Category: Iliad

“If it is true that brilliant Achilles is risen beside their ships, then the worse for him if he tries it, since I for my part will not run from him out of the sorrowful battle, but rather stand fast, to see if he wins the great glory, or if I can win it” says Hektor in Homer’s in The Iliad. Pride is spread out in the entire story of the Iliad which is caused by male warriors and the way they feel about their women. Women are seen in the Iliad as objects and also as manipulators of men; they care more about what is going on and suffer from loss while men are warriors who only care about their pride and honor.

The Iliad is clearly describing how women are treated by men. To illustrate, Helen and Briseis were bet on as if they were objects in an auction. A woman’s role is to be complimenting the man’s greatest feats and they are often treated as objects. “Still I am willing to give her back, if such is the best way. I myself desire that my people be safe, not perish. Find me then some prize that shall be my own, lest I only among the Argives go without, since that were unfitting.” Says Agamemnon (1.116-119) Agamemnon lost Chrysies and took Briseis, Achilles war prize. Both of them were traded off like objects. Women are used as objects and not as human beings. Women look inferior to men when they are given away as prizes. Also, they were given to gods or married to gods or family members, such as Helen was married to Menelaus without any choice, chosen by his men to be married to him. Helen was taken by Paris; it then caused the Trojan War. It was not out of free will. Women in Greek culture are typically treated differently from men because men are the warriors who protect and fight for their cities. Also the cities were dominated by males who created these wars between them and their war prizes were the women. Although women are human beings, in the Iliad they are viewed as trophies and prizes which gives men honor after going into war.

Women in The Iliad are also manipulators of men. Women are viewed as sexual manipulators. They act deviously to men to get what they want. They do this by having sex with them or doing some outrageous acts. ”Hera, there will be a time afterwards when you can go there as well. But now let us go to bed and turn to love-making. For never before has love for any goddess or woman so melted about the heart inside me, broken it to submission, as now. ‘ says Zeus (14.313-317) The goddess Hera seduces her husband, Zeus, in an effort to get the Trojan War to go in her favor. Hera seduces Zeus and drugs him into a deep sleep so that she can go and interfere in the Trojan war and make more Trojans die.

The relationship of men and women is that men care only for their pride while women care for one another. They have feelings as it is shown with Briseis conversation with Achilles after the death of Patroklos; she is heartbroken and very sorry Patroklos died. Achilles is also having a bad time dealing with his friend’s death, but in his grief he fell into despair and rage. Achilles only wants revenge for Patroklos’ death by killing Hektor. Also women are the source of conflict between parties as it is seen within the Trojan and the Achaeans, specifically with Paris and Menelaus, Agamemnon and Achilles. Fighting over the most beautiful women in the world was what started the Trojan war and ended up taking the lives of thousands of soldiers.

“Hektor, you are too intractable to listen to reason. Because the god has granted you the actions of warfare therefore you wish in counsel also to be wise beyond others. But you cannot choose to have all gifts given to you together. To one man the god has granted the actions of warfare, to one to be a dancer, to another the lyre and the singing, and in the breast of another Zeus of the wide brows establishes wisdom, a lordly thing, and many take profit beside him and he saves many, but the man’s own thought surpasses all others.” Says Poulydamas (13.726-734)

Men only care for pride and honor; it is the motivation that gives the warriors the will to fight with all their might and save lives of others. Pride also pushes them closer to their demise such as when Hector doesn’t listen to Poulydamas’ advice which then leads to his death. Hektor thinks that because they had already accomplished so much, why would he turn back; it is all because of his pride and honor he didn’t fall back.

The book revolves around the lust for women and what ended up as a result of men’s pride and honor. Also the tragic death of Patroklos and Hektor which resulted in more grief and despair for both Trojans and Archean. Women are belittled by men which results in women being used for only their body and in order to satisfy men’s lust. It destroys the culture and families like when Paris destroyed Menelaus’ family.

When does fate and when does choice play a role our lives, or in this world? That question may always be asked but in Homer’s epic poem, The Iliad fate and choice happen often. Throughout The Iliad Homer creates numerous conflicts between not only the mortal Greeks and Trojans, but the Gods as well. Though there is a difference between what fate is and what choice is; their similarities coincide with each other. Fate causes one to act in a certain way, which causes one to make a decision based on their choice. The Gods stick their nose in the mortal conflicts the majority of the time. When this happens, mortals ask for advice as they trust the knowledge of the Gods, impacting the end results of many wars and the lives of the individuals. In The Iliad there are many characters who seem to question the idea of fate and their destiny. Looking at Homer’s idea of fate and choice is important being a modern reader, student, and person, to try and answer when fate and choice plays a role in our lives as well. As the Gods do control fate, it is the choices in which determine the outcome of each immortal’s life.

Something that is familiar to many modern people is the Bible. The Bible believes anybody who chooses to do what God asks will find out if John’s teaching comes from God or whether it comes from his own experiences (John 7:17). Questioning whether or not something comes from destiny or fate, or whether it comes from your own actions can have outcomes that coincide together. An example is in The Iliad Achilles does not want to fight, his friend, Patroclus decides to wear Achilles armor, along with pretending to be Achilles by choice. Patroclus then meets his fate of dying, being killed by Hector. If Patroclus did not decide to wear the armor of Achilles, he may not have died but the death of Patroclus is what inspired Achilles to want to fight, distraught and revengeful Achilles returned to war and kills Patroclus. In her essay “Character as Fate in Ancient Literature, “Mary Gould says, Achilles could have quit when Patroclus was killed. He could simply have gone in the direction opposite of outrage and returned home” (5). This shows how the choice of Achilles going to fight and kill Hector was choice. Life events feed off of each other, the choice of fighting and killing ended in fate of dying, fate of dying causes a choice of more fighting and that choice causes more fate of dying.

Another example of human choice and the consequences causing fate to fall into place takes place when Agamemnon took Chryses the daughter of the priest, causing Apollo to grow angry. After Apollo becomes angry because of Agamemnon’s choice, Apollo places a plague in the army to punish Agamemnon for taking Chryses. As stated by “Professor E. Joy in her sample student essay “Fate is Simply Free Will Driven by Ego, “Of the ladder, it can logically be assumed that had Agamemnon not taken the woman or other wised angered Apollo, there would not have been a plague and most if not all the men who died would have lived longer” (1).

Characters in The Iliad embrace the idea of fate or destiny, though they understand, the roads they pave may eventually lead them to death knowing there is a safer option. Great warriors thought that if they died honorably in war, they would carve their names into remembrance. Taking Achilles story into consideration of how these men welcome fate with open arms. Thetis, Achilles’ mother, tells him to fight in this battle for he will die gloriously, and if he returns home, he will live a long life but forever be forgotten. In Homer’s The Iliad Achilles states “Mother tells me, the immortal goddess Thetis with her glistening feet, that two fates bear me on the day of death. If I hold out here and I lay siege to Troy, my journey home is gone, but my glory never dies. If I voyage back to the fatherland I love, my pride, my glory dies… true but the life that’s left me will be long, the stroke of death will not come on me quickly” Afterall, Achilles did choose to stay and fight this Trojan war, dies in the hands of Paris. This shows how a beautiful fate is far more important to the Greeks than living a long, happy life. The quote creates a question of if fate gives you options to choose from. Achilles is given an option to fight and die in the war or go home. This could be Homer discretely telling us that the men have some control over their own fates alongside the Gods. Or is it that Achilles thought he had a choice, when truly, his fate was already set for him after all.

One critic says, “Homer does not state that the power of fate is dissociated from Zeus and that it is an independent power in itself” (Duffy 1). Everything that occurred in the poem had to be accompanied by Zeus. Meaning there was not a story in the poem that clearly states that the immortals or gods are subordinated to fate. Many stories in the poem show that Zeus throws fate. This proves that everything that has happened is connected to fate, but the gods have not been involved in every occasion. An example would be when Odysseus was to return home by faith, yet it was Zeus who had ordered the release. Along with the openly stated point that Odysseus came to Ithaca with the help of the Gods in the first place. In many other occurrences as well proves that everything has to do with Zeus and his desires. None of the other immortals hold the power to call the shots when it comes to fate. On page 389, book 15, lines 80-89 in The Iliad Zeus outlines the sequence of events to come and how he cannot change it, even the impending death of his mortal son, Sarpedon.

Referring back to the Bible the verse “And the Lord God commanded the man, “You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat from it you will certainly die” (Genesis 2:16-17). This goes to show that in modern times everything is in the hands of our God as well, just as fate was in the hands of Zeus. Choosing to do things, asking for advice, and deciding what to do are all contribution towards the fate in which is in hand for one. The only difference is there is no way to change what is going to happen in the end. You can pray for the god’s help when you are doubtful, confused, angry, and to say thanks. Those prayers are always answered just not always in the way we want them to be. That can be the best thing or the worse thing that can happen.

The interaction between fate and choice is involved in every event that happens throughout the poem. Showing how through fate is already determined, characters still hope it will go in their own favor or continue to try and win. For example, though the wars outcome is already determined- the dedication, loyalty and the importance of the glory of the Trojan soldiers still remain strong though they know they are going to die.

This interaction between fate and choice adds to Homer’s poem by establishing a relationship with the gods and mortals, shows a bit of irony in certain situations along with showing insight into the characters decisions. By creating this relationship Homer enhances the meaning of the poem. He does this by giving some insight into characters like how they respond to the idea of fate and choice. This shows irony of situations like when Paris tries to use choice to change fate, which cannot be altered. This allows us to see the relationship between the mortals and gods along with how the gods power sits above the wants and wishes of mortals.

