Category: Immigration

The DREAM Act was a legislative proposal in 2001 that intended to give more social benefits to immigrants who had proved to be of good moral standing. The Act drew criticism and praise in equal measures among the citizens of the United States. The DREAM Act would be a significant step towards achieving the American Dream of social equity.

Indeed, it was the desire of the founding fathers of the United States that the country would have the most tolerable society in the world. Though written centuries ago, some of the ideals regarding social equity have never been taken seriously.

By implementing the issues contained in the DREAM Act, Americans would be passing a strong message to the world that the equality of Gods creation still holds (Zerk, 24).

The immigrants, if given adequate education, will develop the requisite skills that would enable them to work in the United States industries. In return, they will earn high incomes that will enable them to invest and therefore contribute to the economic development of the country.

It has previously been noted that certain careers like health and engineering would not have developed in America were it not for immigrants, most of who came as foreign students. Thus, trying to thwart the human development of immigrants effectively hinders economic development of the United States.

According to a study conducted by the North American Integration and Development Center, the implementation of the DREAM Act would imply a return to the American ideals of social. In addition, it will ensure a brighter future for America because some of the immigrants facing deportation are polished intellectuals with great potentials in business and science.

In this competitive era when China seems to be closing in on the United States, it is important that the US retains every human power within its reach. The country needs innovative minds of youthful Americans and the immigrants in order to put its acts in order and mount a strong economic challenge against China and its allies. This fact underscores why American cannot ignore their immigrant youths (Porter, page 90).

The legislation will encourage young people to take up positions in the Army and eventually help to create a strong military command. According to the available literature, the Act allows immigrants who have served in the army to be given residential permit.

Most youths would readily serve in the army if that is all it takes to stay and work in the United States. Essentially, the Defense Department views the legislation as a significant boost to their pool of potential recruits into the Army. In addition, the law will allow immigration officials to focus on the real threat at the border points instead of harassing young people who are peacefully pursuing their education.

Currently, the officials spend better part of their time looking for young aliens who really pose no security threat to the county. Instead, they lose focus of the hardcore terrorists who are always waiting to strike. According to Secretary Napolitano, such a step will introduce a fair and firm system for innocent aliens in the United States.

Nonetheless, it should not be a blanket amnesty because terrorists can use the same students to strike on America at a time when everything thinks that they are harmful. This is why the law should only apply to those who do not have criminal records (Streeten, 235).

It is a social responsibility of the American citizens to take care of their people. It would be unduly harsh to turn around at some point and talk ill about some people because they do not belong to your country.

Indeed, it will smack of an era that Americans have long escaped, at which people were given respect based on their families or the colors on their skins. It was a painful era that no one thinks of ever going back to.

Thus, passing such a law would not only cast a positive image about the country, but will also show the world that America has always been committed to the ideals of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although opponents have always argued that the legislation will give aliens a chance to grab lucrative jobs from the American people, this has never been true.

In fact, there is currently a deficit in potential employees while unemployment rates have significantly increased in America during the Obama administration. This is because the opportunities that exist require professional skills that the country can only solicit from outside the country.

However, they would not have to incur the higher cost of hiring foreign experts if they allowed aliens with proficient knowledge in these areas to learn and work in the United States. It is the reason why America has no option, but to give young immigrants all the social benefits that it accords to its citizens (Davies and Quinlivan, 868).

In conclusion, the decision to implement some ideas that were contained in the DREAM Act will have far reaching impacts on the US. For example, it would enable the country to hire foreign experts at a low rate by choosing to retain young immigrants in the county. In addition, it will give young people a good reason to join the Army and help in protecting the territorial integrity of the country.

Works Cited

Davies, A.; Quinlivan, G. A Panel Data Analysis of the Impact of Trade on Human Development. Journal of Socio-Economics, 2006. Print.

Porter, M. E. Clusters. The New Economics of Competition. Harvard Business Review, 1998. Print.

Streeten, Paul. Human Development: Means and Ends. Human Development, 1994. Print.

Zerk, Jennifer A. Multinationals and Corporate Social Responsibility: Limitations and Opportunities in International Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.

Introduction

As the world becomes increasingly globalized, the issue of immigration has risen to prominence in many developed nations. Movement of labour across regions of the world out of economic considerations has increased significantly in the last 2 decades (Castles and Davidson 12). Countries have been affected in different ways by this movement of labour and respective governments have taken up different approaches on the issue.

Unlike the US and other European countries that have accepted a huge influx of migrant workers from their neighbours, Japan has been a fairy-closed country to foreign workers. Japan did not have notable immigration in the post-World War II era since the labour demands of the country were successfully met by internal migration from poorer regions in the country.

However, the economic boom of the mid 1980s necessitated the use of foreign workers and this marked the first wave of immigrants in Japan. The immigrant was followed by an increase in the presence of illegal immigrants in the country. This paper will set out to discuss immigration in Japan with focus being given to the issue of illegal foreigners in Japan.

Immigration in Japan

Japan considers itself a homogenous society and immigration is not as common as in other first world countries. The Japanese government has strongly pursued an immigration policy that does not allow low-skilled and unskilled foreign labour on the grounds that this group of workers would disrupt the homogeneous society currently in existence in Japan.

Yamanaka explains that Japan has adopted a policy that protects against the possibility of a mass influx of unskilled immigrant workers who would impede the national integrity and drain the nation of its national resources (189). The country therefore enjoys low numbers of immigrants with the foreign population making up less than 1.6% of the overall population (Vogt 9).

Every nation exerts control over foreign nationals in its territories and Japan does this through strict control at its borders as well as during their stay (Brettell and Hollifield 32). The strict control is exercised based on the law in force that restricts the presence of foreigners in Japan.

Chung highlights that the official stance by Japan towards immigrants suggests that non-Japanese do not have the capacity to become Japanese and they should therefore be excluded (3). This is in line with the commonly held perception that Japan is not a country of immigrants.

The immigration policy adopted highlights the importance of social integration for Japans society. The foreign population in Japan makes up a mere 1.6% of the population as a result of the government policy on immigration.

Need for Immigrants

In spite of the close-door policy adopted Japan, the country still lets in a significant number of immigrants who come into the country as; labourers, students, and refugees. The last two decades have been responsible for the increase of immigrants in Japan. In response to the labour shortages experienced by the country, the government made some steps towards increasing immigration in the 1990s.

The state-sponsored recruitment of Nikkei workers (who are foreigners of Japanese decent; most of whom are Brazilian and Peruvian) has led to a phenomenal growth of this group of immigrants. To further assist with the shortage of semi-skilled labourers, the government allowed companies to obtain low-end job workers through a trainee program in 1993.

The trainees were admitted to fill low-wage jobs and their length of stay was usually limited to 1 year. After this period, the trainee who had successfully passed the training program could stay as technical interns for a period of 2 years (Abella 1142).

Japan has an economic need for immigrants labour due to the rapid aging of the population and the shrinking of the Japanese populace due to the countrys extremely low fertility rate. The internal labour shortages in Japan have created a huge demand for foreign workers. Shipper confirms that the labour shortages in Japan are already having a large impact on the farming and fishing industries as well as small manufacturers (506).

These labour intensive industries have been unable to obtain local workers in the needed quantity. Government restrictions on unskilled immigrants have meant that the low-skill industries do not benefit from the legitimate immigrants who are mostly skilled. As such, the large influx of foreign workers in Japan has still failed to effectively satisfy the labour demands of the country.

Illegal Immigrants

In addition to the registered foreigners, there are a sizable number of illegal immigrants in Japan. While Japan has a very low rate of migrant workers, there has been an increase in the number of illegal foreign workers since the 1980s when an economic boom in Japan created a huge demand for migrant workers due to the serious labour shortages faced by the country.

The labour shortages during this period of economic boom led to a rise in the immigrant labour force. Most of these workers came in through legal channels. McCargo documents that most of the immigrants were from Korea while the second largest group of foreigners came from China (72). The Ministry of Justice estimates that there are 200,000 to 300,000 illegal immigrant workers in Japan.

This figure is mainly made up of individuals who immigrated to Japan legally but continue to stay after their visa has expired. The other portion of illegal immigrants is mostly from East Asian countries and they enter Japan with forged passports or are smuggled in by gangs that continue to make a lot of money through human smuggling.

Illegal foreign residents in Japan may have the effect of encouraging further illegal immigration in a number of ways. They can encourage and assist other illegal immigrants to enter the country and acquire illegal jobs.

They also help newcomers establish themselves by providing shelter and providing them with important information on government operations in order to reduce their risk of being apprehended by the government (Yoshida 4). The presence of a sizable number of illegal immigrants therefore increases the probability that their numbers will become even greater in future.

Small Japanese businesses have in some ways encouraged illegal immigration into the country. Shipper notes that small companies typically provide employment for illegal workers who would otherwise not have a source of livelihood (521). Some small companies favour illegal workers since they can be paid at rates that are below the minimum wage. In addition to this, the illegal workers are not given any bonuses of health insurance that results in cost cutting for the company.

