we suffer the inevitable results.

From Eula Biss’ On Immunity to Michael Sandel’s Justice, both have at least one relationship with one another. And that is the necessity for dependence. In a deeper context, society’s issue with vaccination is not its naturality or the respect for personal rights, but it is the fear of the “unknown” which causes dissatisfaction. What they fear is what they cannot see, and although we need to respect the individual rights of our neighbors, we also need to evaluate the risks not only for ourselves, but for the community as a whole. Our society is not perfect, and because of that, we will never have a flawless concept that everyone can agree on. But that’s ok. Just like in history, we learn from our triumphs and mistakes in order to come to an answer. And with that, there is no clear cut solution to the issue regarding whether to vaccinate or not to. But at the end of the day, are we content with the risks of diseases slowly invading our lives, or should we take the matter into our own hands and contribute towards the “herd” for the betterment of mankind.

Introduction

People nowadays seem to neglect their sleeping habits. There are various reasons for this, all different for everyone. Whatever the case is for you, the day to finally improve your sleeping habits has come. In this article you are going to find out why sleep is so important and what the magic techniques for getting good quality sleep are!

Importance of Sleep

Sleeping is equally as important as eating nourishing foods and exercising regularly. Without it, your body can’t perform accurately during the day. Here are 4 main reasons why you should always try catching some z’s!

Sleeping Enough Means Eating Less

Your sleep affects your weight way more than you probably think. When you don’t rest enough during the night the chances to overeat with junk food during the day are significantly higher!

Ghrelin and leptin are the hormones that control hunger. Your sleeping habits can have a serious impact on them. When you are lacking sleep the levels of ghrelin rise whereas the levels of leptin fall. This increases hunger. Sleep deprivation also results in a slower metabolism.

Therefore, if you want to maintain a healthy body weight it’s important to not only spend tons of hours at the gym but to make sure you sleep enough.

Good Sleep Improves Concentration and Memory

Sleep plays a serious role in the way your brain functions. A lot of the information you learn during the day is being absorbed when you sleep. Therefore, if you don’t sleep enough you may experience memory loss.

You can get tired for various reasons but let’s be honest here – the main one is probably the fact that you are sleep-deprived. With that being said, tiredness lowers your productivity levels. When you feel sluggish and exhausted all the time you may not be able to finish your entire to-do list, neither you will stay concentrated for long periods.

Sleeping Habits Affect the Immune System

Sleeping, as we said, it’s crucial for your overall health due to the fact it affects your immunity. When you sleep your body produces a protein, called a cytokine, which creates immune response against infections and inflammation. Cytokine is being produced when you are sleeping. For this reason, when you don’t get enough night rest your body can’t generate it properly.

People who disregard their sleep are more likely to experience heart disease, stroke, and diabetes type 2. Prediabetes can be observed in adults in a really short time if they lack sleep. It is this way because sleep can have a very negative effect on blood sugar.

Sleep Affects Mental Health

The way sleep affects your state of mind is а very complex thing. I, for example, always feel extremely irritated, moody and angry after a poor night’s sleep. But I am not the only one. Sleeplessness makes most people apathetic, sad, and pessimistic. This can cut down social skills and worsen your relationships with other people.

People who suffer from depression and anxiety tend to think that they can’t sleep due to their condition. However, things can be the other way around. It has been scientifically proven that lack of sleep can lead to depression and anxiety. Of course, this is not the case for everyone! But it’s still worth thinking about could that be the reason.

How to Improve Sleep Quality

There is no need to worry if you have been experiencing sleeplessness lately. The tips below can help you improve your sleep quality, especially after you have learned why good sleep is crucial for your health.

Stick to a Consistent Sleeping Schedule

It is essential to go to bed and wake up at the same time every night and every day, preferably as early as possible. This way your body will get used to a specific routine. You won’t be tossing all night because you have slept until noon. Who knows, maybe one day you will start waking up without an alarm!

If you want to make it work, you should try doing it on the weekends too. This is where most people go wrong. Everyone prefers to sleep in on Saturday and Sunday. But you may have to sacrifice those sweet mornings when you stay in bed until noon. Bear in mind that the beginning will be hard especially if you are inconsistent with your sleep. But that doesn’t mean to give up!

Also, try to avoid napping as much as you can. If you feel like you won’t be able to make it through the day without it, then limit yourself to 15 minutes in the afternoon.

Be Mindful about your Diet

It’s no secret that a nutritious diet and exercising daily is essential for your health. However, you should be mindful of both what you eat and when. The same goes for your workouts.

Eating foods that are hard to digest right before you go to sleep, will most likely keep you awake. Try to cook a light dinner as early as possible, preferably at least 2-3 hours before hitting the pillow. This way your body won’t be busy digesting your food and you will have a good rest.

Get in your Workout during the Day

When you exercise your body promotes hormones that give you energy.

If you want to move your body before going to sleep, try doing some light yoga.

There are other things related to your diet you should reconsider doing. For example, drinking alcohol, coffee and smoking cigarettes before you go to sleep. They are all stimulants that will keep you wide awake. Don’t drink too much water too or you will get up every hour to go to the bathroom.

Relax

One of the reasons most people can’t fall asleep is the stress they experience daily.

