Category: Hypnosis

Shpuntoff and Shpuntoff (1956) found that there was an absence of electric muscular activity in the mandibular postural position. In addition, Carlson and Jarabak state that there is electromyographic silence at-rest position. The study of Yemm and Berry (1969) also noted that there is a coincidence between the rest position and electrical silence. On the contrary, in the present study EMG activity was recorded at rest position and slight position. EMG findings agree with several studies that found masticatory muscle activity was not minimal or absent( Garnik and Ramfjord,1962; Drago,1979; Wessberg et al,1982;Moller,1976,Michelotti,1997).

However, a recent review by Miles(2007) found low activity in jaw closing and opening mucles which does not contribute to the rest postion and he states that the mandible is supported by passive viscoelastic forces in peroral soft tissues. Variables such as gender shown in the previous study that did not have any effect on the EMG activity at rest postion (Ferrario et al,)

The muscle activities in a slightly open position were less than the activity at rest position similar results were obtained in other studies. these studies showed that the activity in the muscles diapered, immediately after the contact between the teeth is open ( Carlsoo 1956; Jarbak 1957Garnick; Ramfjord 1962).

EMG recording was performed during hypnotic stat and the rest position has been also measured between two spots one on the tip of the nose and the other one on the chin. The divider has been used instead of the Willis gague because it will not interfere with the subject during hypnotic state also it dsent displace the soft tissue in the submental area. the measurements showed a decrease in muscle activity, together with a great increase in the rest position. This results in agreement with Cranio (1990) who found when the subject was under hypnosis a significant reduction of the tonic EMG activity was observed (43 to 50%), together with a great increase of the inclusion space. this observation suggests that the muscle activity is not a result of the subjects emotional reaction to the experiments as Yemm,(1969) claimed in his study.

This observation could be due to the subject being relaxed under hypnosis, the jaw muscles also relaxed, and then the mandible dropped. Therefore the opening of the mouth is increased and consequently, the EMG decrease. this is in agreement with Manns et al (1981) who found decreases in electrical activity in three muscles Masseter, anterior and posterior temporal muscles when the subjects open his mouth. this has been explained that the action of opening the mouth implies a mechanism of reciprocal innervations with nervous impulses that excite the motor neurons of the mandibular depressor mucles and inhibit those of the elevators muscles (Kawamura, 1967).

Final measurement for the rest position and the slightly open position was performed after hypnosis to confirm that the decrease in the muscle activity is due to hypnosis not due to other reasons. The results showed that the activities of the muscles rose again but still less than before hypnosis this confirms that the muscle activity was decreased inactivity was due to hypnosis. These results disagree with what other researchers state about that EMG activity at rest position was a result of the subjects emotional stress to the experimental environment; clinical rest postion was passively maintained by gravity. Yemm.

Hypnosis findings

The breathing rate was monitored during the experiment and the results showed that if the subject is hypnotized, breath differently. Hypnotize subject breath slowly and deeper breathes compare to their normal state respiratory rate. Whorwell et al (1992)

stat that hypnosis could change the breathing rate and in most cases, he found that the breathing rate becomes longer and deeper breathes compare with waking state respiratory rate. he also reports that sometimes people have a higher respiratory rate when hypnotized, but this occurs only if the person has an exciting or upsetting experience in hypnosis.

Hypnotic susceptibility was measured to test how easily a person can be hypnotized by using the eye roll test, which was first proposed by Herbert Spiegel. Most of the subjects scored between two and three. This is surprising because the majority of the subjects were not English native speakers despite that they showed highly susceptibility be hypnotized. However, It has been argued that no scale can be seen as completely reliable and no person can be hypnotized if they do not want to be; therefore, a person who scores very low may not want to be hypnotized, making the test scores invalid.