Iris Gernler says “one thing for sure fact can be deducted from this complex situation, however, and that is that everything happens for a reason… nothing is left to chance” (Gernler 13). The mortals can try to do anything they desire to change or alter fate, but it will never change the outcome as it has been decided already.

The Odyssey- is best understood as a ‘reception’ or ‘reading’ of the Iliad but one that ultimately wants to problematize its source text– that is, Homer (as a shorthand for whoever the author was) wants the Odyssey to address the same major issues as the Iliad but come to a fundamentally different conclusion as to what is important.

A good version of this paper will carefully consider the whole of the Iliad and the Odyssey and will show the ways that Odyssey ‘reads’, interprets, and criticizes the Iliad not just on a narrative level (where Iliadic characters reappear) but also implicitly (themes, trajectories, values) and stylistically (epithets, similes, mirror scenes, etc). A good version of this paper will also make a statement about what the ‘point/moral’ of the Iliad is and how the ‘point/moral’ of the Odyssey differs — and support that with ample citation from the text. Particular attention should be paid to Odyssey books which are ‘about’ the Iliad (2-4, 8, 11, 23-24 as well as, potentially, the Cretan lies from 13-24).

1. criticizes the Iliad not just on a narrative level (where Iliadic characters reappear)
2. implicitly (themes, trajectories, values)
3. stylistically (epithets, similes, mirror scenes, etc).
4. make a statement about what the ‘point/moral’ of the Iliad is and how the ‘point/moral’ of the Odyssey differs — and support that with ample citation from the text.
5. Particular attention should be paid to Odyssey books which are ‘about’ the Iliad (2-4, 8, 11, 23-24 as well as, potentially, the Cretan lies from 13-24).

The Odyssey is widely understood to follow on from the Iliad as a ‘reception’ or ‘reading’; it addresses similar themes of fatherhood, nostos, and kleos which are also primary and prevalent issues in the Iliad. However, the overall message Homer presents through these themes are not always in line with the primary text. This paper will consider the whole of the Iliad and the Odyssey and will show the ways that Odyssey ‘reads’, interprets, and criticizes the Iliad not just on a narrative level, where characters appear in both the Iliad and the Odyssey; but also, implicitly through the themes of fatherhood and values of kleos (fame and glory, a Greek hero earns this through accomplishing great deeds ) and nostos (a hero returning home by the sea, thus gaining a high level of heroism); and stylistically through repeated scenes and storytelling. Through this investigation between the similarities and differences of the two Homeric poems, it will be possible to make the statement that although key themes and ideas are carried between the two poems, there is an evident shift in the ‘point/moral’ being made. Therefore, the ‘point/moral’ of the Odyssey differs from the Iliad.

Firstly, when evaluating the Homeric epic poems, there are particular rules which create similarities in the structure of both the Iliad and the Odyssey creating a resemblance between the two. It is important to recognize the key similarities before making an argument for how they differ. In the simplest sense, the Iliad is a tale of the Trojan War; and the Odyssey is of the return of the heroes of that war. This supports the idea that the structural similarities of the Homeric poems are the way both poems are divided in two. For example, the first half of the Odyssey encapsulates the return of Odysseus and the second half the revenge against the suitors. In a similar way, the Iliad is divided first with the anger of Achilles and the second the results of that wrath in battle. Another structural similarity is the fact that in both poems there is a reconciliation moment. In the Odyssey, the meeting of Telemachus and his father; and in the Iliad when Achilles lets go of his wrath and joins the battle. Lastly, the height of both poems reveals many similarities. Before the point of the climax the psychological state of the hero is pictured. In addition, the majority characters and Gods are present. It is very evident in these climactic scenes in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, the scene is full of key figures.

However, with regard to structure, in both of the Homeric epic poems the end scenes are not so similar and therefore suggest they are not a direct ‘reading’ or ‘reception’ of each other. Homer, in a way leaves the audience questioning what comes next, which is at odds with our understanding of Fate and a heroic figure in the Homeric world. We would assume that the fate of the main characters would be fully established by the end. The Iliad does not fulfil this since we do not know if they returned home in the end. It is only later revealed in the Odyssey through the story telling of other characters, thus highlighting where the structural similarities veer off track.

Fate is presented in the same format up until certain points in the book. For example, in book 4, Achilles was guilty of hubris in him refusal of Agamemnon’s offer of reconciliation. In addition to this in book 9, he is also guilty of hubris in the long plea of Phoenix (I 434-605). This mentor of Achilles, who loves him as his own son, begs the hero to yield, not only because of the gifts offered by Agamemnon but also to the prayers of the Achaean leaders (vss. 520-523). when Achilles rejects the offered reconciliation, he is guilty of hubris, which is due to his angry temper and leads to his doom.

In the Odyssey, it is much the same. the crafty Odysseus and the hero’s craft is seen in the climax of the poem, the slaughter of the suitors, just as the wrath of Achilles reveals itself in the taking off of Hector. The best example of the cunning of Odysseus is found in book 9, where the hero commits an act of hubris which the poet connects directly with his ultimate fate. Just before Odysseus reveals himself to the Phaeacians he requests Demodocus to sing of the Wooden Horse: the greatest strategy of the hero at Troy, his most famous trick. The bard’s song, introduces the leading motif, further shown by the words of Odysseus (L I9 f.), Of all the adventures described by Odysseus none so well shows his craft as does the blinding of Cyclops, and it is this adventure, too, which led to all his troubles. Overall, the theme of fate is directly connected with the personality of the heroic character, the cause of the fate is revealed to us in the same place in each poem, and the episode in which it is revealed, because it forms to some extent a link between the two parts of the narrative.

With regard to how characters who appear in both the iliad and the Odyssey show development… there continuation is often demonstrated trough a them. In the case of nester this is seemingl fatherhood. The Nestor of the Odyssey is not dissimilar to the Nestor of the Iliad; he is a hero of an earlier time who gives wisdom to the younger generation. But in the Odyssey Nestor can also be seen to adopt some of Priam’s character traits. When he speaks with Telemachus about the events of Troy, he speaks of the death of his son. Antilochus; although he has many sons remaining to him, he mourns the death of this particular one in a manner reminiscent of Priam’s mourning for Hector, though Priam’s railing against his surviving sons. Nestor is also in the Odyssey in no position to witness things directly; what news he can pass on to Telemachus is what he has been told by others whilst he has been in his palace, just as in the Iliad Priam takes no part in the fighting and must, in book III, have a number of Achaian heroes pointed out to him by Helen. Priam and Nestor are both fathers with a large number of sons and sons-in-law; that they are fathers is central to both their characters. Both men also achieve a bittersweet nostos with comparatively little difficulty, contrary to expectations. Nestor is the only Achaian we meet or hear of who accomplishes his return home without either excessive detour on the way or being murdered upon arrival.

He is not fighting when he is on his journey but is seeking and receiving information about someone who did, namely Odysseus. In Odyssey 1 Athene announces her intention to send Telemachus to Pylos and Sparta asking after his father. She expressly states that he will inquire about his father’s nostos and earn kleos for himself. (different to how kleos is earned in the iliad ) This serves to closely associate the two concepts within the Odyssey, in conjunction with the theme of fatherhood. The two concepts are also closely linked in the Iliad. but in the Iliad they stand in conflict with one another; here the two are in no opposition to one another. It is significant that Telemachus will gain kleos from searching for news about his father within the world of the Odyssey; it is hard to imagine that something that involves no fighting but merely the visiting of two old friend’s of one’s father could earn kleos within the world of the Iliad. The criteria required for earning renown have changed in the post-Iliadic world within which Telemachus is operating from what they were previously.

The medium change between the two poems…. Shows how the themes mention above do not directly mean the same between both poems. All the events of the Odyssey itself are told rather than sung. The different medium of delivery for kleos supports an interpretation that reads a different nature for kleos. The openings of the two poems do not only suggest that the nature of kleos has changed between the Iliad and the Odyssey; they also suggest that the significance of fatherhood has altered in a way not unconnected to the altered nature of kleos. The character who, despite his absence for the majority of the poem, dominates the action of the Iliad is named, complete with a patronymic, in the opening line of the poem. The poem stands as a vehicle for the lasting kleos of Achilles, kleos of the type typical of the Iliadic, pre-Odyssean world. Odysseus, by contrast, is not named until the twenty-first line of the Odyssey, and it is without patronymic. Odysseus’ patronymic is not in fact used until book 9 when he himself is speaking and is giving an account of his wanderings; that it is not used whereas Achilles’ is emphasized at Odyssey 8.75, when Demodokos is said to sing of the quarrel. Odysseus in Odyssey 9 is generating his own kleos and starts doing so with similar language to that used in the poem which recorded Achilles’ deeds for posterity. The concept of kleos cannot be entirely divorced from Odysseus’ story, as by telling his story he almost by definition generates kleos for himself.

In the Iliad, Achilles’ story, it is made clear that Achilles cannot have both kleos and nostos. This is hinted at in book 1 when Thetis makes the suggestion that he will not live to return home. The mutual exclusivity of kleos and nostos for Achilles is spelled out by the hero himself in book 9 when he says that if he remains at Troy. In contrast, By earning his kleos through an account of his nostos, Odysseus departs abruptly from the Iliadic model.

