Category: Idealism

In his analysis, Jessica Matthews observes that the steady concentration of power in the hands of states, which began with the signing of the treaty of Westphalia, is no more (Bova 252). In her view, there are many actors in the international system, including state and non-state actors. On the other hand, Krasner notes that the state is still the only powerful actor in the international system because it enjoys sovereignty (Bova 237).

Idealists and realists have strong arguments as regards to the power of the state in the international system. To realists such as Krasner, the state is the only unit of analysis while idealists observe that there are many actors in the international system. Matthews analysis suggests that the international system is a community of both states and human beings. In this regard, foreign policy formulation should recognize all actors.

Therefore, the role of non-governmental institutions in foreign policy formulation should be respected. On their part, realists note that the international system dictates what should be done. In other words, individuals have no power to influence foreign policy formulation process because the process is dictated by changes in the international system. The international system is anarchical according to realists implying that there is no centralized authority.

The reality of the matter is that the role of the state in the international system is diminishing due to the emergence of other actors such as international organizations, supranational organizations, and Multinational Corporations. In this regard, states must consider the views of other institutions before coming up with foreign decisions. In the current international system, the influence of Multinational Companies cannot be neglected.

Some Multinational Corporations have adequate resources that they use to influence states to make certain policies that favor them. In the developing countries, states do not control foreign policies because of the presence of rich individuals and Multinational Corporations. For instance, George Soros influenced the foreign policy making process in the communist states because he was extremely rich.

He funded programs that aimed at eliminating communism. This affected the foreign behavior of states because they had to obey the rules set by an individual. Institutions such as the International Criminal Court affect the foreign behavior of states in a number of ways. States cannot act in a way that would invite criticisms from the ICC. In Kenya, the ICC has always shaped the foreign behavior of the state for the last five years.

The state has been forced to comply with the provisions of the court in order to enjoy good diplomatic relations. Realists would argue that powerful states force weak states to sign agreements that do not favor their domestic interests. For instance, the US forces states to enter into agreements, such as being members of the ICC, yet it is not a member itself. This shows that powerful states use international institutions to achieve their national interests.

In the international system, behavior of states is based on morality meaning that states observe international codes and morals. Realists would argue that morality is not considered when pursuing national interests because the end justifies the means. However, idealists do not share this belief because universal interests are crucial as opposed to national interests.

Since states have a duty beyond their national borders, idealists observe that human rights must always be observed whenever a state engages in conflicts with other states. Organizations such as Amnesty International are recognized as genuine actors in the international system because of their efforts to fight for human rights. Realists agree that states must intervene militarily to restore democracy.

However, states must conduct themselves in a manner that would guarantee fairness and equality. This means that professional codes of conducts must be observed whenever executing duties in foreign countries. In the battlefields, soldiers are expected to conduct themselves professionally by keeping away from heinous acts of crime such as rape, unnecessary murder, robbery, and violence.

The US forces are always accused of unleashing terror to innocent people whenever they are sent to restore peace and democracy in war torn zones. Since American foreign policy makers appreciate morality, soldiers are usually charged in the martial courts, and stiff penalties are imposed on the accused. Idealism applies in the international system because international law has always guided the behavior of states.

Cooperation is one of the tenets of idealism, which is frequently employed in the current international system. Terrorism, environmental degradation, and the south-north gap pose threats to countries forcing them to collaborate to forge a working relationship. States cannot exist in isolation due to the threats posed by terrorists.

Terrorism is a problem that affects both the rich and the poor states. It does not spare communists because terrorists do not care whether the leadership of the state employs capitalism or communism. An ideological difference among states is not a matter of concern to terrorists. States have struggled to form a global organization that oversees the production and consumption of nuclear energy due to threats of terrorism.

States are concerned with how the weapons of mass destruction are produced and utilized. It would be disastrous in case the weapons get into the hands of terrorists. Therefore, the Atomic Agency is an organization that is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that nuclear energy does not get into the hands of terrorists. The organization has the right to investigate and inspect the production of nuclear energy in all countries.

States cooperate when it comes to nuclear disarmament programs because nuclear weapons threaten the security of all states. Under this argument, realists would argue that powerful states do not want weak states to acquire nuclear energy because it would threaten their national interests.

Idealists believe that democracy and egalitarianism are particularly beneficial in attaining collective goals. In this regard, public opinion should always be considered when formulating foreign policy. Powerful states will always intervene militarily to restore democracy in regions affected by conflicts.

The US was justified to intervene militarily in Iraq and Afghanistan because the regimes of these countries interfered with the rights of citizens. In Libya, Egypt, and Tunisia, the role of NATO was hailed because the regimes never considered public opinion when making policies. In the international system, states have always worked together to achieve collective security. The principles guiding states are based on norms, but not powers as suggested by realists.

Realists give a contradictory opinion. They suggest that foreign policy is considered high politics meaning that public opinion should never be incorporated into foreign policy making process. In fact, realists believe that states form alliances due to mistrust and suspicion. According to realists, states would always do anything possible to maintain sovereignty. According to realists, the human nature is selfish and brutal. In this regard, national interests influence the formation of international organizations.

Works Cited

Bova, Russell. How the World Works A Brief Survey of International Relations. Boston: Pearson Longman, 2012. Print.

Bova, Russell. Readings on How the World Works, Current Issues in International Relations. New York: Pearson, 2010. Print.

In his book, a diplomat and a political scientist, Henry Kissinger states that, It is above all to the drumbeat of Wilsonian idealism that American foreign policy has marched since his watershed presidency, and continues to march to this day. Here he implies that although Wilson failed to convince America that collective security represented by international organizations would guarantee peace in the world, his idea is still relevant today. I partly agree with this statement because today politicians do their best to avoid armed conflicts on the international arena, however, in certain situations foreign policy still follows the best interests of the United States.