Small and medium-sized enterprises are also more likely to employ illegal immigrant workers since they do not have the resources to compete with the larger enterprises in attracting the legal workforce (Abella 1141).

Since Japanese employers are not under legal obligation to verify the eligibility of their employees, many of them abstain from checking the papers of their foreign staff. By doing this, they cannot be prosecuted for knowingly hiring illegal immigrants since they can always claim that they were ignorant of this fact.

Reasons for Illegal Immigrants

The increase in illegal immigrants in Japan is blamed on the Japanese 1990 Immigration Control Law that enforces Japans unwelcoming attitude towards unskilled foreign workers. In order to decrease the social costs of immigration, Japan has adopted a policy that does not allow unskilled foreign labour and employers are prohibited by law from hiring such workers (Yamanaka 190).

Foreigners without special skills are not granted work permits in Japan in spite of the huge demand for non-skilled labour in the country. While most Japanese people dislike illegal immigrants, this group plays an important role in society.

Most illegal immigrant workers engage in menial jobs such as construction work and housekeeping. The Japanese themselves do not want these jobs and that makes it easy for foreign workers to acquire them.

The huge wage differential between Japan and her neighbours has encouraged illegal immigration into Japan (Gibney and Hansen 348). Neighbouring East Asian countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines do not enjoy the high income per capita that Japan has. In addition to this, these countries have significantly high rates of unemployment. Individuals therefore move to Japan with the hope of finding work since Japan offers many employment opportunities.

High demand for foreign workers in some industries in Japan also increases the rate of illegal immigration. For example, the demand for foreign women workers in the entertainment industry is very high. However, the restrictive visa policies in place make it hard for many women from Asian countries such as Thailand and the Philippines to migrate to Japan. The lack of legal means may cause some people to enter into the country illegally.

Unlike other developed countries, Japan does not have an immigration quota for foreigners who desire to be given permanent residency in the country. There is no system in place to ensure that a sustainable number of immigrants are allowed into the country. This has led to the use of illegal workers by some industries.

The declining population has led to players in some industries to call on the government to begin accepting immigrants and adopt an open door policy in order to guarantee future labour supply. Until this is done, the illegal immigrants will continue to find work in Japanese businesses.

Addressing the Immigration Problem

The government is very concerned about illegal immigrants in Japan. The large number of illegal immigrants especially from China is worrying for the Japanese who fear that this might be the beginning of a long-term trend. A number of measures have therefore been taken by the government to deal with the problem.

The government through the Ministry of Justice engages in annual campaigns aimed at mitigating immigration in Japan. This annual campaign takes a month during which haphazard raids are conducted on business establishments suspected of hiring illegal foreigners.

The campaigns enlist the help of the general public who are encouraged to report any illegal foreign workers Shipper observes that these campaigns are very effective in deterring illegal foreign workers from establishing any permanent community within Japan (522).

The joint operation between the Ministry of Health, Labour, and welfare and the National Police Agency has also been effective in cracking down on illegal foreign workers by gathering information on these workers and taking up steps to arrest them.

The Action Plan for the Revitalization of a Society Resistant to Crime formulated by the Japanese authorities in 2003 have also been very effective in reducing illegal immigration to the country. Chung reveals that the government has intensified police checks in areas that are known to harbour illegal immigrants with random checks on foreigners and on the spot check of immigration documents being commonplace (44).

Through these radical actions, the number of illegal foreigners has been reduced by over 50% between 2002 and 2008. The penalties imposed on illegal immigrants are also harsh which serves as deterrence. For example, the government raised the ban on re-entry into Japan for apprehended illegal immigrants from one-year to five years (Chung 44).

A significant portion of illegal immigrant are overstayers who refuse to leave Japan in spite of their visa expiring. To tackle this problem, the government regularly deports persons whose visas have expired and employ more stringent visa application procedures (Gibney and Hansen 348).

The tight procedures include screening for applicants who are deemed likely to overstay their visas. These potential overstayers are then denied entry into the country in the first place.

Discussion

The Japanese continue to be critical of the presence of unskilled foreign workers in their society, seeing them as a threat to social order; however, they might have to face the fact that Japan will in future need more of this immigrant for her economy to remain sustainable.

Immigrants in Japan are therefore becoming more of an economic necessity and it can be projected that the size of this foreign population will continue to rise in Japan in the near future.

While unskilled workers are the ones who are currently in short supply in Japan, research indicates that Japan will face significant shortages in skilled workers in the areas of nursing, agriculture, and manufacturing in the next 15 years and these will severely hamper Japans economic growth and competitiveness (Abella 1143).

Deregulation is required to facilitate immigrant workers entry into the country in order to promote economic growth and development.

Conclusion

This paper set out to address the question of immigration and illegal immigrants in Japan. It began by noting that while Japan is not a country of immigration, negative demographic trends have forced Japan to import large numbers of immigrants over the past 3 decades. The paper has highlighted the various incidents that have led to an increase in foreigners in Japan most notably of which was the economic boom in the 1980s.

It has highlighted that most of the illegal immigrants in Japan come from the neighbouring Asian countries and their reason for their illegal stay in Japan is overwhelmingly economic in nature. This influx of immigrant workers was necessary to sustain the economic output of the country.

The paper has noted that the stringent policies adopted by the government are to blame for the rise in illegal immigrant. However, government control has been able to significantly reduce the number of illegal immigrants in the country.

Works Cited

Abella, Manolo. Perspective the United States and Japans Immigration Dilemmas in Comparative. American Behavioral Scientist 56.8. (2012): 1139-1156. Web.

Brettell, Caroline and Hollifield, James. Migration Theory. Talking across Disciplines. London: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Castles, Stephen and Davidson Alastair. Citizenship and Migration. Globalization and the politics of belonging. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Chung, Erin. Immigration and Citizenship in Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print.

Gibney, Matthew and Hansen Randall. Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present. NY: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print.

McCargo, Duncan. Contemporary Japan. Boston: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. Print.

Shipper, Apichai. Contesting Foreigners Rights in Contemporary Japan. North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation 36.1 (2011): 502-554. Web.

Vogt, Gabriele. Closed Doors, Open Doors, Doors Wide Shut? Migration Politics in Japan. Tokyo: Japan Aktuell, 2007.

Yamanaka, Keiko. Japan as a Country of Immigration: Two Decades after an Influx of Immigrant Workers. East Asia Ethnological Reports 77.3 (2008): 187196. Web.

Yoshida, Chisato. Illegal Immigration and Economic Welfare. NY: Springer, 2000. Print.

Name and author

The name of the article to be critiqued is, The Economics and Policy of Illegal Immigration in the United States. The article was published on December 2009, and Gordon H. Hanson and the National Bureau of Economic Research are the authors.

Research Questions

Although the current article lacks clearly stated research questions, nonetheless, the authors have posed two questions at the recommendation section of the paper, which are meant for policymakers. These questions are: 1) Are unauthorized immigrants important to the US economy?, and 2) Would reducing low-skilled immigration be good for the United States? (Hanson & National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).

Hypotheses

One of the hypotheses that have been supported by the article is that policymakers across the political spectrum are convinced that the high level of illegal immigration experienced by the United States is indicative of the prevailing immigration policy regime. The authors further hypothesize that low-skilled foreign labor are able to enter into the united states through unauthorized entry.

Before 2006, the US Department of Homeland Security had not tightened interior enforcement and for this reason, there were many illegal immigrants moving into the country, especially on the Mexican-America border (Hanson & National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009). The addition of illegal immigrants into the United States labor force increased the countrys productivity process.

On the other hand, there is a drawback to such a system in that the government has a limited control over national borders. In addition, illegal immigrants are also likely to be faced with abuse and insecurity. Another hypothesis that has been proposed by the authors of the article is that the reason why we have many illegal immigrants in the United States is because they have a higher chance of earning more money here than would have been the case in their home countries (Camarota, 2003).

In addition, because the United States Immigration Department does not allow them to enter into the country through the legal channels, they have no choice but to come here illegally (Hanson & National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).

The authors also argue that in case the United States decides to eliminate or regulate illegal immigration by enforcing tougher immigration rules, business owners in such labor intensive sectors as construction, restaurants, agriculture, food processing, cleaning services, lodging, and building and maintenance would be the greatest losers. This is because most of the illegal immigrants find work in such industries.

So what questions

The authors have tried to argue that even after the current recession having somewhat slowed down, we should brace ourselves for an increase in the number of illegal immigrants into the United States. Once the countrys economy resumes, we are likely to witness resumption in the high levels of illegal immigrants.

The authors further argue that the current legal mechanism that deals with low-skilled immigration cannot address the changing demands for labor in the US economy (Passel & DVera, 2009). Foreign workers can only enter into the United States legally by either securing a temporary work permit, or a green card.