Limitation

Further research on the effect of hypnosis on the EMG activity would obviously be strengthened by a large sample. Because of the sample size (n=17)in this study it was impossible to confirm that there wasnt a correlation between increase in rest position and decrease in EMG activity. The results would be further explained if a three measurement was performed in waking state for all the subjects not only for the last 11

Most researches including this study have utilized surface elctrodes on the masseter muscles. There are many possibilities for erroeonus interpretation.increased skin resistance due to oil,the presence of hair,and the movment of the electrode can cause false negative EMG response (Weinberg,1982). The limitation to EMG recording lies in the difficulty of distinguishing a very low level of activity from none at all.it is difficult to determine how much of an increase is required in the background noise of the recording system to indicate an increase muscle activity.Also,the stress induced in a situation such as an experimental set up influences the electrical activity of the masticatory muscles (Yemm,1969).

Implication

In summary, the results of this study add more evidence to previous studies which suggest that the physiological basis of the postural position of the mandible is maintained actively. And significant effects were found on the effect of hypnosis on the EMG muscle activity.

Further research is needed to study the effectiveness of hypnosis on the masseter muscle activity at rest position and rest vertical dimension.

Executive Summary

The scope of the research is to measure people’s levels of hypnotizability and whether it relates to empathy, absorption and imagery. Studying hypnosis susceptibility helps us understand and identify different characteristics that make individuals react to hypnosis and how effective the proposed measurable scales are.

Hypnosis susceptibility study is conducted through experimental analysis that employs computer generated and self-report measures. Our comprehensive analysis concluded that all the three mentioned factors were positive predictors of hypnotizability. Importance of conducting this study was that medical professionals will be able to relate to new events and develop effective treatment inventions and therapeutic techniques to treat the most diverse forms of pains.

Introduction

Manmillar et al (2005) defines hypnosis is a mental state, usually induced by a procedure known as the hypnotic induction. According to their definition, hypnosis uses the imaginative role-enactment which relaxes individual’s objective area of the mind, or may be delivered in the presence of subject.

To broaden our understanding Carli (2007) defines hypnotisability as “the cognitive trait allowing subjects to module perception, emotion and behavior according to specific suggestions” (p.64). Their contemporary research suggests that hypnotisability is a procedure that awakens our focused attention. Accompanied by physical relaxation and induced mental concentration, hypnosis scores are obtained after hyptonic induction, on a standardized hypnosis scale.

The ability to destruct the metal concentration is engrossed in the idea of training thoughts which may subsequently result to individual unconsciousness or even the progressive relaxation term known as ‘nervous sleep’.

Most clinicians agree that hypnosis is an effective therapeutic technique that can be used with people suffering from diverse forms of pains. It’s however argued that the degree to which people receive hypnosis vary from one individual to another and the levels of susceptible hypnosis as mentioned by Manmillar et al (2005) may range from high and low hypnotisability.

To come to a better understanding of the relationship between high and low hypnosis, Manmillar et al (2005) defines high hypnotizable generally as the ease of relaxing minds while Brynt and Idey (2001) defines it as the display of more fantasy proneness and greater absorption.

While there are many similarities in high hypnotizable definition, Hilgard (1979) adds that individuals which such susceptible experience greater imaginary involvement while Kumar at al (1996) strongly focuses on their conscious experience in response to the imagery offered by the hypnotist.

In measuring hypnosis effectiveness, Braffman and Kirsch (2001) suggests two detrimental methodologies to include; simple and go/no go reaction times. His analysis further concluded individuals on hypnozability were positively related with simple reaction time and correlated with go/no go reaction time, when non hypnotic suggestibilities were statistically controlled.

It is evidenced that different characteristics make individuals react to hypnosis different and some may be more susceptible to hypnosis than others. Since their applications in both clinical and research settings, hypnotizability scales have never been evidenced to measure effects of hypnotizability.

Since hypnotizability is a stable construct, identifying its predictors would be helpful in comprehending individual differences observed in suggestibility (Paul and Mathews, 2003). Using a set of standardized suggestions to check individuals’ responses, followed by a standardized induction, to know the measure of hypnotic ability they posses is applied.