In the modern world, the peaceful coexistence of different countries is impossible without international relations, which is the foundation of diplomacy. Without these means of implementing the state foreign policy, political, economic and cultural integration is impossible. Initially, the U.S. diplomacy arose from the English model. The theory of international relations in American political science began to form in the period between the two World Wars.

America has always been independent in decision-making and used manipulative tactics combined with old and new traditions. In the twentieth century, America became a global superpower and had expanded its foreign engagement. During those times Woodrow Wilson ruled the country and recognized the role of America in international affairs. He believed that the foundation of international relations was morality and law. The aim of his ideology was stated as to entrench cooperation and interdependence among all countries around the globe, believing that cooperation will substitute anarchy with peace and prosperity.

Political idealism holds that the democratization of international relations, combined with the introduction of norms of morality and justice into the world politics can eliminate armed conflicts and wars between different nations and countries. Supporters of Wilsonian idealism tried to analyze the goals and objectives of foreign policy proceeding solely from moral, ethical and abstract legal norms. Following the views of classical liberalism, they believe that the primary task of the foreign policy of the United States of America is to defend the ideals of freedom and democracy throughout the world.

Wilsonian ideology appears to have preserved in modern politics. Recent examples include George W. Bush, who radiated Wilsonian idealism. Also, in May 2014, President Obama gave a speech, where he defined Americas place in the world much as Wilson might have  propping up the international order, defending human rights, and walking eternally down the path of virtue. However, foreign policy is too complicated only to judge it from the reflections of presidents.

In practice, an idealistic approach is not an obstacle to the use of assertive methods of achieving foreign policy goals. In fact, it successfully serves as a camouflage to interfere in foreign and domestic policies of other countries in pursuit of economic, geopolitical, and strategic benefits. Such a practice can be observed in the activities of many prominent American political leaders and scientists since 1950s up to the present day.

For instance, during the Cold War, many U.S. foreign policy steps were justified by considerations of protecting freedom and democracy, combating the anti-liberal theory and practice of communism. Furthermore, the idealistic approach was reflected in foreign policy doctrines and foreign policy practice of other countries as well.

In my opinion, the alternative opinion of ideology  a political realism is more prevalent today. According to Prinz and Rossi, it focuses on the objectivity of analysis and evaluation of real facts and events in the political world. This theory recognizes the fact that national and state interests are at the heart of international politics, which are considered to be a political motivation. The determining role of national interests in the policy is expressed, in particular, the fact that the concepts of enemies and allies are conditional and change as interests are transformed.

To conclude, I believe that today American foreign policy shows interests in enforcing peace only on the surface. In reality, Wilsonian ideology does not provide enough motivation for unconditional support and financial help to foreign countries because America will always seek for own benefit. It is impossible to believe in unselfish intentions because behind each slogan and action there is a specific interest.

Bibliography

Bello, Haliru Dogondaji. The Role of Wilsonian Idealism in the Emergence of Existential Threats to Security- 21^st century Nigeria in focus, International Scientific Conference Strategies XXI 2, (2017): 92- 108.

Kissinger, Henry. Henry Kissinger Foreign Policy E-book Boxed Set: Crisis, Does America Need a Foreign Policy and Diplomacy? New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013. Web.

Ikenberry, G. John, Thomas J. Knock, Anne-Marie Slaughter and Tony Smith. The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.

Prinz, Janosch, and Enzo Rossi. Political Realism as Ideology Critique. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 20, no. 3 (2017): 348-365.

Widmer, Ted. Long Echoes of War and Speech. New York Times. Web.

Introduction

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is considered to be an outstanding philosopher of the nineteenth century who contributed to the development of idealism on the basis of phenomenology and existentialism. It is necessary to underline the fact that such thinkers as Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard and some others rejected Hegels idea of idealism vision differing from common philosophy through his existentialist ideas of world perception. It should be noted that his theory cannot be disclosed as the one to be followed; Hegels presentation of the world we live in as absurd and irrational is considered to be ungrounded and has weak support in European philosophical study.

Hegel Philosophy

European existentialism described its philosophical thought on the basis of key humanity problems characterizing the universe as the useless environment having no clear identification and reasons for existence. Hegels optimistic idealism never agreed with the ideas presented by Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and Kierkegaard, who underlined the fact that It is a silly talk. If there were nothing beyond experience, it would simply drive him (a man) mad (Moore, 2008, p.165).

Hegels idealism and existentialism are very contradictory and mistakable; this fact can be proved by the examples of many European thinkers. For example, Kierkegaard rejected Hegels flow of thought because of the individuals dissolvent into abstract unreality described by Hegel. In order to demonstrate the contrast between two thinkers, it should be stressed that Kierkegaard highlighted the importance of individuals choice and human role in universe development. Hegels philosophy was based on abstract thoughts and things that is why it cannot be perceived as the background for scientific development. Thus, the philosophers ideas were based on the principles of abstract metaphysics underlying the role of ideal truth in the society. (Moore, 2008).

Hegels idealism where the world is predominantly driven by the reason centralization was completely rejected by such prominent European philosophers as Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. They stick to the opinion that our world was ruled in accordance with the cosmic will; though the cosmos in Hegels understanding was presented as the concrete thought expression. It should be stressed that Hegels Absolute Idealism was based on the following principles and ideas: the objective world is completely unfolding for human beings and is presented as infinite thought expression; he characterized reality through coherent thought systems being integrated and related to mathematics. These facts are contradicting enough; thus, for example, Berkeley expressed the theory that the objective world is a part of individuals minds. It is impossible to treat the world and human beings activities and way of life on the basis of abstract notions and thoughts, as it was underlined in Hegels philosophy.