Both Achilles in the Iliad and Odysseus in the Odyssey find themselves thinking of drawing their swords from beside their thighs, but whereas Achilles must be restrained by Athene, Odysseus sees for himself that killing the Cyclops is not a sensible course of action. it suggests that Odysseus is a different sort of hero from Achilles.

the Odyssey looks back to the Iliad and how it has developed similar ideas in a different direction. The result is a presentation of a post-Iliadic world that is vastly different to that presented in the Iliad, in which a compromise can be found between concepts that were irreconcilable within the Iliad and a division is starting to appear between the Iliadic world and that which followed it, with Odysseus alone successfully bridging that gap; he is able to exist in both the Iliad and the Odyssey as a heroic figure, a feat not truly matched by any other character, but once he is in the Odyssean world the ties of fatherhood link him more closely to the generation that comes after him in the post-Iliadic universe than to the generation which came before him – he is much closer to the Telemachus who in the course of the poem develops into a younger version of himself that the Laertes who lives alone in the mountains, a shadow of what he once was.

Structure

Ring composition present in both odyssey and Illiad – evidence of it being written to a formula and structure. the Odyssey after book 23.296 is a later addition by a less skilled poet than Homer. Other critics,believe that the end of the Odyssey is not Homeric. consider the structure of the poem, while the Odyssey could end with Odysseus’ reunion with Penelope, it does not follow that it should end there. Before Odysseus is even mentioned by name in the Odyssey he is said to be “nostou kexrhmenon h0de gunaikoj”; his homecoming and his wife and mentioned in the same breath, Thus one might reasonably argue that an ending in which Odysseus arrives at the centremost part of his house, his bedchamber, with his wife reflects the opening of the poem and so is structurally apt.

Gods in both Iliad and odyssey.

there is precedent for a Homeric poem to have scenes both at its opening and its closing which consist of conversations between the gods, as this is the case in the Iliad. Iliadic similarities do not end there; Hermes is a feature both of Iliad 24 and of Odyssey 24. Athene does not only figure in these conversations with Zeus but also appears at other key moments within the structure of the Odyssey. One can arguably see a second beginning to the Odyssey at the beginning of book 5, when the main narrative of the poem is transferred from Telemachos to Odysseus, and here too we have a conversation between Athene and Zeus, though this one lacks the repeated line. Thus do both possible openings to the story of Odysseus have the same element to which book 24 can be related through ring-composition. More specifically, and this is also a feature with precedent in the Iliad, Athene appears to mortals in both the opening and closing stages of the Odyssey; Thetis appears to her son Achilles in both the first and last books of the Iliad, Athene appears as Mentes to Telemachos in Odyssey 1 then as Mentor in Odyssey 2, and as Mentor she appears to Odysseus towards the end of book 24. Her disguise as Mentor is introduced with the same words in both book 2 and book 24, again suggesting a deliberate link between the end of the poem and its earlier stages: “Mentori ei0domenh h0men demaj h0de kai au0dhn” Not only does Athene appear in these instances as respectable adult male figures, she also appears to Odysseus in book 13 as a young girl. This appearance of Athene marks the beginning of a sequence of scenes involving disguise and recognition, and it seems appropriate that she is in a different disguise entirely from those she adopts at the beginning and end of the poem when acting after her conversations with Zeus. The result is something of an ABA sequence; without book 24 there would not be such a readily discernable pattern to Athene’s more marked appearances.When Zeus first speaks in the Iliad, a speech which sparks off the conversation between him and Athene which I mentioned above, he speaks of what happened to Agamemnon on his homecoming and the vengeance exacted for this by Orestes, his son.

In Iliad 24, a disguised Hermes conveys Priam safely to the hut of Achilles in a journey highly reminiscent of the journey of a departed soul to the underworld. On his arrival, Priam reminds Achilles of Achilles’ father, Peleus, and in doing so obtains Achilles’ sympathy, Hector’s body and the opportunity to return safely to Troy in defiance of the expectations of those who saw him go. In Odyssey 24 Hermes accompanies actual souls to the actual underworld, where once again Achilles is the focus of attention. There is an implicit contrast here between the circumstances of Iliad 24 and Odyssey 24, and the circumstances of all involved are different. There will be for the suitors no highly unlikely return to their homes and families, and Achilles as a powerless shade is in no position to help them achieve anything; it is Agamemnon who addresses the suitors, when in Priam’s case Achilles prevented the old man’s presence from coming to the attention of the other Achaeans. The contrast between the two end books of the Homeric epics emphasises the differences between the protagonists of the two poems. We are reminded by it that Achilles remembered Peleus in Iliad 24. Achilles never saw his father again, since he chose to have a short but glorious life rather than a long, unremarkable one in which he might have had a nostoj and seen his father again. When Achilles in the Iliad talks of Phthia he tends to mention his father’s palace; the father is very closely associated with homecoming. Odysseus, on the other hand, has not died and at no point chose kleoj over nostoj. It therefore makes sense, if we follow the Iliadic model, that the story of his homecoming culminate in, or at the very least include, a reunion with his father. While it would be farcical to argue that book 24 be included in the Odyssey on the basis that similarities to the Iliad in one part of the book demand that another part of the book be present within the Odyssey, father-son relationships play an important part in the Odyssey prior to book 24, the first four books for example focussing on Telemachos’ attempts to find out more about his father’s fate since the fall of Troy, and given that we know from a number of references within the Odyssey that Laertes is still alive, the poem would seem oddly incomplete without any encounter between the two men.

Storytelling

The majority of Odyssey 9-12 consists of Odysseus relating the story of his wanderings since the fall of Troy to the Phaeacians. This by itself would be enough to suggest that story-telling has a significant role within the Odyssey, but story-telling is made more significant by the frequent references to it and instances of it within Odysseus’ own tale. Story-telling and singing are both closely intertwined with the themes of remembering and forgetting within the Odyssey. the importance of story-telling as a social convention and a means of transmitting information.

Throughout the Odyssey, when the story is being told by Homer Odysseus is in the process of accomplishing things; his homecoming is not all that he might have wished for, but he progresses steadily towards his goal, which he eventually accomplishes. The course of Odysseus’ wanderings, in which he accomplishes little and more than once is forced to visit the same place twice, delaying any geographical progression towards his home. Thus while Homer’s song is one of Odysseus’ accomplishments and the achievement of his nostos, Odysseus’ is one of suffering.

Link to the Iliad and while it is not told through stories there is a similar technique displayed in the battle scene and the switching of sides of who is winning, as a delaying tactic.

In book 11 the importance of tales of what happened at and after Troy – post Iliad- When Odysseus encounters the dead Agamemnon, he asks his leader how he came to be dead, and Agamemnon responds with his own story, which the poem’s audience has already heard through a variety of mouths. Agamemnon then asks for information in return, about the fate of his son, Orestes, which Odysseus is unable to give him. Achilles too wishes to know about events in the world of the living since he himself died, and there Odysseus is able to be of help. The telling of stories serves to connect the dead to the living; it bridges what is under normal circumstances an insurmountable gap. Furthermore, the importance of the fact that it is a living person who is communicating with the dead and from whom they hope to hear stories of their filoi is emphasized if one considers that there are surely others among the dead who would be well-placed to reveal the facts for which Odysseus is asked;

It is those who yet live who connect the dead to the world of the living; there is no place for the dead to tell stories of the living among themselves. Not only does the telling of stories connect the dead to those still living, but it is also able to affect the dead. Achilles, at the beginning of his conversation with Odysseus, is unhappy, stating that he would rather be living as a thrall than a king amongst the dead. This opposes his decision he made in the Iliad It is made very clear by this that being dead is far from a good state in which to be, and one in which one would not expect to experience positive emotions. A new message is given by homer as opposed to the idea that it was glorious to die in battle, which he presented in the Iliad.

However, an important difference between Agamemnon and Achilles. Odysseus is unable to satisfy Agamemnon with any news about his son; though Agamemnon wishes to hear a story, Odysseus knows none to tell him. Achilles, on the other hand, is told the story of his son’s deeds at Troy after his own death, and they are deeds of which no father need be ashamed. And so the man who would rather be a slave than in the position in which he finds himself is nonetheless “ghqosunh” after his encounter with Odysseus because he has been told good things about the family line that continues now that he is dead.

Tiresias’ account of the journey Odysseus will undertake with an oar also allows the Odyssey, an account of Odysseus’ return home, to look forward to what will happen after his homecoming is accomplished, much as in many ways the Iliad looks both back to the beginning of the Trojan War and forward to its end, though neither falls within the timeline of the poem. Before even Tiresias, to whom we expected Odysseus to be the first to speak based on Circe’s words, speaks we hear from one of Odysseus’ own companions, Elpenor, who died on Circe’s island. His story, therefore, defeats our expectations and has the effect of sending Odysseus almost straight back to the island whence he has just come after a year of delay. The story itself delays Tiresias’ words to Odysseus and causes Odysseus another brief delay in that it makes him go back to Circe’s isle to bury him

The Iliad

During ancient times, kings used battles to extend their kingdoms. The stories told of ancient battles mention kings and heroes as the central pillars of conquest in a battle of kingdoms. Indeed, this explains why cities of old were high-walled. The Trojan War is an ancient battle featuring the Trojans and Achaeans (Greek forces). As it was customary in every battle, soldiers of the winning army took spoils, including gold and animals. During the Trojan War, the Achaeans laid siege on the town allied to the Trojans and took divided the spoils. King Agamemnon, who commanded the Achaean army, took a woman by the name Chryseis, while Achilleus, the great Greek warrior took a concubine by the name Briseis. Unfortunately, Chryseis was the daughter of Chryses, a priest of the god Apollo. The development, therefore, made the Achaean army face the wrath of Apollo to the point of agreeing that the king should set Achilleus free to return to her father. In anger and displeasure with the decision, the king decided to take Achilleus’ war prize, Briseis, in exchange for Achilleus. Indeed, this unwise move set the stage for a bitter confrontation between Agamemnon and Achilleus to the point where the latter withdrew from the Trojan War with his group of warriors, Myrmidons.