Seeing that the incidences of illegal immigration are increasing every other day and there are only a handful of legal entry channels at the moment, the pressure is now on Washington to see to it that they have resolved the immigration problem in the country, once and for all. President Obama has already committed himself to ensuring that this problem is addressed, sooner rather than later (Hanson & National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).

An enforcement strategy can only be executed through legislation in order to prevent employment of illegal workforce and overcome illegal immigration in the future.

Another strategy to overcome the problem of immigration into the United States that has been proposed by the authors is the adoption of a different accommodation strategy whereby the united states would not only legalize immigrants who are in the country illegally, but also in the establishment of expanded legal options so that in the future, prospective migrants can be absorbed legally into the United States.

Is the study unique in any way?

The current study is unique in that it has brought forth the suggestion that illegal immigration into the United States has not been unregulated wholly. Towards this end, the authors have tried to show how the US government has had a contributing role towards the inflow of illegal immigrants into the country by discouraging the recruitment of illegal workers and by enforcing the borders.

The article further shows that although enforcement plays a key role in the illegal migration patterns, on the other hand, the authors have tried to show in the long run, illegal immigration is mainly a response to the changing macroeconomic system not just in the United States, but also in the home countries of the illegal immigrants (Hanson & National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).

This is an important observation made by the authors because it shows that a change in the macroeconomic system of a given country could also affect the economy of the United States economy due to shift in the labor force. The authors are also trying to show that in the long run, enforcing illegal immigration may prove to be expensive, in comparison with the potential gains for the United States government, in case they decided to eliminate restrictions to the entry of illegal immigrants.

Main points

The high immigration levels observed in the United States reflect the prevailing immigration policy regime (Koslowski, 2005). The authors of the article further note that as the number of illegal immigrants increases their contribution to the American labor force increase, with the illegal workforce mainly finding work in the construction and other low- end jobs.

Nonetheless, illegal immigrants only impact dismally on the economy of the United States. Through legislation, enforcement strategies aimed at preventing illegal immigration can be enforced, while the enforcement of accommodation strategies would help to divert the flow of illegal immigrants into the US into expanded and legalized options.

Literature review provided

The literature review of this paper mainly dwells on the economics and policy aspects of illegal immigration. In this case, the authors note that unauthorized immigrants form a larger portion of the low skilled labor force found in the United States. The authors have tried to argue that the reason for the high number of illegal immigrants is due to lack of jobs in their home country and hence the need for greener pastures in the United States.

The authors have supported their positions with arguments from other scholars (for example, Smith & Edmonston, 1997; Borjas, 2003; Passel & DVera, 2009). Although the current global economic crisis has also affected the rate of inflow of the illegal immigrants, the authors see it as a temporary move and once the situation normalizes, we are likely to see an increase in the number of illegal immigrants.

Although there are high numbers of illegal immigrants in the United States they do not have a major impact on the US economy. The authors have also tried to show how expensive enforcement against illegal immigration can be, when compared to what we stand to gain by doing away with illegal entry. In undertaking the study, the authors wished to assess the economics as well as the policy that appertains to illegal immigration in the US.

Do the studys findings support the authors Goals or Thesis?

The authors have succeeded in their goal because they have clearly shown that unauthorized immigrants act as ready human resources in labor intensive filed such as the construction industry.

According to the authors, the reason why it has not been easy to act on illegal immigration is because of the underlying economic truth that although illegal immigration has been put to task in the United States, it has benefited employers in the country a great deal, more than even the current system of legal migration. This is in addition to division among the political elite regarding the same issue.

Conclusion

In concluding their article, the authors have argued that by enforcing the inflow of immigrants into the United States, the sectors that required high labor input such as the construction industry, and which happen to be the chief beneficiaries of illegal immigrants would suffer, and this could hurt the American economy.

Strengths and weaknesses of the article

One of the strengths of the article is that it has provided the gains and losses of illegal immigration. The article has also apportioned blame on the US government for its failure to control illegal immigration. However, the authors of this article have chosen to rely on secondary data only and this limits the choice of the areas of research in future studies.

Reference List

Borjas, G. J. (2003). The Labor Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping: Reexamining the Impact of Immigration on the Labor Market. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, 1335-1374.

Camarota, S. A. (2004). The High Cost of Cheap Labor: Illegal Immigration and the Federal Budget. Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies.

Hanson, A. G. H., & National Bureau of Economic Research. (2009). The economics of illegal Immigration in the United States. Retrieved from https://gps.ucsd.edu/_files/faculty/hanson/hanson_publication_immigration_illegal.pdf?_ga=2.113840903.1057523305.1560237705-2035716933.1560237705

Koslowski, R. (2005). Real Challenges for Virtual Borders: The Implementation of US-VISIT. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.

Passel, J. S., & DVera, C. (2009). A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States. Retrieved from Pew Hispanic Center website: https://www.pewhispanic.org/2009/04/14/a-portrait-of-unauthorized-immigrants-in-the-united-states/

Smith, J. P., & Edmonston, B. (1997). The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Introduction

Migration of labor has already become an essential element of the global economic reality. Globalization, communication, transport, and opening borders facilitate the transfer of workforce from one part of the world to another. The United States has always been the worlds most attractive immigration target; and most studies were focused on the effects of immigration on the economic, social, and labor processes in the U.S.¹ The effects of immigration on other countries, including Japan, were persistently overlooked. Given the growing inflow of foreign workers to Japan, their effects on wages and career prospects need to be better understood.

The main question to consider is why in the Japanese macroeconomic contexts, where the majority of foreign workers are limited to unskilled jobs, the skills and qualifications they develop over time have little effects on their economic and career advancement.

Economic advancement of immigrants as the function of wages

Wages as the key indicator of immigrants economic integration

Japan is believed to be one of the recently immigrant countries.² In the article on human capital, wages, and immigration to Japan Takeyuki Tsuda discusses the effects of immigrant skills on their wage prospects and career advancement. Tsuda believes that the level of wages is the central indicator of immigrants economic integration in Japan.³

This is mainly because immigrants bring their human and social skills to the host country, and the level of earnings they obtain in return reflects the degree to which these skills are accepted and used by the host society.⁴ It is no wonder that changes in wages and earnings are at the heart of the economic debate concerning the patterns of immigration to Japan.

The role of human capital in wage earnings

Human capital theories have long been at the center of the immigration debate. Human capital, or skills, is believed to be the main factor of professional and career growth among immigrants. Tsuda writes that the human capital construct encompasses individual skills, education and qualifications, and experiences.⁵

Previous studies of immigration to the United States showed that human capital determinants were the principal drivers of immigrants economic advancement in the host country.⁶ These findings reflect and build on traditional models of wage determination, in which human capital accumulation drives the subsequent growth in wages.⁷

However, Japan differs greatly from other countries of the world. Its immigration and macroeconomic contexts reduce the validity of traditional economic theories and models. It is possible to assume that skills, qualifications and experiences of immigrants to Japan play a minor role in their economic and professional advancement. Tsudas article and additional analysis will answer the following question: does human capital matter in immigrants economic and career advancement in Japan?

Macroeconomic contexts and immigration patterns in Japan

Migrant workers in Japan: Statistical and pattern analysis

In 2002, a total of 1,851,758 foreign residents were registered in Japan.⁸ 61.5% of them were temporary residents.⁹ A defeated nation, after WWII Japan did not introduce any foreign labor policies, as its rural territories exemplified an ample source of productive labor force.¹⁰

It was not until the middle of the 1980s that Japan faced the growing inflow of foreign labor force.¹¹ Since the inception of the first immigration policies in Japan, all incoming workers were classified as either professional or unskilled.¹²

At the end of 2002, Japan had an estimated 554,200 unskilled workers registered and actually working.¹³ Estimating the number of illegal foreigners working in Japan does not seem possible, but the results of statistical analyses suggest that the number of unskilled immigrants coming to Japan constantly increases.

One of the main reasons why more immigrants come to Japan is because native working age population rapidly declines. Following the global recession of 2008-09, Japan slowly expands the pool of foreign labor force in the country.

The official data provided by the Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training suggest that the number of immigrants coming to Japan slowly but steadily increases. However, the current economic and social environment in Japan does not favor immigration.

Table 1: Changes in the number and percentage of native workers in Japan

Source: The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training (58).

Immigration policies in Japan and human capital considerations

Japan remains increasingly exclusivist toward foreign entrants. Japanese immigration policies build on three important considerations: first, foreigners are admitted only as a measure of last resort; second, the entry of unskilled workers should be prohibited; and third, immigration must be temporary.¹⁴ Foreigners are treated differently from natives; and even amongst foreigners, the quality of relations and career patterns largely depends upon the immigrants family and ethnic origin.

Table 2: Changes in foreign labor inflows to Japan

Source: The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training (84).