Thoughts like what you have done wrong today, what you are going to do tomorrow, etc. are not going to make your night easier. Therefore, one of the best things you can do to make sure you will get a good night’s rest is to relax before bed. These three ways do wonders:

Meditate

Meditation is one of the best tools for stress relief. If you are a beginner, try some guided meditations. There are plenty of them on different apps and YouTube!

Read

It is scientifically proven that reading before bed reduces stress. Thanks to the stories in the books you will be able to stop thinking and worrying about your daily problems.

Journal

Writing down your thoughts, just like meditation and reading, is going to take the worries away from you. When everything is on the paper, you won’t be thinking and stressing about it anymore. You will fall asleep quickly due to your clear head.

Prepare the Bedroom

Sleeping environment plays a huge role in one’s sleep quality. The bedroom should be a peaceful and calming place, where you can rest properly. Therefore, you have to order it in a way that puts you in the right state of mind.

Make sure that the temperature in the room is right. If it’s too hot, it will be hard for you to sleep properly. Cool it down enough but don’t make it like Antarctica!

Keep the room as dark as possible. This way you won’t confuse your internal clock. If for some reason you can’t shut down the lights, invest in a sleep mask!

Another thing you can try is making it as noiseless as possible. That means to turn off the TV or the radio and to switch off all of your electronic devices. If you are not living alone, ask the other people in the house to respect your needs and be quiet.

Reduce the Blue Light

As we already said, it is important to turn off your phone, laptop, etc. But do you know the reason why? Screens emit blue light that prevents your body from falling asleep and keeps it awake for a long time. If you work long shifts in front of the computer or you love scrolling through social media, it can be hard to avoid it. Iris software is one of the solutions!

Iris is a program designed to protect the eyes, boost productivity levels and improve sleep! It’s easy to work with. For this reason, even people who are not into technology can use it without a problem.

What it does is detecting automatically if it’s day or night. After that, it changes your screen color temperature and brightness. It sounds simple but works miracles!

You also have the freedom to customize Iris the way you want by choosing from the various modes and types that the program offers. If this still sounds hard to you, download Iris mini – the smaller version of Iris. There is no room for excuses because the software has a free version that you can try!

Conclusion

A crucial part of one’s health is his sleeping habits.

If you have been neglecting them or you have been experiencing insomnia and other sleeping disorders, the solution is the list of tips above. Try to incorporate them into your life. They may sound hard and unachievable at the moment, but that’s not true. The only thing that you need is to be determined.

However, if you feel like the problems with your sleep are more serious and nothing works for you, it will be best to search for help. Tell your doctor how you have been feeling; what you think may be wrong, etc. It’s important to take care of yourself sooner than later!

The physical barriers of the skin include things such as the skin, tears, mucus, mucus membranes and also stomach acid. You have beneficial bacteria that grows on your skin, your bowel and other places in the body that’s main function is to stop bad bacteria from taking over your body. Also, the flow of urine would wash out microorganisms that may enter the urinary tract. These are the first line of defence that helps us fight or prevent infection as they are useful in preventing invading pathogens and also keeping things to the body that are harmful out, and keeping the things our body needs to function within the body.

To be able to prevent eye infections, us as humans, have developed chemicals that exist within our tears that are called lysozymes. Isozymes are enzymes that are able to destroy bacteria cells by gradually breaking down their cell walls in the bacteria. Lysozymes are chemicals so, just like stomach acid, they are known to be a form of chemical defence that fight against infection.

The nonspecific defenses would protect us from infection and diseases by surrounding the pathogens and destroying them. Sometimes it is said that the phagocyte immerses the pathogen, and then would destroy it. This very process’ name is phagocytosis. WBC (white blood cell) also makes chemicals that are used to cause a fever.

Antibodies break down or prevent us from disease more methodically and slowly then usual. They use antigens which are proteins that are found on the outer surface of the pathogen. The antibodies are used so that they can destroy the antigen which is then powerfully surrounded and digested by macrophages. WBC are also able to produce chemicals that are called antitoxins which destroy the toxicants certain bacterias produce when they have invaded the body.

All of these 4 defence mechanisms are quite effective as they all are able to stop or are mainly able to prevent diseases. I believe the most effective one is the antibodies, because although you need to be immune to the disease and be infected by it once, your body would not feel the effects of it again. The physical barriers and the specific defenses are quite similar in a sense as they both rely on the physical body as opposed to the antibodies and nonspecific defenses which are more reliant from within the body.

A vaccine is a substance that is used to quicken up the production of antibodies. This would also be able to provide the immunity against one or many possible diseases, caused by a disease, the products of the disease, or a synthetic substitute, that would subsequently be treated to act as an antigen without inducing the disease. First of all, no vaccine is fully effective. Usually to make vaccines that are safer than the disease itself, the bacteria or virus is killed or usually weakened. For reasons that are related to the individual, not all vaccinated people are able to develop immunity. Most routine childhood vaccines are effective for most of the recipients. The case study for the vaccination shows that once the vaccination first came out, there were 275 cases per 100,000 people. The next year it dropped by 42 to 233 per 100,000 people. Then from there it would usually drop and go up a lot. This is to show that they are more cases. There is also usually an increase in the amount of people over 65 that are vaccinated also increase every year.