Barber, Spanos and Chaves (1974) further clarifies that individual differences in ability to respond to hypnosis could be described with the aid of imagination and absorption constructs. Paul and Mathews (2003) on the other hand suggests that hypnotic suggestibility and individual differences are most likely to be experienced with people with the ability to respond to waking and may not necessarily lack the ability to respond to hypnotic procedures.

Kogon et al (1998) define imaginary as the ability of a person to receive an experience or emotional state in one’s mind. He provides that relationships among imaginary and hypnotisability are complex and the methodologies used can easily inflate the relationships.

In this case, Kogon et al (1998) suggests for careful application of the results obtained as many may differ in their degree of association and functionality depending on context of their hypnotic application. In vivid imagery hypnosis application, Kogon et al (1998) performed an experimental analysis where they correlated computer generated and self-report measure of imagery with hypnotizability to measure the degree of their relationship.

Computer generated imagery measures were used due to their ability to provide accurate results and because they are better predictors of hypnotizability. Credited as good hypnotizability measure, the computer generated results did not yield satisfactory results as most of the experiments were conducted outside hypnotic setting.

Moreover, the imagery modality used in measuring correlation between imagery and hypnotisability were valid. This is according to (Carli et al, 2007) reports that stated that “instructions of globally reduced perception” (p.14). In this case the research should have based their analysis on particular sensory modalities which would have yielded positive results that related to the study question.

Milling et al 2000 define absorption as an individual’s characteristic, which encompasses openness, to experience changes in cognitive and emotional, state over rage of circumstances. Green and Lynn (2008) defined it as the capacity for self- altering attention that is considered to be significant component of hypnotozability.

When relating back to highly susceptible individuals, Milling (2000) argue that individuals with highly susceptible are believed to get involved in a variety of imaginative practices more on faster when measuring absorption. Another study conducted by Council, Kirsch and Gran (1996) considers absorption as a predictor of hypnotizability and suggests use of scales designed specifically for measuring absorption to be used.

However in determining the relationship between absorption and hypnotic susceptibility, the most commonly used measures implied that the absorption scales were consistent and reliable related when tests were administered in the same experimental setting (Green and Lynn, 2008).

Szlyk (2003) defines the emotional processes underlie the experience ad creation of hypnosis. He speculates that empathy plays an important role in hypnotic subjects put together in hypnotic experiences. Szlyh (2003) experimental analysis included observations from various researches speculating the particular trait empathy and its relationship to hypnotizability.

He first defined empathy as the ability to understand another person’s feelings and motives. His experimental analysis however showed strong correlation of trait empathy with hypnotic ability. Higard (1970) further examined an individual’s capacity to empathetically recognize characters in drama and literature makes empathy a notable predictor of hypnotizability.

Wickramasekera (1998) study of ‘High Risk Model of Threat Perception’ that examined relationship between emphatic process of emotional contagion and imitation in relations to behavioral and experimental indices of hypnotic ability observed that development of psychosomatic symptoms were more susceptible in high hypnotizable’s as a result of increased empathetic characteristics they posses.

Same clinical observations conducted by Spiegal and Spiegal (1978) confirmed that individuals with high hypnotic ability tend to relate to new events and begin to develop symptoms that resemble the ones they have observed in others.

Results

The study recruited 244 participants among whom 239 successfully completed the questionnaire booklet. The study was aimed at identifying factors that best predict hypnotizability, along with the effect of time on hypnotizability. A series of correlations were employed in investigating factors favorable for hypnotizability completed with t-tests aimed at measuring the effect of time on hypnotizability

Our experimental analysis measures whether hypnotizablity relates to three factors; empathy, absorption and imagery. I first hypothesis that mpathy would be the highest predictor of hypnotizability. And secondly, there would be little difference between pre-group and post-group scores.