Personal rejection of Hegels philosophy is connected with the identification of the theory of spirit expressed by the thinker. He noted that spiritual analysis could be closely connected with such aspects as state, society, punishment, personality and property. It is difficult to agree with the idea of political and historical role in the formation of the spirit being a part of the objective world. As it was stressed before, Hegel did not perceive the existence of objectiveness in human minds; so, how could he connect spirit with the elements of objective reality&?! In accordance with Hegels philosophical viewpoint, spirit is the highest Absolute conception and cannot be compared with any unfolded objectiveness. Hegel strived to centralize such concepts as negation and contradiction describing them as the principle elements of progressive development of state and society. Despite this fact he noted that evolution is dependent on the Gods will for self-awareness (Hegel, & Wallace, 1971).

It is necessary to underline the fact that Hegels position of existentialism based on the principle of abstract world perception cannot be grounded in modern society. His philosophical view is complicated and intricate, though it is not adaptable to the awareness of current generations. European philosophy demonstrated a number of realistic theories rejecting the abstract significance in human life and progress (Wallace, 2005).

Conclusion

The analysis of philosophical thought by Hegel demonstrated a number of contradictions and misunderstandings in European thinkers thoughts. It should be stressed that he centralized ungrounded significance of abstract presentation and role in the formation of the universe. His optimistic realism suits no the standards and consciousness in modern science. It is necessary to underline the idea that Hegel rejected the general position of existentialism theory where human life sensitivity can result in constant sufferings and despair. In accordance with his presentation, people can build the world on the basis of abstract thoughts development; the centralization of spiritual significance cannot be supported by modern technological and scientific role in the formation of the human modern universe.

References

1. Hegel, G. W. and Wallace, W. (1971). Hegels Philosophy of Mind. Oxford University Press.
2. Moore, B. (2008). Philosophy: The Power of Ideas. McGraw-Hill Companies; 6^th Edition.
3. Wallace, R. (2005). Hegels philosophy of reality, freedom, and God. Cambridge University Press.

Introduction

American philosophy of the nineteenth century is marked by such an outstanding trend as transcendentalism that celebrated the achievement of an ideal spiritual state through ones intuition rather than through established religious doctrines. One of the founding fathers of this philosophic trend was Ralph Waldo Emerson, who in his essays and speeches laid out the fundamentals of transcendentalism. Emersons outlook embraced an idealistic view of the world together with the key role of nature in it, and the ultimate objective of ones life was seen in cognition and understanding of the world with a view of harmonizing ones relationship with it and enjoying a comprehensive existence.

View of idealism

Emerson starts explaining his view of idealism in the sixth chapter of his essay Nature by openly confessing that the true existence of external reality is impossible to warrant; however, he does not envisage this impossibility as an obstacle for his philosophy, as he considers nature, as the essence of reality, to be equally important and sacred to him whether nature enjoy a substantial existence without, or is only in the apocalypse of the mind (29). However it may be, Emerson declares that once a man begins doubting the permanent character of natures laws, his living capacities are subdued, and therefore the trust in the absolute existence of nature becomes an issue of vital importance for human existence and development (30).

Proceeding on his discussion of the idealistic reality, Emerson points out that while the world undergoes a series of changes under human influence, there remains something stable in the self; the same relations of the observer and the spectacle emerge when a poet creates his works: he can manage time, space, people and feelings, bringing forth a whole world of ideas and thus asserting the predominance of the soul (33). Providing parallels between poets and philosophers, Emerson discovers that there is a semblance in their objectives: the former seeking a beauty, which is truth, and the latter striving for a truth, which is beauty (34). Their associate in seeking the truth, scientists also appear to deal with the ideal matter; and the person who involves with those ideal matters is believed by Emerson to apprehend the absolute and for the first time, [&] exist (35). Finally, religion as the popular faith and practice of ideas is considered by Emerson to be degrading nature and blocking ones pure perception of and connection with nature (35). Thus, asserting the power and significance of ideas that unite the whole universe into an interrelated entity, Emerson envisages their contemplation as a way to immortality.

The world of nature

The world of an ideal is seen by Emerson in the world of nature: actually, nature has ascribed the role of the main component of the universe (8). In its integrity and manifold, it embraces and provides a sense of and connection between every existence, reflecting ones spirit. A significant feature of nature is that it is not only the material but is also the process and the result, with all of its part working for the mans benefit and serving all of his needs, including those of beauty, language, and discipline (Emerson 11). Nature guides man in his cognition of the world; it reveals the past to him and leads him to the future (Emerson 53). Unity in variety idea is the key to understanding Emersons view of nature as the inspiring source of universal wisdom (27).

Cognition of nature and its eternal laws becomes the task of the individual; blurred by multiple doctrines and ideas, peoples minds find it difficult to merge with nature and see nature as it is, like children do, without manipulating it (Emerson 9). In The American Scholar Emerson brings forward the idea that Man, for possessing himself back from the disunited state, should involve in active education by nature, by books, and by actions. The peculiarities and processes of the human mind are parallel to those of nature  and that is what makes cognition possible and relatively easy. Researching and understanding nature, one grasps a better understanding of oneself, and vice versa: therefrom comes the parallel between the ancient Know thyself and the contemporary Study nature ideas (Emerson 55).