Foreign workers are confined generally to dirty, dangerous and low status occupations. Besides problems in occupation, the workplace and public policy, foreign workers in Japan encounter specific social problems, such as language barriers, lack of health care, and other social benefits. (Tigno 70)

These macroeconomic and policy conditions reduce the validity of traditional human capital considerations; the latter have dominated the economic theory for many years. Understanding Japanese macroeconomic environments is extremely important, as most developed countries rely on macroeconomic factors to filter migration.¹⁵ More often than not, employers in the host country disregard the skills and knowledge previously accumulated by foreign workers.¹⁶ One of the main questions is what exactly drives immigration to Japan.

Dual labor market theory and immigration to Japan

Factors affecting international immigration to Japan

Previous models of wage and capital formation do not explain the nature and consequences of immigration to Japan. Dual labor market theory re-evaluates the patterns of immigration in macroeconomic environments. Based on the dual labor market theory, structural inflation, motivation, economic dualism and demography change the principles and patterns of international immigration. First, structural inflation greatly affects the quality of immigrant workforce.

Employers are particularly interested in low-skilled and unskilled workers, since it is cheaper than hiring native employees.¹⁷ Native workers typically avoid working in low paid jobs, and raising entry wages for native workers will necessarily require changing the entire structure of wages.¹⁸

Second, motivational factors of international immigration differ from those affecting native workers: native employees want more than just work; they want status and career growth, whereas immigrants perceive jobs as just a means to earn money.¹⁹

Third, most developed labor markets are characterized by inherent dualism, meaning that native workers are driven to the capital-intensive sector with higher wages, leaving the secondary sector with its low wages and job uncertainty to foreign newcomers.²⁰

Fourth, advanced societies experience the growing demand for female labor, coupled with the rapid decline in birth rates; unable to satisfy the growing demand for labor, industrialized societies gradually realize the hidden benefits of attracting immigrant labor force.²¹

Skills and professional qualifications do not matter

In light of this information, Tsuda makes the final conclusion that, in the Japanese macroeconomic environments, human capital does not allow for greater wages and economic integration of immigrant workers. Japan is a recent country of immigration, and its immigrant labor markets are still in the state of infancy.²²

Immigrants who come to Japan but cannot use local social resources have few opportunities to advance themselves in the Japanese labor markets.²³ Based on the dual labor market theory, host country employers are not interested in hiring foreign workers to the jobs and positions requiring greater responsibility and higher levels of skills. Immigrants in Japan can successfully accumulate new knowledge, qualifications and skills.

These skills, as it appears, do not matter, unless these workers have access to social networks and resources that facilitate their search of better-paying jobs.²⁴ As of today, Japanese employers are strongly in favor of hiring male workers of Japanese origin who were born and brought up abroad.²⁵

The wage levels of immigrants indicate the degree of their economic integration with the host country, and it would be fair to say human capital plays only a minor role in the economic adjustment and career advancement of immigrant workers in Japan.

Conclusion

Japan is becoming a popular object of macroeconomic and population analysis. A recently immigrant country, Japan is attracting more foreign workers. The number of foreign newcomers slowly but steadily increases; nevertheless, the country remains increasingly exclusivist in its immigration decisions.

Those who come to Japan seek decent employment and good earnings. Simultaneously, their career and wage growth prospects are rather modest. More often than not, foreign immigrants in Japan have few opportunities to advance themselves professionally; human capital plays only a minor role in immigrants wage and career growth in Japan.

The dual labor market theory suggests that international immigration is driven by four essential factors: structural inflation, motivation, economic dualism and demography. In this sense, Japanese employers are highly motivated to hire foreign workers, who are cheaper than native employees and seek nothing but money.

Contrary to the earlier models of wage determination, human capital alone does not help immigrants to achieve a better economic status in Japan. Immigrants require access to social networks and connections that facilitate their search of better-paying jobs. The wage levels indicate the degree of immigrants assimilation with the local economic environment, and it would be fair to say human capital plays only a minor role in the economic adjustment and career advancement of immigrant workers in Japan.

Works Cited

Fiorio, Carlo and Christina Cattaneo. Immigration and Natives Skill Upgrade. Venice: Center for Economic Policy Research, 2010. Print.

Massey, Douglas S., Joaquin Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino and Edward Taylor. Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19.3 (1993): 431-66. Print.

Sato, Makoto. From Foreign Workers to Minority Residents: Diversification of International Migration in Japan. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, 3 (2004): 19-34. Print.

Solinger, Dorothy J. Citizenship Issues in Chinas Internal Migration: Comparisons with Germany and Japan. Political Science Quarterly, 114.3 (1999): 455-478. Print.

Syed, Jawad. Employment Prospects for Skilled Migrants: A Relational Perspective. Human Resource Management Review, 18 (2008): 28-45. Print.

The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training. Databook of International Labor Statistics 2011. The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training, 2011. Web.

Tigno, Jorge V. Migration, The Market and Society: issues in Philippine Labor Flows to Japan. Philippine Social Science Review, 51.1 (1993): 57-78. Print.

Tsuda, Takeyuki. When Human Capital Does Not Matter: Local Contexts of Reception and Immigrant Wages in Japan. GeoJournal, 76 (2011): 641-59. Print.

Footnotes

¹ Carlo Fiorio and Christina Cattaneo. Immigration and Natives Skill Upgrade. Venice: Center for Economic Policy Research, 2010, 2.

² Takeyuki Tsuda. When Human Capital Does Not Matter: Local Contexts of Reception and Immigrant Wages in Japan. GeoJournal, 76 (2011), 641.

³ Ibid., 641.

⁴ Takeyuki Tsuda. When Human Capital Does Not Matter: Local Contexts of Reception and Immigrant Wages in Japan. GeoJournal, 76 (2011): 641.

⁵ Ibid., 641.

⁶ Ibid., 641.

⁷ Ibid., 642.

⁸ Makoto Sato. From Foreign Workers to Minority Residents: Diversification of International Migration in Japan. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, 3 (2004): 22.

⁹ Ibid., 22.

¹⁰ Ibid., 22.

¹¹ Ibid., 23.

¹² Ibid., 24.

¹³ Ibid., 24.

¹⁴ Dorothy J. Solinger. Citizenship Issues in Chinas Internal Migration: Comparisons with Germany and Japan. Political Science Quarterly, 114.3 (1999): 461.

¹⁵ Jawad Syed. Employment Prospects for Skilled Migrants: A Relational Perspective. Human Resource Management Review, 18 (2008): 31.

¹⁶ Ibid., 31.

¹⁷ Douglas S. Massey, Joaquin Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino and Edward Taylor. Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19.3 (1993): 441.

¹⁸ Douglas S. Massey, Joaquin Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino and Edward Taylor. Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19.3 (1993): 441.

¹⁹ Ibid., 442.

²⁰ Ibid., 443.

²¹ Ibid., 443.

²² Takeyuki Tsuda. When Human Capital Does Not Matter: Local Contexts of Reception and Immigrant Wages in Japan. GeoJournal, 76 (2011): 641.

²³ Ibid., 641.

²⁴ Takeyuki Tsuda. When Human Capital Does Not Matter: Local Contexts of Reception and Immigrant Wages in Japan. GeoJournal, 76 (2011): 641.

²⁵ Ibid., 641.

Afra, S., 2008. Availability, Affordability, Accessibility: Housing Victorias New Migrant and Refugee Communities. Ethnic Communities Council of Victoria Policy Discussion Paper, 4, pp. 1-28.

The policy discussion paper seeks to establish the cause of housing shortage in Australia and NSW. Afra argues that although refugee population has increased tremendously in the past decades, it does not warrant that they experience unprecedented housing shortage in NSW.

He asserts other factors such as accessibility, affordability and availability contribute to housing shortage in NSW. Thus, the article recommends that NSW government should ensure that decent housing is accessible and affordable for refugees to live in human conditions like native communities.

Apout, M., 2003. Moving Refugees into Mainstream School. Refugee Council of Australia, pp. 1-11.

The article delineates obstacles that have prevented refugee students from performing well in their academic studies. Since refugee students have traumatic experiences that affect their psychological well-being, they have great difficulties in coping with new learning environment, curriculum and language. Hence, the article recommends that educational needs of refugee students should reflect their traumatic experiences.

The educational system should customize educational curriculum, language and psychological needs as means of enhancing their academic performance. Moreover, refugee students need special teachers who would enable them cope with social and psychological challenges.

Bannister, D., Blunden, H., & Forhmader, C., 2004. Report to the UN Special Rapporteur on Housing Women and the Rights to Adequate Housing in Australia. Coalition of Non-Government Workers Australia, pp.1-131.

The report collected comments and recommendations from the Australians to establish the nature of housing system in Australia. The report found out that Australians in NSW are complaining about housing shortage that has led to increased rent and mortgages.

NSW has a high housing stress, which has predisposed many refugees to live in deplorable conditions. Thus, the report shows that refugees are the most vulnerable group to housing shortage in NSW; hence, government needs alleviate their living conditions.