The results did however find correlation and intercorrelation values for hypnotizability to be as follows; the correlation for hypnotizability and empathy were r (237) =. 254, the correlation between hypnotizability and imagery as r= (237) = .1.141, hypnotizability and absorption is r (237) = .196

Table 1: The Relationship between Absorption, Imagery, Empathy and

Hypnotizability

Correlation values ranged from p<0.1 to p<0.5. When measuring the absorption, empathy and imagery rates against hypnotizability on a measurable scale on 0.1 indicating weak while 0.5 indicating strong correlation, imagery indicated a relative value of 0.5 against hypnotizability, which was in deed a strong correlation. Absorption against hypnotizability on the other hand indicated a vale of 0.5, also an indication correlation between the two, while empathy against hypnotizability recorded 0.2, which was an indication of weak correlation between the two factors.

When using inter-correlation measurement, empathy and absorption were rated as r (237) = p .503, while empathy and imagery as r (237) = p .274, and imagery and absorption as r (237) = p .445

Table 2: The Relationship between Absorption, Imagery, Empathy and

Hypnotizability

Inter-correlation values ranged from p<0.1 to p<0.5. Measuring absorption, empathy and imagery rates against hypnotizability on a measurable scale on 0.1 indicating weak while 0.5 indicating strong correlation, imagery indicated a relative value of 0.4 against hypnotizability, which was in deed a strong correlation.

Absorption against hypnotizability on the other hand indicated a vale of 0.5, also an indication correlation between the two, while empathy against hypnotizability recorded 0.1, which was an indication of weak correlation between the two factors.

Time and Hypnotizability

The research used time to focus on the relationship it has on hypnotizability. With regard to the hypothesis empathy would be the highest predictor of hypnotizability and little difference between pre-group and post-group scores will be evident, a pre-hypnosis questionnaire was compared to a post-hypnosis questionnaire group. The overall hypnosis results showed a mean rate of 5.38 (SD 2.58). Below is a detailed summary of the results.

Green – Control group mean

Blue – Treatment group mean

Group comparison indicated the group that had the questionnaires before hypnosis (n=120) had a mean of 5.44 (SD 2.55) whereas the group that had hypnosis after the questionnaire (n=119) had a mean of 5.31 (SD 2.62). Am independent sample t-test was considered to compare two mean groups to determine whether the mean Group 1 was significantly different from mean Group 2. The results showed no significant differences between the means and the two groups, t (237) = .391 given p<. 0.5. on both groups

References

Brynt, R. A., & Idey, A. (2001). Intrusive thoughts and hypnotisability. Contemporary Hypnosis, 18(1):14-20

Carli, G., Cavallaro, F. I., Santarcangelo E. L. (2007). Hypnotisability and imagery modality preference: Do highs and lows live in the same world? Contemporary Hypnosis, 24(2): 64-75.

Kirsch, I., & Braffman, W. (2001). Imaginative suggestibility and hypnotisability. American Psychology Society, 10 (2): 57-61

Kogon, M. N., Jasiukaitis, P., Berardi, A., Gupta, M., Kosslyn, S.M., & Speigal, D. (1998). Imagery and Hypnotisability Revisited. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10L6 (4): 363-370.

Kumar, V.K., Pekala, R.J., Cummings, J. (1996). Trait factors, state effects and hypnotisability. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 44: 232–49.

Manmiller, J. L., Kumar, V.K., & Pekala, R. J. (2005). Hypnotisability, creative capacity, creative styles, absorption and phenomenological experience, during hypnosis. Creativity Research Journal, 17(1): 9-24.

Milling, L.S., Kirsch, I., & Burgess, C. (2000). Hypnotic suggestibility and absorption: Revisiting the context effect. Contemporary Hypnosis, 17: 32-41.

Poulsen, B. C., & Matthews, W. J. (2003). Correlates of imaginative and hypnotic suggestibility in children. Contemporary Hypnosis, 20(4): 198-208.

Spiegel, H., & Spiegel, D. (1978). Trance and treatment. New York: Basic Bookd

Wickramasekera, II, I.E. (1998). Secrets kept from the mind but not the body or behavior: The unsolved problems of identifying and treating somatization and psychophysiologicaldisease. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 14, 81–132.

Wickramasekera II, I. E & Szlyk, J. P. (2003). Could empathy be a predictor of hypnotic ability? The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 51: 390-399.