Therefore, the conflict between King Agamemnon and Achilleus was based on the former’s decision to take the latter’s war prize. Being a king and the commander of the Achaean army, Agamemnon believes he should have a replacement of Chryseis, and he chooses Briseis. The king seems to think this is the only way to avoid the humiliation that may damage his honor among the Greek forces. As far as Achilleus is concerned, Briseis is his war prize just as Chryseis was the king’s war prize. As such, he is not convinced that the king has a right to take Briseis just because he has been asked to free Chryseis so she can return to her father, Chryses. Therefore, he interprets the decision of the king as an insult to his status and honor. When King Agamemnon actually takes Briseis from Achilleus’s tent, the Greek warrior withdraws together with his warriors from the Trojan War, exposing the Achaean army to defeat by the Trojans. Seeking to repair the damage, Nestor advises the king to make amends with Achilleus to which the king agrees and lists the gifts that he would give the war hero should he forego his anger towards him.

Indeed, King Agamemnon promises his adversary Achilleus many gifts, and Nestor dispatches messengers to the warriors tend to deliver the offer. Even though Nestor dispatches five messengers (three warriors and two heralds), it is the warriors- Odysseus, Phoenix, and Aias, who deliver the news of the king’s offer. Of the three messengers, it is Odysseus that narrates to Achilleus word-for-word of what King Agamemnon promised to give him should he choose to forgo is anger and rejoin the Trojan War. According to Odysseus, the king would give Achilleus ‘seven tripods that have never yet been on fire, and ten talents of gold; twenty iron cauldrons, and twelve strong horses that have won races and carried off prizes” (Homer par. 9). Additionally, the king would make Achilleus rich both in land and gold, give him seven excellent workmen, Lesbians that the king had chosen for himself, and return Briseis, whom he has never touched “after the manner of men and women” (Homer par. 9). According to Odysseus, Achilleus would receive these things from the king immediately. Going by the standards of the time, such gifts were enough to make anybody reconsider their decision.

Furthermore, Odysseus told Achilleus that after the Achaean army captures the city of Priam, he would be free to share in the spoils and load his ship with gold and bronze to his liking. Furthermore, he can take twenty Trojan women as a war prize, and after reaching Achaean Argos, he can take the wealthiest of all lands, and become the king’s son-in-law to be nurtured with abundance as the king’s dear son Orestes. The king would also give him seven well-established cities, including Cardamyle, Enope, and Hire, where the dwellers would honor him with gifts worthy of a god and obey his ordinances. Odysseus told Achilleus that the king would do all that for him if only he, Achilleus, would forego his anger towards the king.

After listening to the three men, whom he values and respects, Achilleus, however, rejects the king’s offer. Instead, Achilleus gives a lengthy response in which he categorically states his refusal to the king’s offer and his contempt for the king. In this response, he tells the three messengers of the king that he intends to sail back home, arguing there is no offer that Agamemnon can make that is worth his life. It is then that he relates his refusal to a prophecy from his mother stating that if he stayed in Troy his life would be glorious and short, but if he went home his life would be long without any glory. Achilleus chose the latter option and advised the three messengers to forsake the king and the war and head home. He welcomes Phoenix to stay with him, but Phoenix ignores the offer. What this response reveals is that Achilleus is not ready to consider the offer from the king or the passionate pleas of those dearest to him. In fact, the offer only intensifies his anger towards the king for dishonoring him by taking his concubine.

At selected points in the Greek poem by Homer, the use of the Greek language helps to contextualize conversations. For example, the king’s offer to Achilleus captures some terminologies that help place the story in the Greek context. In responding to Nestor’s suggestion to make amends with the angered great warriors, King Agamemnon talks about giving Achilleus ten talents of gold, 12 strong horses, 20 iron cauldrons, seven tripods, and Lesbians among others (Homer Book IX par. 9). When talking to Achilleus, Odysseus repeats these terminologies word-for-word. The cities of Cardamyle, Enope, and Hire that the king promises to give Achilleus also help to contextualize the story into the Greek setting (Homer Book IX par. 9). Speaking to the assembly, King Agamemnon makes a statement that mentions some terminologies that contextualize the story into the Greek setting, including gifts, tent, ratify, oath, and sacrifice (Homer Book XIX par. 14). The use of words resembling Greek terminology is significant in making the story more relevant to the war exploits of the Greek in the ancient world. Even though some terminologies cannot place the exact place of the story, some like the names of cities, are specific to Greek.

The response that Achilleus gives the three messengers sent by the king to deliver his apology in the form of gifts is significant in several ways. Firstly, it shows Achilleus’s displeasure with the actions of the king, both the decision to take his woman and to attempt to appease him with gifts. Secondly, it shows that while Agamemnon was a king and the commander of the Achaean army, he was not all-powerful to command Achilleus. Thirdly, it reveals that, indeed, Achilleus was a valuable warrior in the Achaean army. Collectively, these realities show how the king’s attempt to bribe Achilleus with gifts only worked to intensify the latter’s anger and contempt towards the former.

Even though Achilleus decided to rejoin the Trojan War, siding with the Achaean army, he was not about to make peace with King Agamemnon. During the assembly, Agamemnon apologized to Achilleus, blaming his sheer madness for taking Briseis, and promised to make good on his offer to Achilleus. However, Achilleus was not about to soothe the king’s guilty conscience when he replied by telling the king “Son of Atreus, king of men Agamemnon, you can give such gifts as you think proper, or you can withhold them: it is in your own hands” (Homer Book XIX par. 12) With such a response, it is unlikely that Achilleus was going to forget the dishonor that the king showed him in the present of the Achaean forces. Probably, the king had interpreted Achilleus’s return to the battlefield to mean that he had chosen to forego his anger. The truth for his return, however, was to revenge for the death of his dear friend Patroklos at the hands of the Trojans. From everything that happens from the moment King Agamemnon decides to take Briseis from Achilleus to the moment that Achilleus returns to the battlefield to avenge for his friend, it is clear that the conflict between the two men is not about to come to an end.

In conclusion, Briseis and Chryseis were just war prizes that Achilleus and King Agamemnon had taken, respectively, after taking siege of a town allied to the Trojans. Indeed, this practice was customary in ancient times, where, after killing men and destroying a city, soldiers would divide spoils, including women and gold and everything else of value. However, when the wrath of Apollo demands that the king gives up on his prize, he decides to take the prize of the Greek war hero, setting the stage of a confrontation that would jeopardize the chances of the Achaean army winning the Trojan War. Even after promising to give Achilleus many valuable gifts, including returning Briseis, the war hero is not ready to forgive the king. The story shows that honor was a great treasure for soldiers in the Greek army and any dishonor was likely to result in a protracted conflict between parties.

Works Cited

1. Homer. “The Iliad.” Mit.edu, n.d. http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.19.xix.html. Accessed 3 Nov. 2018.

Questions and Responses

• Why does Agamemnon think that he has the right to take Achilleus’ war prize (geras)? Why is it so important to him to take Achilleus’ prize? What is his reasoning?

Firstly, Agamemnon is angry because he is the only one asked to return his war prize even though Achilleus also got himself Briseis (geras) as a war prize. Being the commander of the Greek forces, Agamemnon believes he should have a replacement. Therefore, taking Briseis from the Greek war hero is important for Agamemnon as it is the only way to cover the humiliation that befell him after being asked to surrender Chryseis. In this sense, Agamemnon seems to reason that losing his war prize equals losing his honor among the Greek forces.

• Why does Achilleus think that Agamemnon does not have the right to take his prize? Why is it so important to Achilleus to possess his prize? What is his reasoning?

However, Achilleus is not ready to allow his commander to take his war prize, just yet. The Greek war hero opposes the decision made by Agamemnon on the ground that Briseis was his reward for fighting in the Trojan War even as Chryseis was Agamemnon’s reward. Just because the gods have required the commander to give Chryseis back to his father Chryses is no justification for him to take Briseis as a replacement. Like the greatest war hero, Achilleus believes possessing Briseis gives him honor and status among the Greek forces. In this sense, Achilleus sees losing Briseis as an attack on his honor and status.

• What, exactly, is an honor (timē)? What is the connection between honor and value? What is the connection between value and war prizes? How is the value of a hero related to his hierarchical status and being?

Honor is respect that an individual earns on account of their position, status, or accomplishments. The connection between honor and value comes in the sense that honor allocates value. In other words, once something or an individual is honored, they become valued by society in general or obtain value in society. The connection between value and war prizes comes in the sense that war prizes are a form of rewards and it is only those with value in an army, either due to their position or accomplishment, can take such rewards. The value of a hero is related to their hierarchical status and being on account of what they have done in the past, are doing presently, or can do in the future. For example, with the status of the greatest war hero in the Greek army, Achilleus has incredible value to the army as well as to the nation for his ability to affect the Trojan War and other conflicts to their favor.

• Are the values of Achilleus fundamentally different from the values of Agamemnon? Or are their values fundamentally the same? In what sense are their positions the same? In what sense are their positions different?