Craig, K., 1999. Strategic Directions in Refugee Health Care in NSW. New South Wales Health, pp. 1-29.

Due to influx of more refugees, Australian government realized that there is need to provide long-term health strategies that gather for unique needs of refugees. The article marks an important point in Australian government, as it is the first document that provides strategic framework for implementing refugee policies in NSW healthcare system.

The strategic framework aimed at ensuring that NSW healthcare system provides multilingual health information, assess refugees effectively, provides interpreters and enhances accessibility of their services to refugees. Minister for Health then, Craig Knowles asserts that strategic policy was helpful is delivering effective healthcare services to more than 4,000 refugees who originated from Kosovo.

Evans, S., & Gavarotto, R., 2010. Long Way Home? The Plight of African Refugees Obtaining Decent Housing in Western Sydney. Anglicare Social Policy and Research, pp.1-44.

The article asserts that refugees are the most vulnerable and excluded population in the society because of their conditions. Due to their vulnerability and social exclusion, refugees face challenge of accessing and affording decent and affordable housing.

The article suggests that refugees cannot access decent and affordable because they lack reliable sources of finance, shortage of housing and discrimination form native communities. Therefore, the article concludes that social issues that relate with cultural, ethnical and religious background determine accessibility and affordability of housing in NSW.

Naidoo, L., 2009. A Structuration Theory Analysis of the Refugee Action Support Program in Greater Western Sydney. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(4), pp. 40-50.

The article utilizes Giddens structuration theory in assessing how refugee conditions affect academic performance of refugee students. By applying the theory, the study confirmed that refugee students had difficulties in transitioning from one class to another despite the fact that they received comprehensive education at their respective schools.

The study attributed traumatic experiences, literacy levels and new learning curriculum to poor academic performance of refugee students. Thus, the study suggests that program of Refugee Action Support is critical in empowering refugee students academically.

Naidoo, L., 2010. Engaging the Refugee Community of Greater Western Sydney. Issues in Educational Research, 20(1), pp. 47-56.

The articles explore how program of Refugee Action Support is effective in engaging both community and NSW Department of Education in empowering and enhancing academic performance of refugee students. The article suggests that refugee students need unique social and psychological assistance to enable them cope with traumatizing experiences of life.

Although traumatic experiences hinder effective academic performance of refugee students, the article further asserts that teachers also have trouble while teaching. Thus, educational programs need to focus on both the needs of students and teachers.

NSW Government. 2010. Housing NSW: Multicultural Framework 2009-2014. Human Services Housing, pp.1-7.

The NSW government has observed that cultural diversity is a problem that hinders effective integration of refugees into native communities and formulated multicultural framework of housing. Multicultural framework is an effective program of ensuring that housing accessibility and availability reflect cultural diversity of not only refugees but also native community.

The multicultural framework helps NSW government in identifying diverse needs of refugees and offering customized housing needs. Thus, the article asserts that multicultural framework is critical eliminating cultural barriers that affect accessibility to decent and affordable housing.

Sharon, B., 2009. Learning Support Programs: Education Reform Beyond the School. Brotherhood of St Brotherhood, pp. 1-35.

In the article, Sharon is outlining and describing programs that support learning. The article suggests that there are wide-ranging educational programs that are essential in elevating academic performance of refugee students.

Sharon argues community-based programs are effective in implementing educational programs that aid refugee students adapt new environments and coping with traumatic experiences that affect them. Specifically, the article advocates for learning support programs that customize to unique needs of refugee students, improve psychological and social skills and offer enrichment activities.

Stewart, G., 2011. Policy Directive: Refugee Health Plan 2011-2016. NSW Government, pp. 1-65.

The NSW Refugee Plan 2011-2016 is a comprehensive health plan that seeks to improve health status and welfare of refugees in Auburn, NSW. The plan aims at incorporating elements of culture and language into healthcare system to enhance accessibility and effective delivery of health services to refugees.

According to the chair of NSW Refugee Health Plan, Greg Stewart, the plan aims at ensuring that refugees receive safe, quality and accessible health care services via specific health centres that suit diverse needs of refugees in Auburn, NSW. To achieve its objectives by 2016, the health plan identifies eight strategic priorities that are feasible and measurable.

Taylor, J., & Stanovic, D., 2005. Refugee and Regional Settlement: Balancing Priorities. Brotherhood of St Laurence, pp.1-69.

The article explores how regional relocation of refugees may be helpful in resolving problem of housing in Auburn, NSW. Given cultural diversity of refugees and native, the article asserts that it is essential that social integration become a central objective in enhancing accessibility of housing.

Regional relocation without appropriate integration of diverse cultures would not be helpful since hostility of natives influence accessibility to decent and affordable housing. Hence, housing programs need to be inclusive in considering participation of both refugee and native communities.

Vanstone, A., 2005. Refugee and Humanitarian Issues. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, pp.1-52.

The article examines significant role that Australian government has played in ensuring that refugees receive humanitarian help in accordance with international recommendations.

However, the article notes that problem of housing is still posing significant challenge since refugees who live in Auburn, NSW are experiencing problem of housing shortage and poor living conditions. Vanstone argues that Australian government has noted housing shortage at NSW and is developing appropriate policies and programs that are going to ensure that refugees receive affordable and decent housing.

Reference List

Afra, S., 2008. Availability, Affordability, Accessibility: Housing Victorias New Migrant and Refugee Communities. Ethnic Communities Council of Victoria Policy Discussion Paper, 4, pp. 1-28.

Apout, M., 2003. Moving Refugees into Mainstream School. Refugee Council of Australia, pp. 1-11.

Bannister, D., Blunden, H., & Forhmader, C., 2004. Report to the UN Special Rapporteur on Housing Women and the Rights to Adequate Housing in Australia. Coalition of Non-Government Workers Australia, pp.1-131.

Craig, K., 1999. Strategic Directions in Refugee Health Care in NSW. New South Wales Health, pp. 1-29.

Evans, S., & Gavarotto, R., 2010. Long Way Home? The Plight of African Refugees Obtaining Decent Housing in Western Sydney. Anglicare Social Policy and Research, pp.1-44.

Naidoo, L., 2009. A Structuration Theory Analysis of the Refugee Action Support Program in Greater Western Sydney. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(4), pp. 40-50.

Naidoo, L., 2010. Engaging the Refugee Community of Greater Western Sydney. Issues in Educational Research, 20(1), pp. 47-56.

NSW Government. 2010. Housing NSW: Multicultural Framework 2009-2014. Human Services Housing, pp. 1-7.

Sharon, B., 2009. Learning Support Programs: Education Reform Beyond the School. Brotherhood of St Brotherhood, pp. 1-35.

Stewart, G., 2011. Policy Directive: Refugee Health Plan 2011-2016. NSW Government, pp. 1-65.

Taylor, J., & Stanovic, D., 2005. Refugee and Regional Settlement: Balancing Priorities. Brotherhood of St Laurence, pp.1-69.

Vanstone, A., 2005. Refugee and Humanitarian Issues. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, pp.1-52.

Immigration issue has been the prevailing ones on the agenda of the modern world since recently. Because of the complexities connected with the process of adapting to another country and the different, completely foreign traditions and customs, immigrants need constant help from the local people and the local authorities. Though certain help to the immigrants is provided, it is obvious that the current support is not enough.

Analyzing the existing evidence concerning the help offered and comparing and contrasting them, one can come to the conclusion that will help to figure out the probable strategy for the immigrants to be treated. With help of the analysis of the two interviews made, one can offer probable solutions for the current issue and provide essential pieces of advice to improve the work of the immigrate centers already existing.

There is no doubt that a lot is being done for the immigrants in Australia to feel comfortable in the new environment. Comparing the interviews, one can mark several issues that require further consideration and might be the clues to the further successful implementation of the programs for immigrants.

Among the most obvious points to emphasize, the difficulties that were faced turned out the most insightful part full of sudden and enticing discoveries.

It is important to mark that the given survey had a number of enticing facts to offer. Analyzing the answers of the respondents, one can drive a number of curious conclusions concerning the immigration situation in Australia and the measures that the local people are trying to undertake to help the former adjust to the new environment.

Except from the survey being an enticing journey into another culture and the ways it is intertwined with the Australian traditions, the survey is also a guide for the local people to help immigrants adapt to the new country and the new environment..

One of the most intriguing and at the same time controversial issues that the respondents came across when answering the questions of the survey concerned the difficulties experienced when helping the immigrants adapt to the new environment.

As it could have been predicted, the religious issue was raised. According to the researches conducted several years earlier, Muslim immigrants encounter complexities when trying to understand the traditions and the life of the Australian people from the position of a Muslim. As Saeed (2003) explained,

A number of Australias northern neighbours are Muslim. Islam arrived into Southeast Asia as early as the beginning of the eighth century CE. From then on, its growth and spread continued. By the twelfth century, Islam was as important religion in this parts of what we call today Malaysia and Indonesia. (p. 113)

Nevertheless, the conflicts involving the differences in religious beliefs still occur. Hence, the religious issues are the first thing to tackle for the Australian immigration centers. However, there is another peculiar fact that is worth mentioning.