There are multiple advantages to sweating. These could be things such as losing weight and maintaining a healthy weight, defending against multiple diseases and lastly things such as improving your mood and also promoting and helping you to get good sleep. Excessively sweating can be very bad for your psychological state of mind more than the physical state of your body.

An advantage of crying and releasing tears is that reflex tears clear debris, like smoke and dust, from your eyes. Continuous tears lubricate your eyes and help protect them from infection. Emotional tears may have many health benefits. Whereas continuous tears contain 98% water, emotional tears contain stress hormones and other toxins. A disadvantage(s) of crying is that when you are crying too much, many people will experience a runny nose, bloodshot eyes or swelling around the eyes and general puffiness in the face.

A runny or stuffed-up nose is a pain, but that extra mucus helps your body stay healthy. Mucus is an important substance the body produces to protect itself from viruses and bacteria. Mucus keeps parts of your body from drying out. Why mucus may be bad is during an infection, the mucus contains the viruses or bacteria responsible for the infection as well as infection-fighting cells of the body’s immune system (white blood cells). Mucous membranes also protect the body from itself; for instance mucosa in the stomach protects it from stomach acid, and mucosa lining the bladder protects the underlying tissue from urine. Too much of it is bad as you may start to feel upsets where there is too big of a build up of mucus.

The main and sole focus of health screening programmes is mainly to be able to tell whether someone is at risk of a certain disease or whether someone has risk factors of something. This will be able to allow doctors, nurses and/or GPs to come up with plans that allows them to come up with a plan to make it less likely for someone to be affected by that disease. An advantage to doing a screening is that if a problem is detected early, then it is easier for you to treat it, and it is a lot less likely for you to get serious underlying health condition that may include things such as: cancer, Downs syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU) and atherosclerosis. Cancer screening would usually involve testing the healthiness of a person and also testing for signs of the disease. It can save lives by finding cancers at an early stage, or even preventing them. Screening is not the same as the tests a person may have when doctors are diagnosing or treating cancer.

In my opinion, this is effective to an extent because although it is able to save many people’s lives each year and is able to detect tumors that may be growing inside of a person from the part which is affected. However, for this to be effective, it needs to be spotted early and a lot of the time for this to be effective. Also, a lot of the time, it may not be serious or as serious and it would give people tensions that are not necessary. Advantages to the screening programmes made specifically for cancer is that it saves thousands of lives. If cancer is picked up from an early stage, it is easier and better for treatment and more people are able to survive. Certain screenings also save you from cancer. Disadvantages to the screening for cancer may be things like it leading to unnecessary worry and possible anxiety where there may be no cancer actually present in the system. Any positive results may actually result in more anxiety by a very slow diagnosing tumor that may actually never cause harm or have any harmful side effects.

Vaccination is never meant to be 100% effective. It is not designed so you never get that disease. It is designed so that it is safer than the actual disease itself, the virus is either killed or weakened. This is to do with the individual person itself as not all vaccinations are able to create immunity. Most routine childhood vaccines are effective for 85% to 95% of recipients. The benefits of having a screening test and screening programmes include: 1) finding out about a problem early can mean that treatment is more effective as you can take steps; 2) finding out you have a health problem or an increased risk of a health problem can help people make better informed decisions about their health. A screening programme must include all the core components in the screening process from inviting the target population to accessing effective treatment for individuals diagnosed with disease.

References

1. Nicky Thomas (2012). BTEC Applied Science: Principles of Science. United Kingdom: Edexcel. 200.
2. NHS. NHS website https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/nhs-screening/

The present situation in the world where the human immune system became fragile and microbes became invincible. The main reason for this is the lack of immunity due to lifestyle and eating habits. Due to which body is not getting the required nutrients to fight against the virus and bacteria. This is the main reason for the increase in diseases. It is never late to take action, Lets us understand the severity of the condition. By changing our lifestyle and eating habits.

Let’s stop junk food and focus on the nutrition food which keeps diseases at bay. In this article, we discuss 10 food which does marvel in improving your immune system.

Citrus fruits

Incredible fruits which do marcel in improve the immunity by taking it daily with your diet. Since most of us know Citrus fruits contain a high amount of vitamin c. In fact, this helps in boosting the immune system by producing more white blood cells in the body to fight against the virus.

Some of the fruits which are rich in Vitamine C are

• Orange
• Lime
• Gapes
• Pineapple
• kiwi
• Papaya
• Mango
• All kind of berries

Make a habit of consuming these fruits with your daily diet to keep disease at bay. Another alternative to increase vitamin C in the body is through a vitamin C supplement. But one should not take more than the required amount as it may result in Kidney problems like stone formation or in sever cause failure of the organ as well.

Red bell pepper

As we already saw fruits to consume to boost our immune system next we move to the spices category. The Red bell pepper as a high amount of vitamin C content than the Citrus fruits. Besides this, it as an additional benefit is the Beta carotene substance that produces Vitamin A automatically by our body.

Garlic

A very popular ingredient used in almost all the cuisines across the world. The spice as many properties which was being used from ancient time to prevent many diseases. It fights against infections also helps in reducing blood pressure and heart diseases. It contains many vitamins like B6, C, Manganese, Fiber, Selenium. Garlic also acts as an effective ingredient to fight against the common cold.