The values that guide Achilleus are not fundamentally different from those of his commander Agamemnon. To some degree, both men share common values. The point of similarity is the fact that both men have huge egos that need constant pampering, and this ego is the reason that they take women captive after destroying a city. Definitely, this is why they took Briseis and Chryseis after destroying a town allied to Troy. Again, it is their egos that make them angry when their war prizes are taken away. In essence, their anger is not necessarily based on the fact that they are losing the women, but that their honor and status are being threatened and insulted. Eventually, Agamemnon with the status of the commander decides to take Briseis (Achilleus’ war prize), and Achilleus with the status of the greatest Greek war hero decides to withdraw from the Trojan War.

The only point that the value system of both men differs is when they are fighting for their honor. One (Agamemnon) is willing to become dishonorable by taking another’s war prize, while the other (Achilleus) chooses to walk away rather than suffer dishonor.

• Does Agamemnon admit that he is wrong in Book 9? Why does he send an embassy to Achilleus’ ships? Does he apologize to Achilleus? Does he ask anyone to apologize to Achilleus? Or, is Agamemnon’s position in Book 9 consistent with his position in Book 1?

Facing defeat in the hands of the Trojans, the Achaean forces retreat to their camp heartbroken. It is then that Agamemnon acknowledges the failure of their war effort and his role in it when he drove Achilleus away by taking his war prize concubine. The king contemplates returning to Greece disgracefully and communicates the same to his men. However, his men are not about to follow this line of thought and trace the origin of their apparent weaknesses and how to resolve them. With sorrow and shame, the king replies to Nestor, ‘Sir, you have reproved my folly justly. I was wrong.” Upon admitting that he wrong, the king agrees with Nestor’s idea of approaching Achilleus for help, and he lays down a plan of how he intends to make amends. As a sign that he was sorry, Agamemnon talks of all the things he would do for the Greek war hero if he were to return his services to the Greek army and take the City of Troy. The king states, “I will make amends, and will give him great gifts by way of atonement.” These gifts include seven tripods that have never been placed on fire; ten talents of gold; twelve strong horses that have been prized for winning races; twenty iron cauldrons; seven excellent workers; and lesbians of surpassing beauty. Furthermore, the king agreed to return Briseis, whom he has never touched after the manner of men and women, and also allow him to take 20 Trojan women in case they siege the City of Troy. The king would also give Achilleus the freedom to take the best of lands after they reach Achaean Argos and even make him his son-in-law to be nurtured in abundance like his own son Orestes. The king would also give one of his three daughters- Chrysothemis, Laodice, and lphianassa- to the Greek war hero freely. To cap it all, the king would give Achilleus seven cities, including Cardamyle, Enope, and Hire, which are well-established with “grass, holy Pherae and the rich meadows of Anthea, Aepea also, and the vine-clad slopes of Pedasus, all near the sea, and on the borders of sandy Pylos.” The king was adamant that “All this will I do if he will now forgo his anger.” Nestor picks out Aias, Odysseus, and Phoenix, as the most esteemed Achaian warriors to deliver the king’s offer to Achilleus. Nestor sends along the two heralds, Eurybates and Odios to accompany the warriors.

• What does Nestor advise Agamemnon to offer to Achilleus? What does Agamemnon actually offer? (See prior bulleted question.) What does Odysseus tell Achilleus that Agamemnon is offering Achilleus, and why? What does Phoenix tell Achilleus Agamemnon is offering Achilleus, and why? What does Aias tell Achilleus Agamemnon is offering Achilleus, and why?

When the Greek camp decides to make peace with Achilleus, Nestor tells King Agamemnon concerning the great Greek war hero, “Let us think how we may appease him, both with presents and fair speeches that may conciliate him.” Indeed, the king offers Achilleus a number of gifts, including ten talents of gold, twelve strong horses, and seven tripods that have never been placed on fire among others, as well as promises of twenty Trojan women and the position of a son-in-law, as highlighted in the previous chapter.

Odysseus tells Achilleus of all that King Agamemnon would do for him word-for-word if only he forgave the king for taking his war prize, Briseis. According to Odysseus, the king would give Achilleus “seven tripods that have never yet been on fire, and ten talents of gold; twenty iron cauldrons, and twelve strong horses that have won races and carried off prizes.” Additionally, the king would make Achilleus rich both in land and gold, give him seven excellent workmen, Lesbians that the king had chosen for himself, and return Briseus, whom he has never touched “after the manner of men and women.” According to Odysseus, these things would Achilleus receive from the king immediately. However, after the Greek forces capture the city of Priam, Achilles can share in the spoils and load his ship with gold and bronze to his liking. Furthermore, he can take twenty Trojan women as a war prize, and after reaching Achaean Argos, he can take the wealthiest of all lands, and become the king’s son-in-law to be nurtured with abundance as the king’s own dear son Orestes. The king would also give him seven well-established cities, including Cardamyle, Enope, and Hire, where the dwellers would honor him with gifts worthy of a god and obey his ordinances. Odysseus told Achilleus that the king would do all that for him if only he, Achilleus, would forego his anger towards the king.

Even though Phoenix does not go into details of what King Agamemnon would give Achilles as does Odysseus, he makes a passionate plea to the great Greek war hero upon realizing that the anger he bears would stand in the way of Greek salvation against the Trojans. Phoenix tells Achilles that the king is “Giving much now, and more hereafter.” After realizing that Achilles was not about to forgo his anger towards King Agamemnon, Aias did not bother to tell the Greek war hero of the many gifts the king had promised him if he returned. Instead, Aias tells Achilles “… the gods have put a wicked unforgiving spirit in your heart, and this, all about one single girl, whereas we now offer you the seven best we have and much else into the bargain.”

• Why does Achilleus refuse the offers presented by Odysseus, Phoenix, and Aias in Book 9? What does Achilleus’ response tell you about Achilleus and his relationship to those whom he calls the ‘dearest of all the Achaians’?

Even after listening to the promises of King Agamemnon as delivered by Odysseus and the pleadings of Phoenix and Aias, Achilles is adamant that he will not rejoin the battle against the Trojans. In fact, he gives a lengthy response in which he categorically states his refusal to the king’s offer and his contempt for the king. In this response, he tells the three messengers of the king that he intends to sail back home, arguing there is no offer that Agamemnon can make that is worth his life. It is then that he relates his refusal to a prophecy from his mother stating that if he stayed in Troy his life would be glorious and short, but if he went home, his life would be long without any glory. Achilles chose the latter option and advised the three messengers to forsake the king and the war and head home. He welcomes Phoenix to stay with him, but Phoenix ignores the offer.

What this response reveals about Achilles is that his ego is too much to consider the passionate pleas of those dearest to him. Somehow, this kind of response tells of the deep hurt to his honor and status that King Agamemnon did him after taking Briseis from him.

• Why does Achilleus decide in Book 18 to return to battle? Is Achilleus admitting that he is wrong when he withdrew from battle? In what sense has Achilleus’ position changed in relation to his position in Book 1?

[bookmark: 96]After learning of the beating that the Achaians were receiving in the battlefield, Achilles fears for the worst. It is then that he recalls his mother’s prophecy that the best of the Myrmidons would perish, which he took to mean Patroklos, his dear friend. So after learning that Patroklos has been killed he tells his mother “I will go; I will pursue Hector who has slain him whom I loved so dearly.” To some extent, Achilles seems to regret picking a fight with King Agamemnon, and this is seen when he takes a perspective that differs from his convictions in Book 1. As he mourns his friends, he tells his mother, “Even so has Agamemnon angered me. And yet- so be it, for it is over; I will force my soul into subjection as I needs must.”

• What, specifically, does Agamemnon say that he offers to Achilleus in Book 19 at the assembly? What Greek words does he use? What is Achilleus’ response to Agamemnon’s offer? What is the meaning and significance of Achilleus’ response to Agamemnon, and in what sense does it show that the conflict between Agamemnon and Achilleus has not been resolved?

After Agamemnon accepts Achilleus’s apology, he also offers his sincere apologies, arguing that it was out of sheer madness that he had taken Achilleus’s concubine. It is then that he promises to give Achilleus everything he had promised were he to forego his anger. In this light, he commands his men to “bring from my tents the gifts that I promised yesterday to Achilles.” Some of the Greek words that the king uses in this occasion include gifts, tent, ratify, oath, and sacrifice. Showing more concern for fighting for the fallen Greek soldiers, Achilles is less concerned about the king’s offer. He tells King Agamemnon, “Son of Atreus, king of men Agamemnon, you can give such gifts as you think proper, or you can withhold them: it is in your own hands.”

This response signifies that even though Achilles has chosen to rejoin the battle against the Trojans, he is not ready yet to forgive King Agamemnon for his actions. In a sense, Achilles’ behavior towards the king when he says “you can give such gifts as you think proper, or you can withhold them” is an indication that he was here to revenge for his friend Patroklos and the other slain Greeks and not necessarily to help the king win the battle.