It was quite peculiar to find out that not only the Turks, but also a number of other ethnicities made the bulk of the immigrants in Australia. However, ethnic diversity of the Australian immigrants has always been rather noticeable.

As Jupp (2001) says, among the Australian immigrants, there have always been Vietnamese, Lebanese, the residents of Central America, East Africa, Afghans, Iraqis, Turks, and a number of other ethnicities (p. 77).

Another peculiar issue concerns the potential of the young immigrants, who, according to the survey and the research of Bonifacio & Angeles (2010), have great potential. In addition, the prospects of the political life of the Australian immigrants entice incredibly.

It could be a good idea to introduce immigrants to the government of Australia; as Murphy (1993) says, such initiative could be the stimulus for the immigrants to integrate into the Australian society faster (p. 201).

Naturally, the survey organizers also had some obstacles to overcome. One of the most obvious complexities concerning the survey was the difference in the participants background. For instance, some of the people taking part in the survey were young and inexperienced, some possessed considerable experience. In addition, the gender differences in the viewpoints also mattered when calculating the results of the survey.

Hence, among the problems that occurred during the survey itself and the assessment part, the problem concerning different and sometimes even opposing viewpoints came to the forth.

However, it must be admitted that those questioned agreed upon the current situation in the sphere of Australian immigration, which, according to Burnley (1997, p.113), is closely interconnected with the country home politics, especially the one concerning the labor markets.

One of the most peculiar details concerning the way the surveyed reacted to the questions that they had been asked was the fact that most people feared answering certain questions. Among the key reasons for such attitude towards the survey can be the fact that illegal immigrants are treated in the way that leaves much to be desired in Australia.

For instance, Rumley et al. (2006) mention that the illegal immigration in Australia is considered as a continuous threat: The degree to which an unauthorized immigration into Australia, especially from its arc of instability, is a security threat is a contentious issue (p. 49). Therefore, the reasons for the inquired to answer certain questions of the survey are quite understood.

Surprisingly enough, some people, especially the educated ones with high qualifications  mostly because the surveyed thought that the survey was sponsored abundantly by the Macquarie University.

In addition, a number of the surveyed people refused from taking the test and participate in the activity since the date of the survey was omitted. However, the given issue was connected with the specifics of the survey and could not be fixed, which is why some people refused to partake in the survey.

To sup up, there is an impressive achievement in the sphere of immigration assistance and immigration services done, and immigrants obtain the necessary help so that they could accommodate in the new country and get used to the new environment.

However, it must be admitted that at present, the situation requires certain development, since the changes for the better have been applied only since recently, whereas the bulk of the current program was developed not so long ago. To be more specific, immigrants need to be more involved into the affairs of the community on a political level as well, like partaking in the parliament decisions, etc.

Hence, it must be admitted that the current state of the immigrants life is satisfying and constantly improving, yet the program for the integration of the immigrants into the new environment, certain approaches that will help immigrants enter the legal system of the country and have the impact on the country politics are most desirable at present.

Reference List

Bonifacio, Glenda T., & Angeles, Viviene S. M., 2010. Gender, religion, and migration: Pathways of integration. Lahlam, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Burnley, James I., Murphy, Peter, and Fagan, Robert H., 1997. Immigration and Australian cities. New South Wales, AU, Federation Press.

Jupp, James, 2001. The Australian people: An encyclopedia of the nation, its people and their origins. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Murphy, Brian, 1993. The other Australia: Experiences of migration. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Rumley, Dennis, Forbes, Vivian L., and Griffin, Christopher, 2006. Australias arc of instability: The political and cultural dynamics of regional security. Netherlands, NL: Springer.

Saeed, Abdullah, 2003. Islam in Australia. Crows Nest, AU: Allen & Unwin.

Introduction

Foreign policies have merits and demerits in the society. When coming up with an immigration policy, it is important to weigh the benefits that immigrants will bring to a nation and the gains the immigrants will equally get in the foreign country. According to Demographic Reports of 2012 in relation to Canada, the country had a low immigrant population. This affected its economic progress in the recent past. Global economies largely depend on diverse labor force from different parts of the world (Wiginton, 2014).

The Canadian Contemporary Policy of Immigration equally measures the significance of cross-region immigration. It means that people can immigrate into Canada from different countries, and Canadians can welcome regional immigrants. Domestic, regional, and international immigration have the ability to propel both economic and political growth in Canada. Since the Boston Tea Party among other activities in the US that geared towards ending the British colonialism, Canada separated its activities from the mainland. Its activities only aimed at restoring peace and improving the economy internally without much focus on the significance of external forces in improving economic growth. Canada has a high rate of underemployment because it attracts few immigrants to occupy the created job opportunities in the country. The essay seeks to address the contemporary immigration policy, and, in the process, presents its strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths

Economic Empowerment

Canadian contemporary immigration policies aim at expanding markets, increasing immigration rates, and increasing resource acquisition across the regions. The US and Canada share close historical accounts even though US embraced immigration earlier as opposed to its counterpart. It helped the US to acquire requisite labor force to fill in the industrially developing country whose pace of economic growth was very fast. Before Canada developed the contemporary policy, its greatest scare was to open its boundaries to terrorists, human traffickers, and drug smugglers. Its experience with British colonizers made it very difficult to trust any foreigners. Equally, this had an impact on its international relations.

Following such historical encounters, Canada needs immigration more than the US. Sometimes, countries have to acquire human resources from other countries in order to create a blend and unique work experience. Currently, Canada is in the process of a major political and economic transformation, meaning that it requires investors and needs to explore different parts of the world through its multinational organizations (Hampson, Hillmer, & Carment, 2004). Many people know Montreal and Ontario, but few would actually link the states with Canada. Multinationals provide jobs to many people across the world while publicizing countries to the rest of the world. Canadas immigration policy aims at building trust with foreign countries in order to increase investment opportunities. Besides outsourcing and creating an enabling environment for the growth of MNCs, Canadas new immigration policy aims at creating excellent political relations with the rest of the world in order to propel political growth.

Diversity creation

The past decade indicated an increase in the number of immigrants in Canada following the incorporation of contemporary immigration principles. Canadians needed an environment of multiculturalism like the US in order to learn and share political opinions. The rise of the US popular culture resulted from the countrys ability to embrace a multicultural approach to immigration. Human interactions across the globe often expose people to new management styles and cultures. Canadas new immigration policy recognizes that successful integration with the rest of the world creates a global culture that is effective for foreign relations. Regional immigration within North America is important since the Native Americans have the opportunity to integrate their rich traditional culture with contemporary ways of life embraced by other Americans.

Canadians needed an environment in which they could identify with a particular culture that uniquely stands out from the rest of the world. The popular culture of the US gives the society a communal identity, which Canada seeks to achieve through the Contemporary Immigration Policy (Passaris, 2012). The economy could face bouts in future if it fails to recognize cultural diversity as the key to development of hybrid human resource management strategies. Concerns include a possible increase of the aging population in the provinces, and a decrease in the working population. Underemployment and an increase in the baby boomer generation in the society could equally have a negative impact on the society. Currently, the immigration policy is in support of Canadians who welcome young workforce into the country because they are capable of sharing different management ideas and culture that could place Canada strategically in the world (Wiginton, 2014).

Limited cases of illegal immigration

Immigrants fear living in countries that they have no surety for security even though they contribute towards economic development through taxation. In 2010, President Barack Obama sought to pardon illegal immigrants in the US, making them capable of enjoying the inalienable basic human rights. Western Canada has many employment opportunities to offer to credible immigrants. In addition, the country has secure borders unlike the USs Texas, Mexico, Honduras, and Miami boundaries that provide leeway for entry of illegal immigrants. Immigration policies ensure high levels of austerity in order to avoid illegal entrants from entering Canada. Through such successive immigration plans, Canada seeks to invest in an innovative population, which provides solutions to problems without inviting other countries (Simmons, 2010).

Challenges

Ideological disparity

Immigrants come from countries that have completely different socio-political landscapes. They are likely to transfer similar ideologies into the foreign lands. Immigrants from radical and dictatorial socio-political backgrounds might try to overturn the democratic Canadian Government. Canadians believe in the rule of law and popular decision-making procedures. Extremist groups including the Al Qaeda normally find loopholes in such governments in order to disrupt normalcy. The conflict in ideology and cultural representation affects the US, and Canada is careful not to follow a similar path. As it is, the Canadian and US cultural landscape is similar because both of them host Native Americans and foreign Britons (Passaris, 2012).