Wilson, S.C., & Barber, T.X. (1981). Vivid fantasy and hallucinatory abilities in the life histories of excellent hypnotic subjects (‘somnambules’): preliminary report with female subjects. In: E. Klinger (ed) Imagery. Volume 2: Concepts, Results and Applications. New York: Plenum Press; 133–49.

The primary research question in the study conducted by Nash, Drake, Wiley, Khalsa & Lynn (1986), was to determine the accuracy of the memories recovered from patients under hypnosis. In other previous investigations the authors had argued that in certain conditions, the interpersonal and affective reactions of patients vary. They argue that reactions of age-regressed patients could be different and childlike as compared to the simulators. In this study, the dependent variable used was the accuracy of recollections of patients under hypnosis.

The independent variable of the study was the age-regression of respondents during hypnosis. Results were obtained by making use of procedures, which evaluated hypnotically regressed respondents. They evaluated their relations with transitional objects such as teddy bears. However, surveys from forensic hypnosis imply that hypnotic memories of particular events are particularly prone to misrepresentation, regardless of the theatrical and intuitively persuasive performances (Nash, Drake, Wiley, Khalsa & Lynn, 1986).

To ascertain if the transitional objects observed from a hypnotic age-regressed respondent was utilised by the respondents during their childhood, the authors conducted interviews with the respondents’ parents in their second survey in 1985. The degree to which the respondent accepted or did not accept the parents’ recollection of the transitional objects was utilised as a guide.

This was a measure of the accuracy of hypnotic responses and conscious recollections. All the respondents in the study were pursuing undergraduate studies at the Ohio University. They did not have any prior experiences in relation to hypnosis. For the hypnotized group, a total 16 respondents were selected. For the control group, a total of 14 respondents were selected. In the course of the survey, 16 respondents were asked to give their accounts of transitional objects under hypnosis.

After the interview under hypnosis, the respondents were then required to take another post-hypnotic interview. During this second interview, the respondents were asked if they could recall their transitional objects when they were 3 years old. A definition of transitional objects was provided to the respondents. The respondents were asked if they could recall these objects. This phase describes the post-hypnotic recollection condition (Nash, Drake, Wiley, Khalsa & Lynn, 1986).

From the parents’ recollections, 64% of the hypnotised respondents and 50% of the control group accounts of transitional objects were confirmed. The difference in these results is not substantial. They are coherent with infant characteristics cited in other similar studies.

During the process of hypnotic age-regression, 14 hypnotic respondents recalled at least a single transitional object. In addition, more than 15 transitional objects were identified. In relation to post-hypnotic memories, respondents under hypnosis recorded about 22 accounts of transitional objects. Of the 22 objects identified by the respondents, 5 were similar to the parents’ accounts. From the 10 post-simulation control group observations, 4 members had memories of transitional objects.

A total of 6 transitional objects were recorded in relation to the post-simulation control group observations. From the control group 7 out of 10 respondents either had memories of transitional objects, which were confirmed by the parents, or corresponded with the parents’ account that transitional objects never existed (Nash, Drake, Wiley, Khalsa & Lynn, 1986).

These findings are construed to enhance the developing literature that warns against regarding hypnotic memories as being significant over conscious accounts.

Evidence from empirical research implied that hypnotized respondents were regularly confident that incorrect recollections obtained during hypnosis were in fact, correct. Hypnotised respondents in this study demonstrated the same confidence. This is because they may have carried all the memories acquired during hypnosis to the conscious interviews (Nash, Drake, Wiley, Khalsa & Lynn, 1986).

Reference

Nash, M. R., Drake, S. D., Wiley, S., Khalsa, S., & Lynn, S. J. (1986). Accuracy of recall by hypnotically age-regressed subjects. Journal Of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 298-300. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.95.3.298.