Ginger

Another most important root spice used in almost Indian food both veg and nonveg foods from ancient times. Ginger not only gives amazing taste in the curries but also helps the body to fight against viruses and other factors. Ginger helps in reducing cholesterol, inflammation in the body and indigestion. Besides this, it is very effective in reducing the sore throat caused due to flue.

Turmeric

A yellow color root powdered which does marvels with its medicinal properties. In India, there is not a single curry that doesn’t have turmeric. A very effective substance to boost the immune system. This spice is considered as an Ayurveda medicine in India for its antiviral property. It is very effective for the common cold, treating arthritis and also helps in reducing muscle damage.

Broccoli

Add a few pieces of Broccoli to your dish or make a salad of Broccoli and eat at least twice a week to improve the essential vitamins in the body. The vegetable is well known for its minerals and vitamin content. It is a package of A, C and E vitamins along with fiber. Besides this it as antioxidants that help to flush the toxins out of the body.

Spinach

A green leaf vegetable with abundant health benefits. Even though most of us know it is rich in Vitamin C very little we are consuming. Let us not ignore this wonderful green leaf which also rich in antioxidant property and beta carotene. That gives our body enough strength to fight against infections and viruses by boosting our immune system.

Another common mistake one do will cooking Spinach is over cooking due to which it loose all the nutrients in it. So make a note when your preparing spinach recipe cook it light to get the health benefits which it offers.

Yogurt

A cup of good bacteria helps the immune system to fight against the antibodies. The yogurt comes in different flavors. The plain yogurt which out added sugar is the best to consume. Yogurt not only helps in digestion but also improves the immune system. As it as a very good source for Vitamin D which we get very rarely in the food apart from the sun. Buy a good brand know for its active culture in the Yogurt to fight the disease by boosting immune system.

Almonds

Nuts a powerful ingredient added to daily life bring a bundle of happiness. Among these nuts Almonds plays a vital role as it is rich in Vitamin E which helps the body to observe the required vitamins and nutrients. It is a high content of healthy fats very important for body function. Daily take a half a cup of almonds to improve your immunity.

Sunflower seeds

The beautiful flower seeds are full of rich nutrients especially Vitamin E which plays an important role in the improving body’s immune system. It is one of the best health benefits seeds with Phosphorus,Magnesium, B6 and E vitamins. On the other hand it is very high content of selenium. Recent research showed that it as the potential to fight against N1H1 virus.

Conclusion

Prevention is better than cure. The best means to stay healthy in the disease pron world is to improve the immune system. By including the above-mentioned food in your daily diet which eventually shows an extraordinary result on your health. Stay healthy and stay happy.

Immunity is vital in defending the body against infections. This role is taken by the immune system comprising of a complex cell, tissues, organs, and protein networks. According to Stephenson, (2017), the immune system keeps a record of each and every microbe it has ever encountered and defeated as a way of controlling a future encounter. Important the body keeps a healthy immune system which can ideally create barriers to stop infections from entering the body above fighting them once they enter the body. At times, people may not realize when their immunity is at the tip-top. However, whenever something begins to go astray that is when people realize. A healthy immune system’s main purpose is to protect the body from viruses and bacteria. These are the common causes of illnesses and hence the immune system has the ability to recognize any alien cell entering the body and destroy it. A healthy immune system needs to be balanced. An imbalanced immune system is weak and increases the body’s susceptibility to diseases and infections.

Vitally, immunity protects the host body from microbes and chemicals commonly found in the environment. This helps in preserving the body’s integrity in repelling and destroying these environmental agents. The human immune system uses specialized cells to fight alien cells that are harmful to the body cells. Humans have three types of immunity namely innate, adaptive, and passive immunity. Firstly, innate immunity is the type of immunity that every person is born with. This immunity is natural and serves as general body protection. Adaptive immunity is acquired and often might take days to weeks for it to be established. This kind of immunity tends to be more specific on pathogens and often keeps a memory of past attacks. Commonly, adaptive immunity gets established after the body gets exposed to an antigen that can either be from a vaccine or a pathogen. Finally, passive immunity is developed by a person upon receiving immune system components. Therefore, passive immunity develops when a person is given antibodies to fight a given infection rather than the body producing its own antibodies. (Iwasaki and Medzhitov, 2015 p. 24).

Adaptive immunity is very specific in its ability to recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens. That is the reason why this type of immunity has a greater strength compared to other types of immunity. However, adaptive immunity gets a lot of support from the innate immunity that slows down the growth of pathogens giving adaptive immunity time to respond, control, eliminate pathogens and also, sends alert signals to adaptive immunity cells. Pathogens use a small chemical group referred to as antigens which are easily recognized as aliens by the T and B lymphocyte receptors. Adaptive immunity has a great ability in a way that it can easily identify and respond to any pathogen. Importantly, adaptive immunity can develop up to 100 trillion receptors needed to recognize any oncoming pathogen (Iwasaki and Medzhitov, 2015 p. 14).

The initial exposure of a pathogen to the immune system leads to a primary adaptive response. Therefore, initial infections show severe symptoms since adaptive immunity is not effective. When a re-exposure of the same pathogen occurs a secondary adaptive response is initiated. Since it is stronger than the primary adaptive response, it manages to eliminate the pathogen before causing any significant damages to tissues hence symptoms do not manifest. That forms the basis of immune memory responsible for the protection of diseases caused by similar pathogens (Black and Slavich, 2016 p.63).