Manifest destiny

Echoing the message of manifest destiny, Emerson declares that a new nation is to emerge: the one that does not blindly follow the beaten path but comprises people walking their own feet, working with their own hands, speaking their minds, each of them inspired by the Divine Soul which also inspires all men (70). A new significance is given to the individual, as he who is a great individual and aims high contributes to a great and worthwhile union (Emerson 68). Uttering an urge to look at the world with new eyes, Emerson envisages the emergence of an own perfect world for each person, the kingdom of man over nature, [&] a dominion such as now is beyond his dream of God (45). He considers the search for money and power to be natural to people and calls to turning ones attention to everyday mundane things, as such world is fruitful in discoveries (Emerson 68). However, with all the respect for the worth of values, pure consumerism ideas hardly appeal to Emerson, as he emphasizes the importance of efficient management of nature not only by understanding but also by reason which one devotedly employs for spiritual research of the world (42).

Conclusion

In the scope of philosophic trends of the nineteenth century, Emersons idealism is singled out by its attention to nature and envisaging it as a universal source of wisdom, knowledge, and wellbeing for everyone who opens his heart and mind to it.

Works Cited

Emerson, Ralph W. Nature. The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson: Volume I: Nature, Addresses, and Lectures. Eds. Robert E. Spiller, and Alfred R. Ferguson. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. 745.

Emerson, Ralph W. The American Scholar. The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson: Volume I: Nature, Addresses, and Lectures. Eds. Robert E. Spiller, and Alfred R. Ferguson. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. 4970.

According to the Keirsey Temperament Sorter Test results, it seems that I am an idealist in the framework given. As a disposition, idealists are fervently interested in personal advancement. Idealists always pursue self-knowledge and self-development; this pursuit of self-awareness and self-improvement is what fuels their creativity. They also wish to assist others on their path (Keirsey, n.d.). Idealists are naturally attracted to teamwork, and whether in the areas of learning or counseling, social work or human resources, news reporting, or the congregation, they have a talent for guiding others through life. They frequently serve as an inspiration for them to develop as people and reach their full potential.

Such a state of affairs suggests that projects involving cooperation with many teammates and the absence of firmly regulated relations and working processes seem to suit me best. Then, the described characteristics imply that my special abilities for facilitating peaceful, even compassionate interpersonal relationships and bringing people together for the common benefit are my strengths as a project manager. I am also able to see a plethora of significant opportunities and come up with creative ideas regularly. On the other hand, I may get into a friendly working atmosphere too much and, as a result, lose focus on project objectives. I would compensate for this with developed self-discipline and a firm standard of personal integrity, which are the other traits of idealists.

Reference

Keirsey. (n.d.). Portrait of an idealist.

Introduction

Robert Sargent Shriver, Jr. was born in November 9, 1915 and passed away on January 28, 2011 aged 95 years old. He was born to Robert Sargent Shriver, Sr and Hilda Shriver and generally known as Sarge. He was the American unsung hero who contributed greatly to his society and the international society through his service to humanity. He formed several social programs that changed the lives of the people in America and the rest of the word. He is a notable American idealist and a legend in public service.

Early life

He went to school in Canterbury school in Connecticut and graduated in 1934. He was among the students who had the opportunity to travel to Germany for an experiment in international living. The early exposure to the international community may be a major factor that led to the development of his interest in the world affairs and shaped his views on humanity and society. He later joined Yale law school, earned a degree in law, and joined politics even though he never held an elective position.

His leadership qualities emerged early while he was at Yale University. He joined the Delta Kappa Epislon fraternity that concerned with the research of world cultures and literatures. Through the activities of the fraternity, he encountered diverse cultures outside his own.

He thus learnt how to respect and appreciate people who were different from him irrespective of their race, economic and social status in the world. He looked at people as human beings and not as white or blacks rich or poor and he was able to serve humanity through his devoted service that touched people in America and throughout the world (Liston 20-27).

Moreover, he joined the Scroll and Key Society. The movement shaped its members and later on they offered service to the human race through various capacities in fields such as law, athletics, politics and philanthropy to name just but a few. Shriver was no exception and went on to become one of the greatest Americans in public service (Stossel 56).

He was also a leader of the Yale Daily News where he served as the chairperson. He utilized the opportunity to educate people on various issues such as human rights and economic empowerment. The leadership at the Yale Daily news gave him experience in leadership, as he became a very effective leader in the social organizations he started.

Service to the world

Shriver was an inspirational leader and became the first director of the Peace Corps after President JF Kennedy started it in 1961. The Peace Corps was started to encourage people to serve their country and developing nations through peace living.

Shriver did a great job in kicking starting the movement and in under a few years it had spread its wings to other nations. The director was enthusiastic and motivational hence helped to recruit volunteers and today the commitment shown by Shriver lives on as it helped transform Peace Corps from an ideal to a reality.

Peace Corps has touched the lives of Americans and the world at large as the volunteers across the world work to improve the lives of people. They do so by addressing issues of injustice and inequality in the society. Shriver was a man who had a lot of love for humanity and through his energy, commitment and enthusiasm made the world a better place. The Peace Corps has helped people in various developing countries.

It has helped to change the face of America abroad and painted it as a loving nation that cares for humanity. The program continues to influence lives today as it has continued to exist to date through donations, development loans, academic scholarships and other exchange programs. The other activities of the Peace Corps are fight against diseases such as malaria and AIDS. It also helps to fight against terrorism (Diemer 1).

Alleviating poverty in America

Shriver aimed at alleviating poverty to millions of Americans who are poor because e believed in economic equality. He believed that fellow Americans could join hands and help the people in poverty change their lives. He is credited with the establishment of a number of programs aimed at fighting poverty such as the VISTA, Job Corps, and Head Start (Diemer 1) VISTA is a program that fits poverty in America, as there are about thirty seven million Americans living in poverty.

The program requires volunteers to work in nonprofit organization for a year and offer their services for a year. It influences people’s lives by living. The other program is the Job Corps that was formed to help disadvantaged poor Americans acquire skills and gain gainful employment. The program gives skills to the power to enable them become economically independent instead of relying on handouts.