The first suggestion on the list would be ineffective during the actual hypnotherapy session because it is flawed. This suggestion says: “The noise outside does not disturb you. It does not disturb you in any way…”. It breaks the Law of Reverse Effect. The suggestion focuses on the client’s attention to the negative impact, such as noise outside. The desired effect is calmness, concentration, and disengagement from the external distractions.

Mentioning the noise, the suggestion creates a reverse effect and drives the client’s attention towards it. The improved version of the suggestion is: “As you allow yourself to relax more and more, you start to feel how your body fills itself with quietness and peace, you enjoy the silence of your mind, this serene and peaceful sensation.” Excluding negative language, I help the client to focus on the positive outcome and the desired result. Using an additional description of the desired peaceful state of mind, I paint a detailed picture of the positive outcome in order to help the client reach it successfully.

The second suggestion is likely to be ineffective due to its contradictive nature. It is not well-designed and may confuse a client’s mind and imagination. The suggestion says: “Relaxation is oozing through your body. It is hopping from your head to your feet…”. First of all, trying to create a positive image for the client to relax a practitioner is to guide them through a specific and detailed chain of suggestions.

The first part of the example suggestion says that relaxation is “oozing,” and the second one uses the verb “hopping,” which contradicts each other. Besides, in my opinion, the verb “oozing” has a negative character and is likely to be associated with unpleasant images. My version of this affirmation is: “Relaxation is flowing through your body. It is slowly and steadily streaming from the tips of your toes, ankles, hips, pelvis, stomach, chest, neck to your head”. The relaxation is to move upwards and affect the client’s head last. Besides, using more homogeneous words in my affirmation, I create a stable effect. The desired goal is to achieve calm relaxation; this is why it would be better to avoid exciting and energetic words such as “hopping” to maintain the needed effect.

The third suggestion is: “The music in the background is the signal for you to relax. You relax when you hear this music, and you feel as if you could sleep. You will have no trouble sleeping; the music is your signal to sleep. Now you will come back to full consciousness when I count from 1-10…”. First of all, it employs a negative phrase “you will have no trouble sleeping.” This part should be replaced. Besides, it employs the verb “will,” which is better to avoid because the affirmation needs to imply that the change is happening in the present.

The improved version of this suggestion is: “The music in the background is the signal for you to relax. As soon as you hear the music, you immediately start to relax and feel ready to go to a peaceful and pleasant sleep. Your sleep comes naturally and softly, embracing you. The music is your signal to sleep. Now you will come back to full consciousness as I count from one to ten”. I replaced the negative phrase with positive, added some details for a better positive effect.

Definition of hypnosis

Blair (2004) defines hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness, awareness, or perception used by psychologists or doctors in treating psychological problems. It involves a focused or concentrated attention of the mind over a single issue as a way of empowering the mind in addressing a given problem. It allows patients to maximize their potential in addressing a given issue. Hypnosis empowers one’s mind to overcome issues such as fear, phobia, and negative habits that one is struggling with in life. The ultimate aim of hypnosis is to ensure that one is given the mental strength enough to overcome the issues that may prove challenging under normal circumstances. As Yapko (n.d) puts it, hypnosis puts the mind in a supernormal state where it can overcome problems in various social contexts.

Different kinds of hypnosis

Hypnosis may be used in different contexts. According to Fromm and Shor (2009), scholars generally classify hypnosis into two major categories. The two kinds are altered state and non-state models. However, it is important to note that the procedure of hypnotization is almost universal. A psychologist will look at the mental disorder of the patient to determine the most appropriate approach that should be used. The intensity of the mental disorder and the nature of the disorder determine the appropriate approach that should be taken. Some of the common mental problems that may require different types of hypnosis include phobias, alcoholism, sexual dysfunction, speech disorders, smoking control, chronic pain, self esteem, habit control, age regression therapy, and memory improvement.

As stated above, the process is the same, but different psychological problems will require different approaches taken to address them. A person who is suffering from low self-esteem will be directed to focus on issues that will empower him to feel valuable from within his mind. On the other hand, a person struggling with a habit such as alcoholism will be made to develop hatred towards the habit by concentrating the mind on negative issues about alcoholism based on personal experiences or experiences of other people within the society.