Stephenson, (2017) argues that for the adaptive immune system to work efficiently in maintaining health, several components collaborate:

1. The lymphatic system comprised of bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen. These are responsible for carrying water, oxygen, and food to cells as well as removing waste. Importantly, the thymus allows the maturation of T cells critical in the adaptive immunity;
2. Leukocytes comprising of T&B lymphocytes, phagocytes, basophils, and mast cells. Generally, these elements are responsible for body protection against foreign invaders;
3. Antigens and antibodies are responsible for the stimulation of immune responses upon exposure. Each antigen has unique epitopes that cause specific responses;
4. Immune complexes that actively induce dendritic cell maturation and also promote activation and regulation of phagocytes;
5. The complement cascade enhances antibody and phagocytic ability in tackling microbes and damaged cells and further causes inflammation of pathogens cell membranes.

Immediate hypersensitivity. This type of hypersensitivity reaction occurs when mast cell activation is induced by the secretion of IgE antibodies. As a result, the antigen exposure leads to Th2 cell priming hence releasing IL-4. The IL-4 produced changes B cells from producing IgM and starts producing IgE antibodies. The IgE antibodies are antigen-specific and therefore end up binding with both the mast cells and basophils causing antigen sensitization. The antigen re-exposure comes into contact with the sensitized cells resulting in the production of preformed mediators such as prostaglandins, histamine, and leukotriene that cause rampant bronchoconstriction and vasodilation (Brockow et al., 2016 p.42).

Here, antibodies are targeting antigens that appear on the cell surface prompting an immune response. The IgG or the IgM antibodies attach to the cell surface antigens in a given tissue causing a complement system activation that in turn causes cell degranulation. When the neutrophils get DE granulated and the membrane is damaged the whole cell is damaged. This can eventually lead to tissue damage (Galvão and Castells, 2015 p. 36).

This hypersensitivity is caused by antigen-antibody complexes. The IgG antibodies bind to the circulating antigens. This results in the formation of immune complexes often deposited on the tissue membranes where there is high blood infiltration such as the kidney. As a result, the complement cascade attracts neutrophils resulting in cell phagocytosis (Galvão and Castells, 2015 p. 36). This type of hypersensitivity occurs as a result of antigen contact with pre-sensitized T lymphocytes. A combination of pre-sensitized T cells and CD4 respond to the antigen-presenting cells by releasing inflammatory cytokines. The inflammatory factors may lead to edema, redness, and local swelling. Also, it may lead to mediated cytotoxicity (Galvão and Castells, 2015 p. 36).

Diabetes mellitus. Medically, Diabetes mellitus is classified as an autoimmune chronic disease that results from the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, otherwise known as the ‘islets of Langerhans. These cells are responsible for the production of insulin in the human body. Studies have shown that type IV hypersensitivity is responsible for the destruction of the pancreatic beta cells. This occurs when the allergens penetrate the skin and are then taken up by the Langerhans cell in the pancreas. These allergens then migrate to the lymph nodes promoting the formation of sensitized T- lymphocytes. The T-lymphocytes activate the production of macrophages and inflammatory reaction in the tissues. The reaction is responsible for the destruction of the Langerhans cells, which produce insulin. That explains the reason why the individual must depend on insulin because the Langerhans cells have been destroyed by the hypersensitivity reaction. (Kharroubi, and Darwish, 2015 p.64)

Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) is the inflammation of the mucus membranes caused by the introduction of allergens into these mucus membranes. The allergen may either be pollen, animal dander, or molds. The site of antigen exposure determines the clinical sign and symptoms. When the reaction occurs in the upper respiratory tract and conjunctiva, the individual will develop sneezing and conjunctivitis. This type of reaction normally occurs after immediate exposure to the allergen, thus categorized as a Type I hypersensitivity reaction.

For this patient, exposure to environmental allergens crosses the nasal mucosa and enters the underlying tissue. The allergen then meets the previously sensitized mast cells and IgE/Fc receptor complexes from the previous infection with a similar allergen leading to the degranulation of the mast cell, releasing Histamine. Histamine then binds to H1 receptors on the mucosal surfaces resulting in vasodilatation and increased vessel permeability, consequently leading to edema. This mucosal swelling is responsible for nasal congestion. Itching occurs due to histamine stimulating nerve endings by H1 dependent mechanism. Sneezing, running nose, and tearing result from the combined effect of histamine and other inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins, kinins, and leukotrienes. (Rennie et al., 2016 p.22).

Antihistamine mode of action. Histamines are inflammatory mediators in hypersensitivity reactions. Antihistamines reduce the effects of histamines in the body through binding to the H1 receptors in the mucosa, thus preventing the already produced histamine from binding to the H1 receptors, consequently reducing the symptoms associated with hypersensitivity

Drowsiness is a common side effect for those that cross the blood-brain barrier. They antagonize the neurotransmitter effect of histamine on H1 receptors in the Hypothalamus. Also, they cause anticholinergic side effects such as dry eyes, papillary dilatation, dry mouth, and urinary retention, and hesitance.