After reading The Iliad and learning about the gods and goddesses, it is obvious that there were many sacrifices made throughout the poem by different characters. Some of the sacrifices made were extremely crucial while others resulted in death. The reason for sacrifice varied depending on the situation and whose life may be put on the line, and even those who were considered heroes had to make great sacrifices at one point or another. There are many great heroes throughout this poem who sacrificed anything to achieve glory, but there are others who did so to save their loved ones. Three important times sacrifices occurred were during the abduction of Helen, when Agamemnon kidnapped the daughter of the priest of Apollo, and

Helen of Troy was known as the fairest, most beautiful woman in the world, and the goddess among women. Throughout the literature, Helen is mentioned only a few times, but she played a big role in sacrifice making. Women were known as possessions in the domain of the Iliad, and Helen was viewed as a prize possession by many. Helen of Troy was married to the leader of Sparta, King Menelaus. Their marriage soon became full of conflict when Prince Paris of Troy came to the wedding, and later chose Helen to claim the golden apple and be known as the fairest. After Helen was chosen, she was taken by Paris and this caused even greater conflict and resulted in the war. Menelaus urges Paris to bring his wife back home, and after acting like a coward Paris finally decides to fight. They decided whoever won could claim Helen as their wife, and the fight would come to an end. Many lives were sacrificed during the war so that Helen could return to Sparta safely and even then, that was not enough to bring Helen home. They then came to believe the only way to bring Helen home was to sacrifice Agamemnon’s daughter, Iphigenia. Their marriage was sacrificed, along with many lives. Finally, after the many lives were sacrificed and lost Helen triumphantly returned home to Sparta.

Chryseis was taken by Agamemnon as a war prize years after wartime. Her father, Chryses, who was the priest of Apollo, begged Agamemnon to bring his daughter back to him. Chryses offered him a vast ransom, but Agamemnon still refused to return Chrysies. The priest then prayed to the Apollo in hopes of assistance in getting his daughter back. The Apollo brought affliction among the Greek army, which resulted in the death of numerous soldiers. As a priest sacrificing the lives of others was not easy, but as a father, he was willing to do everything in his power to bring his daughter back. After all his efforts, Agamemnon then turns over and says he will only return Chryseis if her father is willing to sacrifice Briseis as reimbursement. Agamemnon then sent Chryseis back to her father and sends a messenger to have Briseis brought to him in exchange. Chryses is so pleased to see his daughter, though it took sacrifices that were difficult to go through with he was willing to do whatever it took to be with his daughter.

In my opinion, Virgil didn’t imitate Homer with Aeneid, however Virgil simply expanded on Homer’s ideas and wrote in his own words through his poem. Instead of rewriting Iliad or Odyssey, Virgil continues the story after the fall of Troy using Aeneas. Virgil uses a lot of Homer’s images patterns like the symbol of fire, the shield, gates, and the underworld, but they were both used in a different context.

Virgil emphasizes fire as a symbol for destruction and desire, much like it did in Iliad, but not as aggressive. Fire is not only used for anger and rage, but to describe human emotion. A fire ignites in Dido’s heart when she falls in love with Aeneas. Somewhat like, Homer describes Achilles’ anger as a raging fire.

The next symbolism is gates, the gates are used in both poems, by Hector and Aeneas and their both Trojans. In the Iliad, the Trojans hid behind the Skaian Gates for protection. Likewise, in the Aeneid, Aeneas men stayed behind the gates of their fortress. Aeneas wasn’t there during the attack, but Aeneas did give order before he left. The gates weren’t a big part of the comparison, but Hector and Aeneas are both Trojans and during the war they both hid their men behind the gates. It shows similarities between the Iliad and Aeneid.

Another symbolism is the image of the shield. In both poems Aeneas and Achilles were given shields from the gods to protect them in battle. Achilles was given a shield by Greek god Hephaestus, the images on the shield depict scenes of war and peace. Aeneas shield was made by Vulcan, The shield functions as a symbol of the destiny of Rome and Aeneas’s fate.

The Homeric epics focus more on simpler heroic glory, as well as their own separate themes. The Iliad is an epic based on war politics and battles, on the importance of glory and protecting one’s city or honor. The Odyssey continues many of these themes, but also focuses more on travel, foreignness, magic, and home. The Aeneid is clearly based at least in part on the style of the Homeric epics, but is more refined. The Iliad and Odyssey, on the other hand, are suspected to have been orally composed, leading to more reliance on repetition structures to assist the composing poet. All are different, all are similar. All have their charms. I think the Aeneid is the Trojan version of the Odyssey.

Near the end of both wars, each hero must face and kill a final foe: as Achilles kills Hector, the bravest of the Trojan army, Aeneas kills the hero of the Latins, Turnus. Although both epics end with a hero’s death. Yet The Aeneid ends with Turnus’ death and no call for remorse. In the Aeneid, Turnus killing is necessary and I think justified. It brings about the end of the war and ultimately clears the way for the birth of Rome, but Aeneas is not without loss. He must give up his homeland and leave behind his love for Dido, to fulfill his destiny. He is not conflicted by the intense emotions that drive Achilles because of his sense of loyalty and duty to the mission of his people.

The Aeneid and Iliad also had some differences. In the Iliad, Achilles doesn’t even care about the Trojan War until Hector kills Patroclus. At the end of the epic, Achilles considers not killing Hector, but when he sees him wearing Patroclus’ sword belt, which Hector took from the man’s dead body, he kills the prince in a raging fire. He then feels remorseful and gives the body to Hector’s father so he can have a proper burial. So, Achilles seems like a man very much controlled by emotion. But Aeneas is driven by a sense of duty; a god gave him a task and he must complete it. He doesn’t go through the emotional turmoil that Achilles’ experiences. He fights so his people have a place to live and kills his enemy Turnus at the end because it’s necessary to end the war and find Rome, showing no remorse. So once again, the differences between Aeneid And the Iliad Show that Romans were driven by the need to obey their gods and do something for the good of their people.

Aeneid vs the Iliad and the Odyssey. In conclusion, because Virgil referenced the great epics of Homer when writing Aeneid, there are many similarities between his story and those of his inspiration. I didn’t see that many differences between the three epics because Aeneas is somewhat like Achilles and Odysseus, Aeneas is smart, strong, loyal, and emotional just like Achilles and Odysseus. Aeneas and Achilles are not emotional people but near the ends of their poems they didn’t show any mercy towards Hector and Turnus, because they killed their close friends Achilles and Aeneas killed them without any remorse.

Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey are poems centered around the events of the Trojan War. The Iliad recounts the events from the Trojan war during the final weeks whereas The Odyssey is a sequel telling the story of Odysseus and his journey back home. Within the poems, the role of gods and goddesses plays an integral part in influencing the human characters and the events of the Trojan War. The divinities are split between the sides of the Trojans and the Achaeans due to conflict with Paris and the goddesses. The use of these divinities parallels with the polytheistic beliefs in Greek culture. Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, and Apollo are some of which who are used in both The Iliad and The Odyssey.

The Homeric gods are seen as divine powers who are powerful, manipulative, and immortal to humans even though they are portrayed in human form (Jones). The intervention of the gods is the reason behind the start of The Trojan War as well as a major influence on mortal character development. Homer portrays the gods and goddesses as immortal beings with numerous characteristics seen mostly in humans. Zeus, being considered to be the greatest god in the hierarchy, shows behavior that resembles how a mortal human would act. In the Iliad, Zeus does not take a side but intervenes in the war multiple times showing both his divine powers and mortal characteristics. He states in the poem ‘I stay on Olympus throned aloft, here in my steep mountain cleft, to feast my eyes and delight my heart. The rest of you: down you go, got to Trojans, go to Achaeans. Help either side as the fixed desire derives each god to act” (Book 20). He only steps in when it is necessary, showing how the powers of a god are guided by human-like decisions.

The quarrels between the gods involve Zeus being the ultimate decider of what happens. It is also important to note that throughout both texts, human characters speak almost entirely in terms of the god’s power rather than their divine being (Jones). Zeus, for example, used his power to help Agamemnon take the trojans even though in the past he used his power for the Greeks. With the gods using their power to sway the battle based upon the humans, characteristics of betrayal and struggle appear. This can be seen in Book One of the Iliad when Zeus is struggling between Heras and Thetis’s quarrels. Zeus promises Thetis to support the Trojans but in doing so it would anger Hera. When he says “You’re going to force me into a conflict with Hera” highlights an issue that is human-like. This dilemma between Hera and Thetis puts Zeus in a position of lying and distrust which seems unlikely for a powerful god. Taalman explains that even though Zeus “sympathizes with the trojans, [he] sacrifices Troy to Hera and Athena”. Zeus’s intervention during the war due to the other gods to his overall want for peace among both worlds allows him to be humanized into a human being rather than a divinity with no limit on power. Hera, Zeus’s wife, also demonstrates human qualities that interfere greatly within the war. The tension that is created between her and other gods allows them to gain these characteristics. Hera’s actions stem from her passion for helping the Greeks, but what causes this passion is her anger and jealousy when Paris did not choose her as the most beautiful. In book one of the Iliad, “heroes quarrel on Earth and the gods quarrel on Olympus” which shows how the gods are fighting with one another like human beings (Yilmaz). For example, the conflicts between Achilles and Agamemnon connect the qualities of both humans and gods because the gods themselves are fighting the same way. For example, with Zeus struggling to not upset anyone, Hera says “devising secret plots behind my back…you can’t bear to tell me what you’re thinking, or you don’t dare” (Book one, 573).

Anger and envy are clearly presented within Hera’s words. This ultimately urges Hera to make decisions based on her emotions (Scott). Her decision in book 8 when she deceives Zeus at Mount Ida is influenced from jealousy and need for power. She does this in order for the Greeks to gain power by seducing him, which distracts him for the war for a short period of time. The interference of Poseidon in The Iliad is greatly due to Hera’s hatred toward the Trojans. Hera calls on Poseidon in book 14 to help the Achaean forces, while she distracts Zeus to keep his attention away from the battle so that gods can intervene in the war freely. Homer makes the conflict of the gods look similar to those of humans with themes of deceptions and betrayal. Due to this, the trojan war becomes less about either side and more on the gods wanting to resolve their own struggles and fights with one another. Poseidon’s betrayal of his father to intervene in the war is a human-like choice as well as withdrawing from Troy out of respect for his father (Frazer). Poseidon’s act of rebellion is similar to Achilles’ rebellion against Agamemnon which demonstrates how alike the divinities and heroes are (Bertani). He also demonstrates his vengeful power on the battlefield through messing with the humans.