History of hypnosis and its controversies in the field of psychology

According to Bastarache (2010), history of the modern hypnosis dates back to late 1780s when Franz Mesmer investigated the existence of animal magnetism and its effect on one’s mind. His work was advanced by his followers such as James Braid and Dugald Steewart in early 1818. The term animal magnetism was changed to Mesmerism in reference to the founder of this concept. The concept became very popular among the physicians and psychologists who were interested in finding a new way of dealing with mental and psychological problems.

This concept spread very fast to other parts of the world. John Bramwell and George Beard were some of the earliest American medical specialists to start further researches on hypnotization. Pierre Janet conducted an extensive research in 1898 when completing his PhD in the field of psychological autism. His works led to more understanding of hypnosis.

Sigmund Freud furthered this field of study in the early 1906. He was one of the psychologists who hypnotized their patients as a way of treating their mental disorders. Other doctors and psychologists who made major contributions in the development of this field include Emile Coue, Clark Hull, Dave Elman, and Milton Erickson. According to Fromm and Shor (2009), although it is widely accepted that it was Franz Mesmer who first came up with the concept of hypnosis, it was James Braid who did a detailed study on human beings to determine how this concept can be used in addressing psychological problems. With the help of the parallel concepts that were developed by William Carpenter, Braid used ideo-motor reflex response theory; he was able to give an account for hypnotism phenomenon.

Some controversies have emerged about the use of hypnosis in addressing mental problems. According to Hewitt (2007), opponents of hypnosis argue that it makes a patient to reveal secretes against his own free will. The scholar says that hypnosis has been used by hypnotists in a way that leaves the patient uncomfortable with their revelations. Some of them claim that in such contexts, the patient becomes the slave of the hypnotist. All these controversies have been addressed by the contemporary psychologists who argue that during the process of hypnosis, the patient is in full control of his senses.

How hypnosis is used in treatment for depression and its Effectiveness

According to Bastarache (2010), hypnosis refers to a state of focused attention, inner absorption, and concentration with the aim of empowering one’s mind. By allowing the mind to concentrate on a specific issue of concern, forgetting all the other issues in life, one is given the ability to confront the issue with all his might. The mind is allowed to concentrate on the issue causing the mental problem. For instance, the issue may be the need to fight phobia towards heights. A psychologist will take the patient through a mental process where the mind will be fully concentrated on the issue causing this phobia.

During this process, any other events and concerns in life are completely forgotten. Once the patient is on this state, he will be guided by the hypnotist to confront the fear using all his mental might. This way, it becomes easier to overcome such mental problems than when one is in a normal state of mind where many other issues are demanding for the attention of the mind. The research by Hewitt (2007) revealed that hypnosis has been confirmed by many experts to be effective in addressing psychological problems. However, this can only be possible if it is done by a professional who understands the entire process of hypnotization.

Determining whether it is the best method of treating depression

The use of hypnosis in the treatment of psychological problems has been in existence for the past several years. However, the question of whether or not it is the best strategy still remains an issue that is debatable. Many psychologists still use various methods of counseling other than hypnosis. As Blair (2004) suggests, it is not realistic to say with certainty that a specific method of addressing psychological problem is the best.

Different mental problems will require different methods based on the stage of the problem. Hypnosis is just one of the methods that can be used. It may be the best in one context and not the other. The condition of the patient will define the most appropriate approach to use. The psychologist will have to evaluate the psychological problem of the patient before suggesting the method that will give the best results.

References

Bastarache, R. A. (2010). The everything self-hypnosis book: Learn to use your mental power to take control of your life. Avon: Adams Media. Web.

Blair, F. R. (2004). Instant self-hypnosis: How to hypnotize yourself with your eyes open. Naperville: Sourcebooks. Web.

Fromm, E., & Shor, R. E. (2009). Hypnosis: Developments in research and new perspectives. New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction. Web.

Hewitt, W. W. (2007). Hypnosis for beginners: Reach new levels of awareness & achievement. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications. Web.