The program has served over 2.6 million young people since its inception in 1964 by giving them necessary skills that have enabled them to become successful in life and work. A 2004 graduate by the name Stephanie Underwood said that the program helped her to realize her self-worth (Job Corps 1). The lives of many people have changed for the better because they have acquired skills at Jobs Corps.

Recognition for service

The services that Shriver offered to his community and the world had a positive influence as people’s lives improved making the world a better place. He was recognized for his efforts in public service. Consequently, he received various awards such as the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Bill Clinton in 1994.

Clinton praised him for serving humanity and establishing programs that transformed the lives of many people across the globe and his legacy was worth emulating. Other awards include Freedom from Want Award in 1993, National Brotherhood Award among others.

He also had an award created in his honor called the Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice by the Sargent Shriver national center on Poverty Law to honor people who make outstanding contributions to delivering legal services to poor people or those with low incomes. Shriver believed that all people regardless of their economic status should have equal representation and opportunities in seeking justice (Diemer 1).

Conclusion

Finally, Shriver was a notable American Idealist who dared to transmit his vision of bringing economic and justice equality to all people through his various social programs. He believed in transforming the lives of people. He shared his vision with the people involved in the various programs and thus he was able to achieve his goals. The spirit he breathed into the various programs continues to inspire people to help each other and the service of the programs has been seen in various ways across the globe.

Through helping others, humanity is lifted and the image of America improved through its various programs that serve human beings across the globe. Sergeant Shriver believed in helping one another, the following quote captures the purpose of his service both at home and abroad “Nearly everybody in their life needs someone to help them. I don’t care whether you’re the greatest self-made man; the fact is, someone has helped you along the way” (Our Founder, Sargent Shriver 1).

Works Cited

Diemer, Tom. Sargent Shriver, a Peace Corps Founder and Liberal Activist, Is Dead at 95. 2011. Web.

Job Corps. 2011. Web.

Liston, Robert A. Sargent Shriver: a candid portrait. California: University of California, 2008.

Our Founder, Sargent Shriver. 2011. Web.

Stossel, Scot. Sarge : the life and times of Sargent Shriver. Chicago: Chicago Publishing House, 2011.

In his analysis, Jessica Matthews observes that the steady concentration of power in the hands of states, which began with the signing of the treaty of Westphalia, is no more (Bova 252). In her view, there are many actors in the international system, including state and non-state actors. On the other hand, Krasner notes that the state is still the only powerful actor in the international system because it enjoys sovereignty (Bova 237).

Idealists and realists have strong arguments as regards to the power of the state in the international system. To realists such as Krasner, the state is the only unit of analysis while idealists observe that there are many actors in the international system. Matthews’ analysis suggests that the international system is a community of both states and human beings. In this regard, foreign policy formulation should recognize all actors.

Therefore, the role of non-governmental institutions in foreign policy formulation should be respected. On their part, realists note that the international system dictates what should be done. In other words, individuals have no power to influence foreign policy formulation process because the process is dictated by changes in the international system. The international system is anarchical according to realists implying that there is no centralized authority.

The reality of the matter is that the role of the state in the international system is diminishing due to the emergence of other actors such as international organizations, supranational organizations, and Multinational Corporations. In this regard, states must consider the views of other institutions before coming up with foreign decisions. In the current international system, the influence of Multinational Companies cannot be neglected.

Some Multinational Corporations have adequate resources that they use to influence states to make certain policies that favor them. In the developing countries, states do not control foreign policies because of the presence of rich individuals and Multinational Corporations. For instance, George Soros influenced the foreign policy making process in the communist states because he was extremely rich.

He funded programs that aimed at eliminating communism. This affected the foreign behavior of states because they had to obey the rules set by an individual. Institutions such as the International Criminal Court affect the foreign behavior of states in a number of ways. States cannot act in a way that would invite criticisms from the ICC. In Kenya, the ICC has always shaped the foreign behavior of the state for the last five years.

The state has been forced to comply with the provisions of the court in order to enjoy good diplomatic relations. Realists would argue that powerful states force weak states to sign agreements that do not favor their domestic interests. For instance, the US forces states to enter into agreements, such as being members of the ICC, yet it is not a member itself. This shows that powerful states use international institutions to achieve their national interests.

In the international system, behavior of states is based on morality meaning that states observe international codes and morals. Realists would argue that morality is not considered when pursuing national interests because the end justifies the means. However, idealists do not share this belief because universal interests are crucial as opposed to national interests.

Since states have a duty beyond their national borders, idealists observe that human rights must always be observed whenever a state engages in conflicts with other states. Organizations such as Amnesty International are recognized as genuine actors in the international system because of their efforts to fight for human rights. Realists agree that states must intervene militarily to restore democracy.

However, states must conduct themselves in a manner that would guarantee fairness and equality. This means that professional codes of conducts must be observed whenever executing duties in foreign countries. In the battlefields, soldiers are expected to conduct themselves professionally by keeping away from heinous acts of crime such as rape, unnecessary murder, robbery, and violence.

The US forces are always accused of unleashing terror to innocent people whenever they are sent to restore peace and democracy in war torn zones. Since American foreign policy makers appreciate morality, soldiers are usually charged in the martial courts, and stiff penalties are imposed on the accused. Idealism applies in the international system because international law has always guided the behavior of states.

Cooperation is one of the tenets of idealism, which is frequently employed in the current international system. Terrorism, environmental degradation, and the south-north gap pose threats to countries forcing them to collaborate to forge a working relationship. States cannot exist in isolation due to the threats posed by terrorists.