In the Odyssey, however, his vengefulness can be seen after Odysseus blinds the cyclops, his son (book 5). Poseidon decides to punish the men by unleashing storms that cause destruction and death to Odysseus’s ships and men. During the war, Poseidon continues to help the Greeks but makes the choice to save Aeneas, a Trojan, after Greek Achilles almost kills him. Poseidon knew that Aenea’s fate was not death but to become a king. His choice to save Aeneas contrary to the benefit of the Greeks conveys human-like morality. After Poseidon’s engagement in the war, Zeus calls Apollo to fight for the Greek side. This ultimately stirs up the war even more. Apollo’s interference in the war in Book 21 shows how the gods are acting upon their own feelings, grudges, and vengefulness. It is also significant to note the quest for status among many of the gods, including Apollo, are motivators of these emotions. Anger is one of the most common characteristics in the gods because it is a result out of the power struggle. Bertani says that “the anger of the hero and the god are interwoven into the diction, thematic, and symbolic substructure of the entire work”. Achilles’ characteristics are similar to those of Apollo in terms of anger and power struggles “through the diction of boasting, and asserted that they are both the younger aggrieved parties forced to demur to individuals with greater status, Poseidon and Agamemnon” (Bertani). For example, Apollo refuses to fight Poseidon when he confronts him. Poseidon asks “don’t you remember this, how many great evils we two, alone of all the gods, suffered at Illium” when Apollo decides to side with the Trojans after they had been slaves to them. Apollo is called a coward for his human qualities of refusing to fight by his sister Artemis.

Apollo’s want for power can be seen in the very beginning in book one when he demonstrates his destructive power on the battlefield. Whereas this shows the powers of the divinities, it also be said that unleashing these powers are from human characteristics. This scene in the first book sets the rest of the poem in motion. In conclusion, Apollo’s emotions toward his family and the want for a higher status is what humanizes him. As a result of the interactions between the gods and goddesses in their hierarchy, gods are drawn into making poor, human-like decisions. Homer shows how the gods are divine and powerful yet struggle with human qualities such as anger, jealousy, and betrayal. The development of these characteristics mirrors the development of the poems through the god’s intervention in the war. With Zeus holding the most power, he allows for his children and wife to influence his decisions based upon conflicts with other gods. For example, Hera displays human-like emotions like envy and pity not only towards other gods, but mortals too. She goes to Zeus like many other gods so that she can gain power. Poseidon and Apollo use acts of rage against the mortals in order to gain control. The struggle for power is seen in Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, and Apollo. The Iliad and The Odyssey both convey the quest for status among the hierarchy of the divinities through the human-like qualities. Because Homer humanized the divinities rather than making them supernatural beings allow for the readers to understand the important relationship between the gods and goddesses and the heroic characters.f

In the modern world, with its growing attention to diversity and equality in all of its forms, the question of gender quality is one of the most important and frequently discussed subjects. This issue is studied in a number of fields such as education, business, political and social studies, and literature. The latter is often viewed as a reflection of the historical and cultural realities during various periods of time; this is why the attitude towards women in literature is often researched from the anthropological point of view. This paper is focused on the exploration of the roles of women on two of the most well-known works of literature – Homer’s “The Iliad” and the collection of the Arabic folk stories called “1001 Nights”.

Both of the works serve as detailed and deep reflections of the histories and cultures of the countries they came from and elaborately portrayed the relationships between men and women, religions and spirituality, and the morals of their nations. The two cultures described in “The Iliad” and “1001 Nights” are very different, yet they contain some rather striking similarities determined mostly by the eras whey originate from known for explicit patriarchal built of the societies. This way, the roles of women and attitudes towards them demonstrated in both books are very different from the ideas promoted in contemporary society.

Generally, even though “The Iliad” and “1001 Nights” date back to very different historical periods and come from cultures with little similarities, the gender roles in them are rather alike as in both books women are widely objectified and oppressed, they are not treated as equals to men and often referred to as commodities that can be sold, exchanged, given away as bribes, or abducted as material valuables.

Historical Perspective

Historically, the creation of “The Iliad” dates back to the Bronze Age, approximately 1260 BC. This period is often called the dark age of Greece. The country was divided into multiple city-states, and as a result, armed conflicts and violence were not rare. “1001 Nights” is a more recent work compared to “The Iliad,” it dates back to the 940s, back then it was known as “A Thousand Nights,” and the word “thousand” was put into the title as a figurative reference to a large number, the actual number of the stories added to the collection was less than 500 (The Thousand and One Nights par. 4).

Both eras are known for male domination. In Greece, men were the ones who prevailed in such fields as politics, economy, military plans, arts, and sciences. To test this fact, one may simply try to remember any female artists, philosophers, or politicians from ancient Greece. When it comes to “1001 Nights”, this work is a collection of stories from a number of countries, yet they all have one important feature in common – their religion. The stories of “1001 Nights” are the tales of the Muslim world; they incorporate Islamic moral rules and norms, ethical beliefs, social hierarchy, and mythology. Social inequality between men and women in “1001 Nights” is obvious; it the individual tales and in the general store where the king is determined to execute all of his female slaves just because he lost his faith in women.

Regardless of the utter inequality between male and female characters, the roles of women in “The Iliad” and “1001 Nights” are multidimensional. Women serve as objects of victimization, they are negatively portrayed as unfaithful, cunning, and envious creatures, but at the same time, they are often admired and even worshiped for their beauty, wisdom, and kindness.

Cultural Perspective

“The Iliad”

Homer’s “The Iliad” reflected the cultural environment of the time when it was created and the area it describes. For the reader of this epic, it is easy to notice how goal-driven and proud all of the characters are. Achieving, conquering, and winning are the main objectives of their lives. The achievements of this kind characterize a worthy male; this is why the male characters of the epic are involved in a constant rivalry and confrontation; they fight over territories, influences, power, wealth, resources, and, of course, for women. In “The Iliad,” women are viewed as valuable trophies, especially the women of noble background and from wealthy and influential families.

A great demonstration of this tendency can be found in the very beginning of the epic during the conversation between Agamemnon and Calchas, where the former finds out that Apollo is sending plague to his warriors following the prayers of Chryses, and the only way to stop this is for Agamemnon to return the daughter of Chryses to her father. The abduction of the girl is viewed as an act of dishonoring for the father. Agamemnon is unwilling to give back the girl because to him she is “a maid, unmatch’d in manners as in the face,/ Skill’d in each art, and crown’d with every grace; / Not half so dear were Clytaemnestra’s charms” (Book 1, 6).

Basically, Agamemnon openly admits that the girl he abducted is more interesting for him than his own wife, and this seems to be treated as a matter of fact situation. Besides, facing the fact that the threat to his troops is very serious, he decides to give up the girl saying, “The prize, the beauteous prize, I will resign, /So dearly valued, and so justly mine” (Book 1, 6). The daughter of Chryses is Agamemnon’s prize, a trophy he earned during a battle; he likes it and wishes to keep it as a reminder of his great achievements. The desires of the “prize,” or her wishes considering where to go are not taken into consideration at all.

“1001 Nights”

While in “The Iliad,” women are treated as valuable trophies, the male characters of “1001 Night” have an utterly consumerist attitude towards their females. For example, in “The Second Kalander’s Tale,” the narrator meets a woman, by whom he is completely mesmerized. The attributes that make her so special to him are mainly her devoted serving – she bathes him, shampoos his feet, brings delicious food and wine, and, of course, pleasures him sexually. As a result, the man admits that he begins to fall in love with her within just a couple of days. This can be viewed as a demonstration that only a very submissive female deserves a man’s favor. Besides, the woman initially is a property of an Ifrit, a monstrous mythological creature, yet she is willing to be shared between the two lovers saying to the narrator: “Of every ten days one is for the Ifrit and the other nine are thine” (The Second Kalander’s Tale par. 11).

This arrangement is an interesting aspect of the morals showed in the story, it emphasizes the unfaithfulness of a woman, but it is justified by the fact that she is exploited by a monster. The consumerist attitude of a man becomes even more obvious when the Ifrit finds out about the affair of his woman and starts to torture her asking about her secret lover. The woman endures the pain to save the man, and the man does absolutely nothing to save the woman. He simply runs away and hides. Once again, the female is admired for her devotion, which is taken for granted and neglected by the man. There is another line that serves an excellent demonstration of the attitude towards women in the story.

When the Ifrit confronts the narrator and asks him to kill the unfaithful woman, the man refuses to say “O mighty Ifrit and hero, if a woman lacking wits and faith deems it unlawful to strike off my head, how can it be lawful for me, a man, to smite her neck whom I never saw in my whole life?” (The Second Kalander’s Tale par. 22). He shows mercy refusing to kill the woman, but at the same time, he is paying compliments to the Ifrit and insulting the woman, which clearly shows that his priority is to save his own life at any cost.

Analysis

This way, culturally, women are not considered as equals and are generally objectified in both books. In “The Iliad,” an admirable female is characterized by her ability to accept any owner that takes hold of her, and in “1001 Nights,” the best quality is the devotion of a woman to a man even if it is selective and occurs from her unfaithfulness to another male. At the same time, in both books, women are valued for their education, intellect, and the ability to maintain a witty conversation. Yet, this does not justify the reduction of females to entertainers, servants, and sex toys.