Canada is likely to face a similar fate as the US concerning the countries continued battle with terrorism. Both the US and Canada share democratic diplomatic relations by supporting refugee programs, and sharing mixed opinions in relation to treatment of illegal immigrants. Canada also seeks to offer amnesty to illegal immigrants, but the country does not want to take any chances with the pardoning process. Political or communal intolerance normally emerges from inability to provide sufficient socio-cultural space or amenities to immigrants (Joppke & Seidle, 2012). Canada places itself at the risk of facing intolerance from the immigrant population that will establish generations in the country.

Outsourcing

Immigrants offer skilled and cheap labor to the contracting countries. Most of them seek a stable life in comparison to what their countries of origin had to offer. As such, immigrants offer cheap labor while denying the Canadian residents the ability to work in various industries within the country. Outsourcing is a common employment criterion of developed countries since most of them employ skilled human resources, and offer limited wages to the workers. Canada suffers high underemployment rates, but the situation is not permanent especially with the inclusion of immigrants in various job positions. The employees will offer the requisite diversity needed for economic growth, but they will replace most Canadians from their jobs (Passaris, 2012).

From underemployment, Canada will suffer unemployment when the country fails to account for the number of immigrants entering the country. Entrepreneurship and capital investments could benefit the country, but poor or uncontrollable procurement procedures in other countries lead to insurgencies. Matters of racial and ethnic equalities in political representation will arise; it will be very difficult for the Canadian government to handle such concerns. In addition, Canada has to deal with illegal immigration at its infancy before it culminates into an uncontrollable movement that affects the entire region, and not Canada alone. Canada will have to expand its housing and transport infrastructure in order to accommodate the immigrant population that grows very fast (Wiginton, 2014).

Conclusion

Canada stands a chance to benefit when it welcomes immigrants. According to the Contemporary Immigration Policy, the socio-political environment of Canada will improve while Canadians will have an opportunity to grow their economy. Contrarily, the country faces the challenge of providing enough houses, social amenities, and the right socio-cultural environment for immigrants.

References

Hampson, F. O., Hillmer, N., & Carment, D. (2004). Setting priorities straight. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.

Joppke, C., & Seidle, F. L. (2012). Immigrant integration in federal countries. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.

Passaris, C. E. (2012). New Brunswicks Perfect Demographic Storm. Journal of New Brunswick Studies, 3(1), 1-13. Web.

Simmons, A. (2010). Immigration and Canada: Global and transnational perspectives. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press.

Wiginton, L. (2014). Canadas decentralised immigration policy through a local lens: How small communities are attracting and welcoming immigrants. Brandon, Manitoba: Brandon University Press.

The introduction

Immigration books

My exploration of immigration is based on the books I have read. So, to highlight the basic points of immigration, I would like you to become familiar with special literature. The first picture book Ive studied is Hoang Anh: a Vietnamese-

American Boy written by Hoyt-Goldsmith, Diane. According to the plot of the book, the boy Hoang Anh describes the daily activities his family experiences in America, CA. The main character depicts the traditional culture and the way his immigrant family understands the new reality.

The second picture book I want to introduce you to is American Too, written by Bartone, Elisa. The main character is an Italian girl Rosina who came to America with her family after the First World War. When the girl sees the Statue of Liberty, she understands that she wants to become a real American girl. She refuses to eat Italian food and changes her name to American Rosie. Finally, the girl realizes that being both an Italian and an American is really great.

One more book I want you to become familiar with is Tis. A memoir is written by an Irish-American teacher Francis Frank McCourt. This book is about the authors impoverished childhood in Ireland, as well as about his American life. The author depicts stupid American traditions and wants to enter blue-collar society in the USA.

The body

The fundamentals of immigration

So, when reading about immigration, I would like to consider some fundamentals of the movement of non-native people into a certain state. First of all, there is a need to point out that the issue of immigration is recognized to be extremely popular in mass media. They say that various movies about immigrants do not reflect the reality of the issue.

In my opinion, such stereotyped reflections are mostly associated with real cultural differences; so, on the one hand, the so-called stereotypes seem to be real. However, it is necessary to consider the issue in detail.

For instance, lets remember American opinions about immigrants. When the protests concerning immigration occurred, a national attitude towards the issue caused ambiguous views. Of course, the impact of mass media can not be neglected. Thus, one is to keep in mind that mass media was transformed into a tool of socialization, in which persons behave in a manner consistent with models they view on television (Ferguson, 2004, p. 4). However, some assumptions concerning mass media must be pointed out.

In other words, it is necessary to remember that media forms the so-called societal opinions, but no one can say that it reflects them. On the other hand, the stereotypes, which media forms, seem to be inconsistent and flawed. The most important argument, however, is considered to be the fact that media portrayals of phenomenon are based on advertisement. So, when I have read the books, it becomes obvious that immigration seems to be a stereotyped phenomenon.

Generally, a persons understanding of the meaning of a stereotype defines his or her view in relation to the issue of discussion. For instance, people are to understand that a fixed general image (a stereotype) can be either negative or positive. When speaking about recent waves of immigration by Arabic people, one can make a conclusion that the representatives of Middle Eastern regions are immigrants. However, it is evident that such opinion seems to be wrong.

An affirmation that all Irish people are addicted to alcohol seems also to be wrong. So, for this reason, it is obvious that stereotyping is considered to be a negative phenomenon. The information reflected in two picture books I have read was really stereotyped; while a non-fiction book provided me with a clear impression what things are real.

When analyzing the content of the books, Ive understood that there are cultural differences, which influence our perception of immigrants. Thus, according to Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, and Vedder (2001), Specifically, immigrant groups, as well as individual immigrants, arrive in a new country with differing attitudes about retaining their culture of origin and becoming part of the new society (p. 494).

In other words, the positive outcomes can be predicted, if the immigrants meet a supportive community. On the other hand, one is to keep in mind that the process of adaptation also plays an important role. When non-native people come into a certain country, the acculturation process depends upon ethnic identity. In other words, the subjective aspect of acculturation determines the perception of immigrants by natives.

Generally, one is to keep in mind that the representatives of foreign-born communities as well as descended ones are considered to be immigrants. Of course, the process of immigration can be regarded differently. For instance, some analysts suppose that the process of immigration involves numerous negative consequences, as negative influences include drastic social changes, as well as the growth of population.

While analyzing the process of immigration I have read about, it becomes obvious that one of the main purposes immigrants want to achieve is to improve their living conditions. The modern situation seems to be a little different. The number of illegal immigrants, however, is extremely high. Special investigations show that those people who come to the USA from underdeveloped countries expect to get higher salary. This is a common knowledge.

However, when I read some contemporary articles about immigration, I was really surprised by some facts. Thus, illegal immigration is a symptom of the fact that the U.S. immigration system is seriously out of step with global political and economic realities that drive people to migrate and pushed U.S. employers to hire these migrants (Illegal Immigration to the United States: Causes and Policy Solutions, 2007, p. 1).

So, as far as there is no opportunity for legal migration, and there is a growth of ineffective employer sanctions, one can make a conclusion that the above-mentioned reasons seem to be the drivers of the process of migration. By the way, global economic changes can not be neglected too.

Nobody will deny the fact that globalization is considered to be one of the main reasons of illegal immigration. In other words, global competitive advantage caused the process.

When speaking about the absence of opportunity for legal economic migration, I have to state that the immigration system of America creates special conditions to attract high-skilled specialists from abroad, as in the USA there is a lack of specialists who hold Ph.D.s. So, the representatives of the immigration system want to compensate for shortages in such a way.

Ineffective employer sanctions give us an opportunity to suppose that those people who illegally come to America can find employment. The sanctions are considered to be ineffective due to the following reasons: absence of reliable mechanisms for verifying employment eligibility; inadequate funding of interior immigration enforcement; absence of political will due to labor needs of the U.S. economy (Illegal Immigration to the United States: Causes and Policy Solutions, 2007, p. 3).

The conclusion

In my opinion, the books I have read about immigration, as well as the contemporary situation with the movement, is recognized to be a complicated issue. Taking into account the literature, it seems that immigrants will always be foreigners, even if the process of their acculturation will be successful. On the other hand, if the natives will accept them, the feeling of detachment will be decreased; however, the mentality immigrants possess will never be changed.

References

Ferguson, C. (2004). Portrayals of Immigrants in Mass Media: Honest Depiction of Cultural Differences or Unfair Stereotype. Web.

Illegal Immigration to the United States: Causes and Policy Solutions. (2007). Arizona. Web.

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The trend of immigration into the United States continues to raise debates concerning the positive and negative effects of the phenomenon. Proponents of immigration cite numerous economic benefits such the increase in tax collection, availability of a large pool of cheap labor, and enhanced circulation of money within the economy.

On the other hand, opponents of immigration depict immigrants as a menace to the American people as it promotes the rise in criminal activities and causes an economic and social burden to taxpayers. I think the negative opinion towards immigration is justified since it affects key institutions such as schools, health care, national labor market, and the law enforcement and criminal-justice system.