Terrorism is a problem that affects both the rich and the poor states. It does not spare communists because terrorists do not care whether the leadership of the state employs capitalism or communism. An ideological difference among states is not a matter of concern to terrorists. States have struggled to form a global organization that oversees the production and consumption of nuclear energy due to threats of terrorism.

States are concerned with how the weapons of mass destruction are produced and utilized. It would be disastrous in case the weapons get into the hands of terrorists. Therefore, the Atomic Agency is an organization that is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that nuclear energy does not get into the hands of terrorists. The organization has the right to investigate and inspect the production of nuclear energy in all countries.

States cooperate when it comes to nuclear disarmament programs because nuclear weapons threaten the security of all states. Under this argument, realists would argue that powerful states do not want weak states to acquire nuclear energy because it would threaten their national interests.

Idealists believe that democracy and egalitarianism are particularly beneficial in attaining collective goals. In this regard, public opinion should always be considered when formulating foreign policy. Powerful states will always intervene militarily to restore democracy in regions affected by conflicts.

The US was justified to intervene militarily in Iraq and Afghanistan because the regimes of these countries interfered with the rights of citizens. In Libya, Egypt, and Tunisia, the role of NATO was hailed because the regimes never considered public opinion when making policies. In the international system, states have always worked together to achieve collective security. The principles guiding states are based on norms, but not powers as suggested by realists.

Realists give a contradictory opinion. They suggest that foreign policy is considered high politics meaning that public opinion should never be incorporated into foreign policy making process. In fact, realists believe that states form alliances due to mistrust and suspicion. According to realists, states would always do anything possible to maintain sovereignty. According to realists, the human nature is selfish and brutal. In this regard, national interests influence the formation of international organizations.

Works Cited

Bova, Russell. How the World Works A Brief Survey of International Relations. Boston: Pearson Longman, 2012. Print.

Bova, Russell. Readings on How the World Works, Current Issues in International Relations. New York: Pearson, 2010. Print.

Introduction

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is considered to be an outstanding philosopher of the nineteenth century who contributed to the development of idealism on the basis of phenomenology and existentialism. It is necessary to underline the fact that such thinkers as Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard and some others rejected Hegel’s idea of idealism vision differing from common philosophy through his existentialist ideas of world perception. It should be noted that his theory cannot be disclosed as the one to be followed; Hegel’s presentation of the world we live in as absurd and irrational is considered to be ungrounded and has weak support in European philosophical study.

Hegel’ Philosophy

European existentialism described its philosophical thought on the basis of key humanity problems characterizing the universe as the useless environment having no clear identification and reasons for existence. Hegel’s optimistic idealism never agreed with the ideas presented by Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and Kierkegaard, who underlined the fact that ‘It is a silly talk. If there were nothing beyond experience, it would simply drive him (a man) mad’ (Moore, 2008, p.165).

Hegel’s idealism and existentialism are very contradictory and mistakable; this fact can be proved by the examples of many European thinkers. For example, Kierkegaard rejected Hegel’s flow of thought because of the individual’s dissolvent into abstract unreality described by Hegel. In order to demonstrate the contrast between two thinkers, it should be stressed that Kierkegaard highlighted the importance of individual’s choice and human role in universe development. Hegel’s philosophy was based on abstract thoughts and things that is why it cannot be perceived as the background for scientific development. Thus, the philosopher’s ideas were based on the principles of abstract metaphysics underlying the role of ‘ideal truth’ in the society. (Moore, 2008).

Hegel’s idealism where the world is predominantly driven by the reason centralization was completely rejected by such prominent European philosophers as Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. They stick to the opinion that our world was ruled in accordance with the cosmic will; though the cosmos in Hegel’s understanding was presented as the concrete thought expression. It should be stressed that Hegel’s Absolute Idealism was based on the following principles and ideas: the objective world is completely unfolding for human beings and is presented as infinite thought expression; he characterized reality through coherent thought systems being integrated and related to mathematics. These facts are contradicting enough; thus, for example, Berkeley expressed the theory that the objective world is a part of individuals’ minds. It is impossible to treat the world and human beings’ activities and way of life on the basis of abstract notions and thoughts, as it was underlined in Hegel’s philosophy.

Personal rejection of Hegel’s philosophy is connected with the identification of the theory of spirit expressed by the thinker. He noted that spiritual analysis could be closely connected with such aspects as state, society, punishment, personality and property. It is difficult to agree with the idea of political and historical role in the formation of the spirit being a part of the objective world. As it was stressed before, Hegel did not perceive the existence of objectiveness in human minds; so, how could he connect spirit with the elements of objective reality…?! In accordance with Hegel’s philosophical viewpoint, spirit is the highest Absolute conception and cannot be compared with any unfolded objectiveness. Hegel strived to centralize such concepts as negation and contradiction describing them as the principle elements of progressive development of state and society. Despite this fact he noted that evolution is dependent on the God’s will for self-awareness (Hegel, & Wallace, 1971).

It is necessary to underline the fact that Hegel’s position of existentialism based on the principle of abstract world perception cannot be grounded in modern society. His philosophical view is complicated and intricate, though it is not adaptable to the awareness of current generations. European philosophy demonstrated a number of realistic theories rejecting the abstract significance in human life and progress (Wallace, 2005).

Conclusion

The analysis of philosophical thought by Hegel demonstrated a number of contradictions and misunderstandings in European thinker’s thoughts. It should be stressed that he centralized ungrounded significance of abstract presentation and role in the formation of the universe. His optimistic realism suits no the standards and consciousness in modern science. It is necessary to underline the idea that Hegel rejected the general position of existentialism theory where human life sensitivity can result in constant sufferings and despair. In accordance with his presentation, people can build the world on the basis of abstract thoughts development; the centralization of spiritual significance cannot be supported by modern technological and scientific role in the formation of the human modern universe.