Spiritual Perspective

“1001 Nights”

Religion and mythology play a vital role in both “The Iliad” and “1001 Nights”. While the ancient Greek society is under constant control of their gods, who have the ability to empower, punish and manipulate humans, the Muslim society members of “1001 Nights” live according to the Sharia laws and often mention Allah. In contemporary Western society, the image of an oppressed Muslim woman is rather recognizable and familiar; this image is constantly communicated by the media and creates a stereotype of a cruel and unjust Islamic world. “1001 Nights” demonstrate the multiple dimensions of women’s role in that society; it offers a taste of the new philosophy.

This way, if we ignore the violence and cruelty common for medieval literature of any geographical area, we will notice that Muslim women are portrayed as strong-willed, persistent, brave, loyal, wise, and clever. Scenes of brutality against women and utter disregard of their lives are frequent in “1001 Nights”, yet male characters are tortured, beaten up and murdered just as much as females there. Since women do not have the physical strength of men and can hardly protect themselves with a weapon, women are shown to pursue alternative ways of survival. In “1001 Nights,” men carry swords and axes, and women’s weapon is wit; this is why at times, women are portrayed as stronger and more dangerous than men.

For example, in the main story of “1001 Nights,” Scheherazade acts according to a very clever plan trying to save her life and the rest of the women king Shahryar intends to execute due to his lack of faith in women. The story shows a man as a simple and straightforward creature, with a primitive way of thinking – since one female let him down, he concludes that all women are alike. Scheherazade is clever; she finds a disguised way to educate the king about women, teach him new morals, and open up his mind.

“The Iliad”

In “The Iliad,” not all females are powerless against men. The complex hierarchy of the Greek pagan gods and demigods makes a lot of females more powerful and influential than males. Yet, it needs to be mentioned that the only powerful female figures in the epic are goddesses such as Thetis, the mother of Achilles, Hera, the wife of Zeus, and the goddess of love Aphrodite. These goddesses participate in battles, manipulate people, and can provide supernatural help by sending winds, defeating someone with sudden diseases or command nature and make rivers rise. Besides, just like human women, they frequently use their beauty and charm to seduce men, manipulate them, and use their weaknesses against them.

Conclusion

In conclusion, regardless of the significant cultural differences between the societies “the Iliad” and “1001 Nights” originate from, the two works have a number of similarities. First of all, they demonstrate the strict patriarchal built of their societies, which facilitates victimization and objectification of women. At the same time, women in the two books are portrayed in a variety of dimensions and are described as the characters with complex strengths and weaknesses forced to survive in the rough environments or their eras.

Works Cited

Homer. The Iliad. 2006. Web.

The Second Kalander’s Tale. The Arabian Nights. 2015. Web.

The Thousand and One Nights. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2013. Web.

Many ancient philosophers dedicated their works to war and expressed their opinion on whether or not fighting is justified by any means. The attempt to formulate criteria under which war would be morally right led to the creation of the just war theory. The current paper observes two ancient texts, The Iliad and The Bhagavad-gita, to investigate the arguments of what the virtues of wars are. The paper argues that although both texts name different reasons to justify war, all of them are united by the fact that they improve warriors life.

Homer’s poem The Iliad depicts battles during the Trojan War and glorifies wars. From The Iliad, it could be inferred that war is justified because it helps to develop bravery and obligatoriness. In the eleventh book of The Iliad, Odysseus claims that only a craven man leaves the battlefield, while most decent people stay till the end (Hommer 242). Another illustration of the fact that wars are worthy of participation is Hector’s behavior. He is courageous; from his viewpoint, it is a shame to hide from conflict. In the sixth book, Hector says to his wife, who is worried about becoming a widow, that he “would die of shame” if he “would shrink from battle now” (Homer 176). Thus, Homer emphasizes that the necessity to fight is higher than staying alive. Homer also applies the concept of joy to justify battles. Throughout the book, he uses this word to describe the feelings of the battling warriors (Homer 168, 266, 307). Hence, it could be concluded that for Homer, war is justified because it gives the fame of a brave man, is prestigious and entertaining.

The Bhagavad-gita is an ancient Indian religious and philosophical masterpiece, written by Vyasa, that depicts a dialogue between the prince Arjuna and his coachman, Krishna. The Bhagavad-gita reflects Hinduism’s tradition to classify all people into four varnas and hijrahs, that is, untouchable people. More precisely, shudras are born to serve, vaishyas – to trade, brahmins – to educate, and kshatriyas – to rule and fight. When the prince complains that he fears the outcomes of the war against his cousins, the coachman responds that the prince belongs to kshatriyas and, therefore, he should fulfill his duty as a combatant (Vyasa 29, 40). From this, it could be inferred that, compared with what Homer claims, the divine prescription, rather than the search for fame and the fear of becoming known as a coward, justifies war.

Vyasa, similarly to Homer, states that a warrior should not be afraid of death. Nevertheless, the former’s argument is that every person inside has atman. Atman is the inner self that would reincarnate after the death of the physical body (Vary 435). On the contrary, Homer emphasizes that “man’s life breath cannot come back again” (Hommer 212). This means that Homer does not justify wars by the existence of the afterlife, as Vyasa does.

Krishna also says that it would be fair to go to war if it is caused by just reasons. The coachman claims that it would be a sin not to react to the barbarous behavior of Arjuna’s cousins (Vyasa 39). Thus, according to The Bhagavad-gita, war is reasonable if it is fought by kshatriyas and directed against people who deserve the punishment. Besides, a man should not be afraid of war because even if his body dies, the soul continues living.

To conclude, from The Iliad, it seems that war is worth fighting because it is an obligation of a decent man and helps to unlock his potential of a brave person. It is prestigious not to give in to fear. The Bhagavad-gita regards participation in wars as a duty, as well. The difference is that this duty was given by the deities. Finally, the fact that unites both authors argue that if a person becomes engaged in war, it signifies that he acts following virtues, even though they are dissimilar in two writings.

Works Cited

Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Eknath Easwaran. Penguin Classics, 1990.

Vary, Alex. “Accessing Atman via the Mesostratum Mind Loop.” Journal of Consciousness Exploration & Research, vol. 7, no.6, 2016, pp. 431-435.

Vyasa. The Bhagavad-gita. Translated by Robert Fagles. Nilgiri Press, 1985.

Introduction

The Greek poem The Iliad written by Homer is one of the most outstanding poems of ancient literature and may be considered a background for many other works of later eras. Since the narration of this epic is closely connected with the gods, the topic of religion and beliefs is often touched upon and is one of the key ones. Homer offers a variety of shades of religious consciousness, and many of the plot elements used by the author indicate a social interpretation of the divine cult and the introduction of human beliefs into the narrative.

Examples of Religious References

Despite the fact that the considered Homeric poem is filled with prayers in honor of the gods, the poet’s civilized experience is felt throughout the whole story. For instance, the author proposes the thesis that the gods are always merciful, although they are superior to mere mortals and can express their virtue constantly (Homer 168). In The Iliad, Homer writes as follows: “Even gods will bend, they who have more honor and might than you” (168).

In this phrase, the author notes the favor of the gods as one of the qualities that makes them superior to ordinary people. Another example that the Homer mentions in the context of divine qualities is “the mortal virtue of shame,” which allows higher beings to not only choose and coordinate people’s fates but also make fair decisions (450). Based on the unquestioned authority of the gods of Olympus, one can argue that human beliefs were a natural phenomenon, and worship was part of ancient Greeks’ life. As a result, this storyline is traced throughout the narrative openly and clearly.

Role of Religion and Beliefs

Associating the gods with grace and favor was an indispensable element of worship during Homer. When analyzing The Iliad, one can assume that although the images of those who lived “on deep-furrowed Olympus topmost peak” were invented by people, a clear structure was traced in that epic (Homer 137). As Sani and Sadreddini argue, the hierarchy of gods proposed by Homer was utilized by subsequent authors, and the significance of beliefs was largely determined by the influence of literature (4).

Since people needed to explain the origin of many phenomena and laws of nature that they did not understand, arguments from a religious standpoint became widespread. Therefore, in the poem in question, the importance of beliefs is undeniable in view of the divine plots as one of the main elements of the narrative.

The events of The Iliad convince readers of the gods’ rightness and prove that ignoring messages from Olympus is fraught with dangerous consequences. For instance, Homer cites a situation when Zeus checks the spirit of the Trojans and forbids them to go through the moat (146). The Greeks who took such signs seriously were confident that their faith could help them overcome any difficulties and obstacles. Religion was closely intertwined with ordinary life and was an integral attribute of literary works, as confirmed in The Iliad. Therefore, the significance of human beliefs in numerous deities is a natural feature of the poem in question.

Conclusion

The variety of the descriptions of the gods offered by Homer in The Iliad proves the cult of beliefs in the poem. This also explains the inextricable connection of divine essences with the world of mere mortals. By using the example of individual storylines, one can assess the significance of religion in the work that has become a background for many subsequent epics of ancient Greek authors. The gods are presented as gracious creatures, and their strength and grandeur are integral components of the narrative in The Iliad.

References

Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Herbert Jordan, University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.

Sani, Mojtaba Rezaei, and Fariba Sadreddini. “The Impact of Religion and Spirituality on Literature: A Systematic Review.” Asian Journal of Language, Literature and Culture Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 2018, pp. 1-8.