References:

1. Black, D.S. and Slavich, G.M., 2016. Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1373(1), p.13.;
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In recent decades, the amount of scientific knowledge available related to cancer has grown exponentially. The publication of the Hallmarks of Cancer deserves a special highlight in this history and its revision provided further insight into the main features of cancer cells and reflected the advances in research so far.

The hallmarks are still an extremely valuable framework for researchers across the world and an invaluable contribute to our understanding of the pathology of cancer. Each hallmark offers numerous research opportunities but also several therapeutic targets, which are currently being explored.

The present review focuses on one of the hallmarks, the ability of cancer cells to avoid immune detection, explores a three-step model to explain the concept of immunoediting shedding light on the mechanisms of immune avoidance and the possible therapy approaches that rise from this knowledge, such as targeted immunotherapy and novel developments that include molecular and cellular therapy and oncolytic vaccines.

Introduction

After decades of cancer research, a large pool of scientific knowledge has been produced, describing this disease as a product of the interaction between dynamic genetic changes and environmental stimuli.

The foundation for the claim regarding changes in the genome was laid out with the discovery of changes in oncogenes that often lead to their permanent activation and the loss of function of tumour suppressor genes, which lead to the development of cancer phenotypes in animal and human cell models.

Due to the complexity of the topic and the range of scientific literature available, in 2000, Hanahan and Weinberg published the Hallmarks of Cancer, with their belief that cancer research would become a logical science and aiming for it to be understood “in terms of a small number of underlying principles”.

In their paper, they listed the six hallmarks of cancer cells: evading apoptosis, self-sufficiency growth signals, insensitivity to anti-growth signals, tissue invasion and metastasis potential, sustained angiogenesis and limitless replicative potential.

In 2011, in light of new knowledge building up over the last decade, the authors published a revision to their previous work, adding two new hallmarks (deregulating cellular energetics and avoiding immune destruction) and also describing two enabling characteristics (tumour-promoting inflammation and genome instability and mutation), essential to tumour proliferation. In fact, as stated by Hanahan and Weinberg, “the biology of tumours can no longer be understood simply by enumerating the traits of the cancer cells but instead must encompass the contributions of the ‘‘tumour microenvironment’’ to tumorigenesis”.

After the publication of the new Hallmarks, several scientists have researched individual traits of cancer cells and established molecular, cellular and biochemical mechanisms in which they lead to the development of malignant tumours.

Currently, an interesting research approach adopts an evolutionary perspective and details the role of genetics, environmental stimuli and epigenetics in the acquisition of said hallmarks by cells, leading to their transformation into malignant cancer cells.

The present review will focus on the new hallmark – ability of cancer cells to evade immune detection – and the current applications of this knowledge in terms of cancer therapy.

The role of the immune system in detecting and eliminating potential cancer cells

Immunosurveillance as a concept, was initially proposed in 1909 by Ehrlich, who suggested that tumours are continuously detected and eliminated by the immune system, before any obvious clinical manifestations.

With advances in genetics, in 1970, the concept of immunosurveillance was further explained by Burnet, who theorised that genetic changes leading to malignancy happen frequently in somatic cells and that the immune system identifies and eliminates these potentially harmful cells.

This idea has been supported by extensive evidence and studies showing how immunodeficient mice and humans are more prone to the development of malignant tumours. Also, HIV positive patients and patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy after organ transplantation show a high incidence of malignancies.

Despite this, it is possible to observe the development of malignancies in individuals with a fully functional immune system.

Recently, the concept of immunoediting as been proposed as a dynamic process that involves three steps: elimination, equilibrium and escape.

Immunoediting: Elimination

Currently, an abnormal innate and adaptative immune response has been identified as integral part of tumorigenesis by selecting aggressive clones of cancer cells, decreasing the strength of the immune response and allowing proliferation and metastasis.

The innate immune response includes effectors such as natural killer cells (NK) and γδ T cells, which are activated by inflammatory cytokines secreted by tumour cells, macrophages and stromal cells that surrounded the tumour.

These cytokines recruit other chemicals such as interleukin-12 (IL-12) and NK cells act via release of perforin, Fas Ligand (FasL) induced apoptosis and tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), which releases tumour antigens, able to active adaptative immune response.

γδ T cells also respond to stress-induced molecules on tumour cells and secrete cytotoxic molecules, inflammatory cytokines and activate adaptive immunity cells (CD4+ helper T cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells). They can also lyse tumour cells by antibody‐dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), secrete interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-17, upregulating other cytotoxic cells, in a positive feedback loop.

Cancer and pre-cancer cells can evade immune detection mainly by loss of antigenicity and/or formation of an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. Loss of antigenicity is linked to under expression of tumour antigens and the immunosuppressive microenvironment is thought to be caused by the release of IL-10 and transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b), inhibiting the activation of effector cells.

Immunoediting: Equilibrium

Equilibrium can be seen under the light of natural selection. This means that after the elimination stage, tumour cells that are highly immunogenic are destroyed, leaving the ones that induce less potent immune responses behind. This eventually leads to the selection of tumour cells with reduced immunogenicity thus explaining the apparent paradox of tumours developing in immunocompetent individuals.

Tumours that are less immunogenic can be produced by random mutations, however the action of the host’s immune system cannot be ignored. In fact, a study shown that induced sarcomas in immunodeficient mice were more immunogenic than similar tumour cells in mice with functional immune systems. This finding was attributed to the selection process that happened in the immunocompetent mice, leading to the proliferation of tumour cells resistant to immune destruction.