References

1. Hegel, G. W. and Wallace, W. (1971). Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind. Oxford University Press.
2. Moore, B. (2008). Philosophy: The Power of Ideas. McGraw-Hill Companies; 6^th Edition.
3. Wallace, R. (2005). Hegel’s philosophy of reality, freedom, and God. Cambridge University Press.

Introduction

Philosophers define “idealism” as a thought that asserts that whatever we call reality is spiritually constructed, immaterial, or fundamentally mental (Cardenas, 2016). From a philosophical perspective, idealism is something that emerges as a skeptical thought about the understanding of mind-independent objects, ideas, or things. Throughout the 19^th century, a number of philosophers initiated a new tradition that focused on the ideal (or mental) character of every phenomenon. This new wave of thought is what catalyzed the concept of idealism. The concept led to the establishment of different schools of thought such as existentialism, materialism, and phenomenalism. These thoughts were observed to influence different fields such as the arts, politics, music, and psychology. This discussion gives a succinct definition of idealism from Hegel’s political perspective.

Hegel’s Definition of Idealism

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is one of the famous German philosophers whose ideas and concepts have been embraced by many scholars for decades. According to the famous idealist, doctrines such as materialism are inappropriate because they tend to assert that natural (or finite) objectives are usually not real. The philosopher indicates clearly that material objects tend to have specific finite qualities. However, some objectives will depend on other finite qualities in order to determine them appropriately (Ramón, 2015). Using the concepts of Plato, Hegel argues that self-determination characterized by reason can guide a person to achieve a higher level of reality that differs significantly from physical things or objects. This kind of definition is what has been defined by many philosophers as absolute idealism.

Formulated by G. W. F. Hegel, absolute idealism is a political view that there should be an identity of being and thought in order for the human reason to understand the nature of the natural world. Without this kind of identity of being or thought, human beings’ knowledge and understanding would be uncertain (Cardenas, 2016). The arguments and notions presented by Hegel have been observed to borrow a lot from the works of Plato. According to Plato, the decision to exercise reason is something that makes it easier for the thinker (or person) to come into terms with reality. This kind of reason is what Hegel calls “self-determination”. When the individual has a reality of oneself, he or she will be able to exercise the power of reason. According to the philosopher, this kind of reality (or self-determination) is something that cannot be achieved by material (or physical) objects such as mountains and rocks.

From the very beginning, the philosopher asserts that the human mind is incapable of knowing things by itself (Ramón, 2015). That being the case, the soul and mind might come together in order to realize consciousness. According to Hegel, this individual consciousness is what will become the absolute mind. It is also notable that the individual might not be aware of this kind of mental state. When humans understand that they are part of consciousness, they will be able to think and act in a rational manner. Consequently, individuals will not be worried about their freedoms. Instead, they will be working hard to achieve something known as self-fulfillment. By so doing, the people can be able to redefine their political models and notions. Consequently, the individuals can eventually create new societies and communities that promote diversity and uphold the liberties for all in order to enhance self-determination.

Hegel’s analysis of idealism goes further to explain how the interaction of dialects or opposites will tend to generate the major concepts that can guide human beings to have a clear understanding of the surrounding world and political structures. This is something that will only occur through history and in the individual mind (Ramón, 2015). The state of being, according to the definition, is, therefore, a powerful dynamic. The dynamic is characterized by an intricate historical process that unfolds continuously. This indispensable process unfolds to present every form of diversity in the universe. New concepts will emerge thereby making it easier for an individual to make sense of the surrounding world.

From the above analysis, it is agreeable that the philosopher’s notion of idealism is acceptable since it serves as the culmination of the western thought experienced in Europe for many years. He integrated culture, civil society, politics, and tradition together. According to the thinker, civilization was “the outstanding product of dialectic” (Cardenas, 2016, p. 48).

Hegel’s concept of idealism is something that has always revolved around the state. Using the notions of Fichte and Kant, the philosopher believes that human personality was something founded on self-determination and enlightenment (Cardenas, 2016). Consequently, people would find it easier to establish a nation that has similar political notions.

Additionally, Hegel’s concept of idealism describes how “individuals are evanescent moments of a single substance” (Ramón, 2015, p. 62). That being the case, civil society is not something that should dictate people’s priorities. From a political standpoint, Hegel goes further to indicate that a political society is the one that fosters diversity and dynamism. This is a powerful approach that can uphold the integrity of the entre non-political realm (Cardenas, 2016). The role of idealism, therefore, is to foster freedom and promote societies that promote diversity and welfare for all.

That being the case, Hegel’s idealism indicates that the world is something that should be examined from a historical perspective. By so doing, a political reflection will emerge or exhibit itself from the process of self-consciousness. However, history has been observed to follow a logical pattern or necessity through the use of the dialectical approach or movement. This notion explains why Hegel regarded the achievements and cultural attributes of his society as the culmination of every aspect that had been experienced within the past many decades (Simoniti, 2017).

Different forces such as idealism, Protestantism, romanticism, and nationalism experienced during Hegel’s time are believed to have led to his philosophical expression. With this option, Hegel believed that it was the right time to achieve political confidence and focus on the power of enlightenment (Simoniti, 2017). That being the case, analysts have indicated clearly that Hegel’s idealism has become a modernist and futuristic concept that reshapes political tones across the globe.