Various considerations promote the opposition on immigration, especially due to the large number of illegal immigrants who enter America. First, Immigration contributes to an increase in the population of America. This increase occurs sporadically, and thus the national budgetary allocations in America do not account for this increase. In this regard, immigration causes financial strain on various aspects of government planning.

The government has to divert some funds into addressing the unanticipated issue of immigration. In addition, immigration causes strain on various amenities such as schools and health care facilities. Furthermore, since most immigrants enter the country illegally they do not participate in crucial obligations such as the payment of tax. Thus, they use various social services without contributing to their sustenance.

Secondly, most immigrants lack professional skills that could facilitate their accommodation in most of the sectors within the American economy. Although a portion of immigrants, especially the legal immigrants, possesses sufficient education and training, the largest percentage of immigrants comes to America solely on the notion that it is a country with opportunities for all people.

The lack of professional skills leaves immigrants with a few opportunities other than picking odd jobs to survive. The meager income in this regard leads to frustration and increases the tendency towards criminal acts as a source of additional income. In this consideration, immigrants lead to an additional burden on law enforcers and the criminal-justice system. Increased prosecution costs and the maintenance of prisons are major considerations in this regard.

Furthermore, unskilled immigrants provide a large pool of cheap labor, especially in the manufacturing sector, and thus affect sectors of the national labor market that require minimal formal education. Apart from lowering skill rates in America, they hinder the adoption of technological systems in labor-intensive manufacturing processes. This introduces technical costs in the economy.

The other consideration on immigration is its effects on housing facilities, especially among the low-income American families. The issue of housing is critical to Americas low-income earners who have to adopt stringent measures in order to cope with rising costs for housing.

Another point is that immigration creates loopholes in border-movement control systems. As such, it provides criminals with an opportunity to conduct illegal transactions. Drugs and firearm cartels exploit the lenient laws on immigration to smuggle their products into America. These vices pose adverse social and economic effects on the American population.

Various drawbacks associated with immigration emanate from the lack of appropriate immigration-control measures. Without the proper regulations on immigration, the trend of the rising number of both legal and illegal immigrants will continue to rise. Appropriate regulations should seek to minimize the number of illegal immigrants and while ensuring the full absorption of legal immigrants into the American system.

Introduction

The Arabs have inhabited the United States for more than a century. Their immigration into the United States can be dated back to as early as the 1880s. Despite this fact, not many Arab American anthology of poetry have been published in English. The first one was published as late as 1988 (Akash & Mattawa, 1999). These patterns were described through the three major waves.

They represent their immigration into the state in large numbers. Many people claim that they left their home countries due to reasons revolving around religion and politics. However, evidence suggest otherwise. It suggests that they came into the country in order to gain economically. There seemed to be many economic opportunities in the country (Luderscher, 2006).

The relationship between the Native Americans and the Arabs were mixed. The native occupants did not easily notice those who came into the country earlier. Those who settled in farms did not have problems with their neighbors.

However, this relationship took a turn after the third wave of the immigration in to the United States. It even became worse when the price of oil was increased three-fold. This led to the war between the Arabs and the Israeli. This saw the occupations of the Arabs and Muslims to include terrorism and they became greedy for oil.

War on terrorism ensued and this marked the beginning of hatred between the Arabs (Muslims) and the Americans. Arabs have since then had trouble feeling at home in the United States. This relates to the work by Abu-Jaber in her book, Crescent, which shows how the Arabs suffered in war and continue to suffer currently.

There exists a general public opinion held against the Arab Americans in the United States. They have for been regarded as inferior for a long been. These factors have negatively affected the current experience of the Arab Americans in the US. This has led to the need to restore the past (Cherif, 2003).

The works by Diana Abu-Jaber show some of the issues that the Arabs immigrating to the U.S. have faced. Abu-Jaber has written two books, the Crescent and Arabian Jazz. In the novel, Arabian Jazz, Abu-Jaber discusses the concept of identity.

She relates it to both the immigrants and those born in the U.S. She shows how those from the different classes and facing family issues are disregarded. In her book, Crescent, Abu-Jaber shows the difficulties faced by immigrants from Arab origin.

In particular, the Arabian Jazz uses jazz in the book and relates it to the Arab American identity issues that occurred in the US. This occurred in the 1990s. This novel is mainly rooted in the politics and issues in the states. It also touches on the issues that characterized the occupations of many Arab American writers. Most of these issues faced those people who worked between the 1980s and 90s.

Background information

Arabs have a large history of discrimination in the United States. Historically, they were considered not white. Later on, they were referred as not quite white. It was only later that they were legally referred as whites (Hartman, 2006).

Hartman (2006) studied the racial hierarchy in the United States in order to determine the position of the Arab Americans. This was necessary to know the privileges and inequalities that they face in the US.

Hartman argued that the book by Abu-Jaber and other similar authors used strategies of identity. She suggested that Arabian Jazz aligned and connected the writers with African Americans. She argued that Abu-Jaber did this by employing particular symbols in her text that was affiliated to the black American.

She demonstrated how all the text invoked African American art (music) as a synonym for black America. She proposes that that was a location for possible solidarity in the development of Arab American identities.

There exists a complex relationship between the African Americans and the Arab Americans. That relationship is characterized with the racialization of the Arab Americans in the US. They are marginalized and not considered as non-whites. This has forced many Arab Americans to seek to make links with other groups. These groups include the people of color such as the African Americans.

These groups have for a long time shared in their grievances since they went through the same thing. This included racial profiling. This is whereby they were arrested or killed for organizing in politics. This also occurred when they were suspected of being involved in the above crimes (Hartman, 2006).

Arabs have undergone scrutiny from the government due to various reasons. The reasons include discrimination, activities that depict hate, racial profiling and the ruining of the economy. One of the acts of hate includes hate crimes. This is whereby crime is based on a specific bias or prejudice.

This is mainly because of the difference in race, religion or ethnicity. This has led to the coming up of laws against this form of crime. One of such laws includes the Hate Crimes Statistics Act. This also led to the enhancing of the penalties for such criminal acts.

Abu-Jaber looked at the issue of homelessness as she studies the flashbacks from the characters in the novel. The Arab Americans that are described in her novel flash back at the bitter experiences they had. They went through dispossession and had difficulties at the borders. However, they all had dreams of making a home in the United States (Cherif, 2003). Their lives as children were filled with unhappy moments.

They faced hostility, physical aggression and racism in their youthful days. Abu-Jaber shows in her novel how the Arab Americans had issues of identity in both the U.S. and Jordan. This is represented in the jazz metaphor that characterizes the whole text in the novel. Since some of the Arab Americans could not be easily identified as blacks or whites, their identity was questioned by other characters in the book.

Another challenge faced by the Arab Americans, particularly women, is in their occupation. Women writers are often criticized because they have been thought to abandon their cultures and adopted those from the west (Ludescher, 2006). Feminism is eminent when it comes to the Arabs. Women have always been treated in such a way as to use it as a tool against the Arabs. It has been used to attack the entire Arab community.

Another issue that the Arab American writers have had to go through is the issue of the terrorist attack of September 2011. They were shocked by the incident and felt betrayed since the terrorists created a bad image to the entire Arab community.

This negatively affected the work that many Arab American writers had done. This was the attempt to correct the negative perceptions of the Arab Americans. This was mainly the anti-Arab stereotyping in the society.

Research objectives

This paper aims at identifying some of the issues faced by Arabs who have immigrated in the United States of America or those attempting to immigrate. This will show some of the challenges they face because of the nature of their ethnicities, race and religion. This will be based on the work done by Abu-Jaber (Arabian Jazz and Crescent).

Methodology

In order to understand some of the challenges faced by the Arabs and Arab Americans, surveys would be required to be done in order to get first hand information. The targeted population includes both the Native Americans and the Arab Americans.

The Native Americans would be targeted so as to get their views and perceptions about the Arabs. This would provide their position on the whole issue. On the other hand, the Arabs would provide the information about some to the issues they face in America.

Data collection would be done using questionnaires and interviews. This would be done for both groups. In order to get information that is not biased, individuals from different regions (cities) will be interviewed. The data collected would then be analyzed and the results drafted.

Significance for the study

This study would be significant because this issue is current and significant. The Arab Americans have for a long time felt different and need to feel part of the greater American society. Looking at the literature surrounding this issue, including Abu-Jabers work, it is evident that Arabs face many problems America. This study would help identify the problems and propose possible solutions.

References

Akash, M., & Mattawa, K. (1999). Post-Gibrab: Anthology of new Arab American Writing. New York, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Cherif, S.E. (2003). Arab American Literature: Gendered Memory in Abinader and Abu-Jaber. Melus, 28(4), 207-228.

Hartman, M. (2006). This sweet music: Jazz, Sam Cooke and reading Arab American Literary identities. Arab American Literature, 31(4), 145-165.

Ludescher, T. (2006). Nostalgia to critique: An overview of Arab American Literature. Arab American Literature, 31(4), 93-114.