Immunoediting: Escape

Several mechanisms have been recognised in the escape stage, including alterations in cell signalling molecules on effector cells, alteration of tumour microenvironment and immunological ignorance and tolerance.

Importantly, the loss of signal transducer CD3-ζ chain, in the T cell receptor (TCR) leads to the loss of activation of T cells by disrupting the formation of the complex TCR-CD3, which in turn will lead to poor activation and proliferation of effector T cells. This mutation has been linked to several types of malignancies such as pancreatic cancer and ovarian cancer.

Changes to the microenvironment are mediated by a range of tumour derived soluble factors, which form a vast immunosuppressive environment such as the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), IL-10, prostaglandin E2, phosphatidylserine, Fas/FasL and soluble major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related molecule A (MICA). These factors can actually have an effect on the surrounding lymph nodes and spleen, promoting formation of metastasis.

VEGF recruits immature cells from the bone marrow such as dendritic cells and macrophages, which inhibit the activity of mature dendritic and T cells due to activation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. Furthermore, VEGF suppresses nuclear factor κB, blocking differentiation and maturation of dendritic cells, which directly down-regulates the host’s immune response.

Soluble phosphatidylserine, which can induce an anti-inflammatory response, is also upregulated in tumour cells, leading to the expression of IL-10 and transforming growth factor- β (TGF-β), causing inhibition of dendritic cells and T cells’ response.

Finally, the expression of FasL and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)- related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) is upregulated in tumour cells, leading to apoptosis in Fas-expressing lymphocytes and T cytotoxic cells, respectively.

Cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has recently been recognised as essential and specific cancer therapy, complementing the action of more non-specific therapies, such as surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Cancer immunotherapy is based on three different approaches, listed below.

Molecular Therapy

IL-2 promotes T cell growth and is approved for treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma and melanoma. IL-2 increases the amount of tumour infiltrating lymphocytes, supports their growth and activation after adoptive transfer to patients. To note that side effects include vascular leak syndrome, pulmonary oedema, hypertension and heart toxicity, so care must be taken with this approach.

In order to achieve continuous activation of T cells, drugs that block the inhibitory checkpoints of the immune response are also used. As an example, ipilimumab, an anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated protein 4 (anti-CTLA-4) is indicated in the treatment of kidney, bladder, head and neck cancer and Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

Cellular Therapy

Adoptive T cell therapy involves growing in vitro patient-derived T cells, with specificity for the tumour cells’ antigens and re-infusing them into patients.

As an example, chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy (CAR-T) has shown promising results in haematological malignancies. The therapy involves collection of lymphocytes from the patient, T cell transfection with CAR, expansion and re-infusion. CAR is a monoclonal antibody that can target different antigens in tumour cells. Among them, CAR T cell that target CD19 in B cells has been successful in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and B cell lymphoma.

Vaccination Therapy

Vaccination therapy can aim to prevent the occurrence of cancer by reducing viral infections directly linked to malignancies. As examples, we can highlight the human papillomavirus vaccine to prevent cervical cancer and the hepatitis B vaccine to prevent liver cancer. However, most vaccines are therapeutic, using peptides derived from tumour antigens or DNA/RNA of cancer cells.

Oncolytic viral vaccines have recently been introduced and use viruses that selectively target tumour cells, by activation of dendritic cells and cross presentation of tumour antigens to T cells. Examples include Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), a herpes simplex virus, engineered to express granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), increasing dendritic cell maturation.

Human and murine induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), modified to express tumour antigens may be used as therapeutic vaccines, because they can induce an antigen-specific T cell response.

Finally, dendritic cell vaccines that are exposed to tumour peptides/DNA/RNA are used as vaccines and several are currently undergoing clinical trials. Sipuleucel-T, a dendritic cell vaccine derived from patient blood and pulsed with a protein of prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) and GM-CSF, has been approved to treat prostate cancer patients. A summary of the immunotherapy approaches and their known advantages/disadvantages is presented in the table below.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the identification and revision of the hallmarks of cancer has proved invaluable in our understanding of the development of malignancies and provided a framework for scientists around the world to research different pathways of tumorigenesis, eventually leading to our current knowledge.

The addition of the final two hallmarks, particularly the ability of cancer cells to avoid immune detection reflects the advances in scientific research and allowed for explanations to be formulated, addressing key aspects of cancer cells that seemed a paradox, such as the knowledge that tumour cells have antigens identified as non-self but ultimately this had little impact in preventing the development of malignancies in individuals with functioning immune systems. The concept of immunoediting overcame these shortages and provided some clarity on the mechanisms that tumour cells use to avoid immune destruction.

Our growing knowledge of tumour cells and how they overcome immune detection and destruction meant that targeted therapies can be designed and trialled, in order to complement the more established therapies, such as surgery and chemotherapy. Cancer immunotherapy appears as a precision therapy, targeting cancer cells and sparing healthy cells, with great potential in terms of reducing the side effects of traditional chemotherapy, which is less specific. Several types of cancer immunotherapy are currently undergoing clinical trials and, in the future, it will be interesting to see the advances in this field, hopefully leading to a more targeted approach, high success rates in treating different cancers and the ability to reduce the burden that traditional therapies inflict in healthcare systems and patients alike.