Concluding Remarks

The discussion indicates clearly that political idealism, as defined by Hegel, is a philosophy affirming that realism is something that embraces the concept of spiritual unity. The concept discredits materialism because it asserts that finite objects or qualities are real. Although Hegel’s description of idealism is criticized by many philosophers, the undeniable fact is that he manages to present the true picture of humanity working hard to achieve divinity and political correctness (Cardenas, 2016). By so doing, the philosopher succeeds to offer a political and historical interpretation of what has emerged as the true spirit of nationalism in German.

References

Cardenas, P. (2016). Contemporary Hegelian scholarship: On Robert Stern’s holistic reading of Hegel. Tópicos, Revista de Filosofía, 50(1), 123-149. Web.

Ramón, F. (2015). Hegel’s concept of the free will: Towards a redefinition of an old question. Journal of Cognition and Neuroethics, 3(1), 309-325. Web.

Simoniti, J. (2017). Hegel and the possibility of a new idealism. Crisis & Critique, 4(1), 377-402. Web.

Introduction

American philosophy of the nineteenth century is marked by such an outstanding trend as transcendentalism that celebrated the achievement of an ideal spiritual state through one’s intuition rather than through established religious doctrines. One of the founding fathers of this philosophic trend was Ralph Waldo Emerson, who in his essays and speeches laid out the fundamentals of transcendentalism. Emerson’s outlook embraced an idealistic view of the world together with the key role of nature in it, and the ultimate objective of one’s life was seen in cognition and understanding of the world with a view of harmonizing one’s relationship with it and enjoying a comprehensive existence.

View of idealism

Emerson starts explaining his view of idealism in the sixth chapter of his essay “Nature” by openly confessing that the true existence of external reality is impossible to warrant; however, he does not envisage this impossibility as an obstacle for his philosophy, as he considers nature, as the essence of reality, to be equally important and sacred to him “whether nature enjoy a substantial existence without, or is only in the apocalypse of the mind” (29). However it may be, Emerson declares that once a man begins doubting the permanent character of nature’s laws, his living capacities are subdued, and therefore the trust in the “absolute existence of nature” becomes an issue of vital importance for human existence and development (30).

Proceeding on his discussion of the idealistic reality, Emerson points out that while the world undergoes a series of changes under human influence, there remains something stable in the self; the same relations of the observer and the spectacle emerge when a poet creates his works: he can manage time, space, people and feelings, bringing forth a whole world of ideas and thus asserting “the predominance of the soul” (33). Providing parallels between poets and philosophers, Emerson discovers that there is a semblance in their objectives: the former seeking “a beauty, which is truth”, and the latter striving for “a truth, which is beauty” (34). Their associate in seeking the truth, scientists also appear to deal with the ideal matter; and the person who involves with those ideal matters is believed by Emerson to “apprehend the absolute” and “for the first time, […] exist” (35). Finally, religion as the popular faith and practice of ideas is considered by Emerson to be “degrading nature” and blocking one’s pure perception of and connection with nature (35). Thus, asserting the power and significance of ideas that unite the whole universe into an interrelated entity, Emerson envisages their contemplation as a way to immortality.

The world of nature

The world of an ideal is seen by Emerson in the world of nature: actually, nature has ascribed the role of the main component of the universe (8). In its integrity and manifold, it embraces and provides a sense of and connection between every existence, reflecting one’s spirit. A significant feature of nature is that it “is not only the material but is also the process and the result”, with all of its part working for the man’s benefit and serving all of his needs, including those of beauty, language, and discipline (Emerson 11). Nature guides man in his cognition of the world; it reveals the past to him and leads him to the future (Emerson 53). “Unity in variety” idea is the key to understanding Emerson’s view of nature as the inspiring source of universal wisdom (27).

Cognition of nature and its eternal laws becomes the task of the individual; blurred by multiple doctrines and ideas, people’s minds find it difficult to merge with nature and see nature as it is, like children do, without manipulating it (Emerson 9). In “The American Scholar” Emerson brings forward the idea that Man, for possessing himself back from the disunited state, should involve in active education by nature, by books, and by actions. The peculiarities and processes of the human mind are parallel to those of nature — and that is what makes cognition possible and relatively easy. Researching and understanding nature, one grasps a better understanding of oneself, and vice versa: therefrom comes the parallel between the ancient “Know thyself” and the contemporary “Study nature” ideas (Emerson 55).

Manifest destiny

Echoing the message of ‘manifest destiny, Emerson declares that a new nation is to emerge: the one that does not blindly follow the beaten path but comprises people walking their own feet, working with their own hands, speaking their minds, each of them “inspired by the Divine Soul which also inspires all men” (70). A new significance is given to the individual, as he who is a great individual and aims high contributes to a great and worthwhile union (Emerson 68). Uttering an urge to look at the world with new eyes, Emerson envisages the emergence of an own perfect world for each person, “the kingdom of man over nature, […] a dominion such as now is beyond his dream of God” (45). He considers the search for money and power to be natural to people and calls to turning one’s attention to everyday mundane things, as such world “is fruitful in discoveries” (Emerson 68). However, with all the respect for the worth of values, pure consumerism ideas hardly appeal to Emerson, as he emphasizes the importance of efficient management of nature not only by understanding but also by reason which one devotedly employs for spiritual research of the world (42).

Conclusion

In the scope of philosophic trends of the nineteenth century, Emerson’s idealism is singled out by its attention to nature and envisaging it as a universal source of wisdom, knowledge, and wellbeing for everyone who opens his heart and mind to it.

Works Cited

Emerson, Ralph W. “Nature”. The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson: Volume I: Nature, Addresses, and Lectures. Eds. Robert E. Spiller, and Alfred R. Ferguson. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. 7–45.

Emerson, Ralph W. “The American Scholar”. The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson: Volume I: Nature, Addresses, and Lectures. Eds. Robert E. Spiller, and Alfred R. Ferguson. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. 49–70.