Vaccination is a form of artificially acquired active immunity, meaning it is acquired through medical intervention and is a response produced by the immune system. Vaccines are “a preparation containing antigenic material used to protect people against serious and potentially deadly diseases” (Class Notes, 2019); unlike most other forms of treatment which are used to cure or treat diseases, vaccinations are used to prevent them (‘What are vaccines?’, 2019). There are many cultural, social, religious, ethical, legal, political, and economic factors that impact the effectiveness of vaccines and therefore the health of any given community.

In criterion 8 of the biology course, we have discussed the effects of pathogens on humans and the multiple prevention and treatment methods used. Vaccination is currently the most accurate prevention method and therefore it is important to understand the factors which either increase or decrease the number of vaccines produced and distributed (Class Notes, 2019).

The effectiveness of vaccines, in particular, community immunity or herd immunity is a large issue involving cultural, religious, and social factors. Herd immunity is the theory that not everyone in a community must be vaccinated to prevent the spread of disease. Instead, of a majority of the community is vaccinated and is therefore immune, the few people susceptible to the pathogen are less likely to become infected as the pathogen is less likely to find a susceptible person, and therefore that particular pathogen will die out in that community (“Vaccine”, 2019); this is mentioned in criterion 8 of our biology course. Some certain cultures do not allow for their members to be vaccinated due to ethical problems associated with the use of living organisms in the creation of vaccines, this includes using human tissue cells. Many cultures and religions believe that people should not receive certain chemicals, blood, or tissues from other animals and instead should only be healed by natural means, this is due to the belief that the body is ‘sacred’(‘Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination, History of Vaccines’, 2019). For instance, the Catholic Church recognizes the importance of vaccines and their contributions to community health, however, they insist when possible members should seek alternatives to vaccines that are made using cell lines derived from aborted fetuses (‘Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination, History of Vaccines’, 2019).

Religious and political objections to vaccines also exist, for instance, Muslim fundamentalists have created suspicions surrounding the polio vaccine in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nigeria. These suspicions have gone so far as resulting in kidnappings, specifically after the local Taliban in Southern Afghanistan called the polio vaccination an “American ploy” to “sterilize Muslim populations and an attempt to avert Allah’s will” (‘Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination, History of Vaccines’, 2019). This creates a decline in the number of people receiving the vaccine and therefore herd immunity is no longer effective in this community (“Vaccine”, 2019). Many countries are beginning to make vaccinations mandatory to therefore increase the level of herd immunity and protect children and those who cannot receive the vaccines due to medical reasons. In countries such as Italy and France, infants are required by law to receive a certain number of vaccines (Warren, 2019). However, in countries such as Australia, vaccinations are not mandatory as major exemptions apply, this limits the safety of the public in terms of the spread of diseases (Anderson, 2018).

Before being administered to the public, vaccines must go through numerous years of research which includes clinical trials, however, before this stage of the development is reached, the vaccines must reach certain safety standards (‘Ethical Issues and Vaccines, History of Vaccines’, 2018). When testing the effectiveness of a vaccine a clinical trial is used, this clinical trial should include a control group that does not receive the test vaccine. However, this is cause for ethical concern, as it requires doctors and or scientists do not to provide participants with something that could potentially prevent disease. Testing the vaccine on vulnerable populations, such as children and people in third world countries can also be cause for ethical concern (‘Ethical Issues and Vaccines, History of Vaccines’, 2018). When testing vaccines a list of ethical concerns is required, this includes providing necessary treatment if a disease is detected, ensuring the trial and vaccine can be supervised by an ethical review panel, and ensuring that participants understand consent prior to partaking in the trial (‘Ethical Issues and Vaccines, History of Vaccines’, 2018).

With an increasing number of newly discovered diseases, there’s a need to create more vaccines to protect the public, these vaccines cost between $521 million and $5 billion to make, depending on the manufacturer and vaccine, according to The Washington Post (Martinez, 2018). It is an extremely time-consuming process to create a vaccine, and becomes increasingly more expensive the longer it takes to produce a successful immunization 15 years is considered to be the average amount of time used to create a successful new vaccine (Martinez, 2018). With an extreme amount of funding required to produce a successful vaccine, it is difficult for developing countries to protect their populations without the assistance of a wealthier country such as America, Australia, or England (Martinez, 2018). “Health is a key factor for the promotion of economic growth” (Najera, 2019) meaning wealthier countries can make a profit when distributing a successful vaccine. If the use of vaccines continues to grow, less of the population will suffer due to disease and therefore more individuals will be present in the workforce (Najera, 2019).

Vaccinations are a major breakthrough in medical history, they allow for entire communities to be protected from disease. Many countries are slowly progressing to make vaccinations mandatory so that those who are unable to receive them can be protected due to herd immunity (Anderson, 2018). There are a few ethical concerns involved in the creation of vaccines, including the use of animal chemicals, blood and tissues, and human tissue and using clinical trials. Despite needing extreme funding to produce them successfully, a profit can be made from the distribution of vaccines (Najera, 2019). Therefore the production of vaccines is evidently beneficial to the survival of humans and the evolution of medicine and science.