Yapko, M. (n.d). A Brief Therapy Approach to the Use of Hypnosis in Treating Depression. Hypnosis in Treating Depression, 75-97. Web.

The use of hypnosis has always been viewed as one of the most controversial and interdisciplinary practices. It can be related to the practice of medicine or psychology. The question concerning the accreditation and licensing required to practice hypnosis is argued about in the United States and different states have different legislation in this reference. This paper explores the regulations considering the practice of hypnosis in the state of New York.

In 2005 the Legislature of New York State passed a law referring to the licensing for comprehensive behavioral health therapists (National Guild of Hypnotists, 2010). The law employs very broad language and states that everyone who is involved in the practice of behavioral therapy of any kind is to be licensed, yet it does not mention hypnotism namely. The law regulated the use of Biofeedback therapy as an activity requiring a license from a practitioner. The description of Biofeedback therapy includes the practices frequently used by hypnotists such as cognitive restructuring, progressive relaxation, imagery and psycho-physiological therapy (National Guild of Hypnotists, 2010).

To be licensed a practitioner of this therapy requires a Master’s degree. Overall, in the United States, there is no accredited qualification for the practice of hypnosis, this way, certified hypnotists may involve in what can be called a “non-therapeutic hypnotism” (Smith, 2010). To practice hypnotism in the state of New York, the practitioner does not require a license of a behavioral health professional, but they are required to the proper use of terminology. The National Guild of Hypnotists has developed its Standards of Terminology according to which a hypnotist is obliged to refer to the services they provide for the clients as hypnotism, but not hypnotherapy or counseling (National Guild of Hypnotists, 2010). The Guild warns its members against using the word “therapy” for what they do because in most of the states practicing any kind of therapy requires a license of a healthcare professional. In other words, the hypnotists in the State of New York are to hold their services out to the public “under a non-therapeutic banner” (State Law and Legal Issues 2014 Edition: the National Guild of Hypnotists 2014).

The specialty certifications in different fields of hypnotic words are awarded to the practitioners by the National Guild of Hypnotists. There are regulations concerning the titles of practices for the owners of more than one certification. Besides, since no specific professional qualifications are referring to such area as hypnosis, the practitioner is to be registered as a mental health professional to work in the state of New York. Such titles as “hypnotist” or “psychotherapist” are legally recognized as general titles that may confuse the clients. This way, providing professional services, the practitioners are required to use their actual qualification name, especially in cases when their general designation is not limited to individuals of a certain profession. For example, it is important that in their advertising the practitioner makes it clear in which mental health professionals they are officially registered in the New York State, this qualification is to be mentioned and maintained by the practitioner (Practice Guidelines, 2014).

In conclusion, the hypnotists are to know their obligations and the state-specific laws practicing in New York State because very simple errors such as term misuse of inappropriate formulations in advertising may lead to legal issues.

Reference List

National Guild of Hypnotists. (2010). NGH. Web.

Practice Guidelines. (2014). NYSED. Web.

Smith, A. E. (2010). How to un-break your health: Your map to the world of Complementary and Alternative Therapies (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.

State Law and Legal Issues 2014 Edition: the National Guild of Hypnotists. (2014). NGH. Web.

For an individual who is either standing or sitting, the vertical position of his/her mandible relative to the maxilla remains fairly stable. This position is very critical in the field of dentistry and is called the ‘rest’ position. Due to its role in establishing the height of artificial full dentures, the highest occlusal plan of the upper and lower teeth must be placed so that the lower denture is not dislodged by the tongue. There should also be an appropriate space between the upper and lower teeth so that the teeth do not click together when the subject talks, and the height of the face is maintained for aesthetic and functional reasons. In addition, the reconstructive maxillofacial surgeon may also use the rest position. The rest position is defined by the Glossary of Prosthetic Terms as ‘’the postural relation of the mandible to the maxilla when the patient is resting comfortably in the upright position, and the condyles are in an unstrained position in the glenoid fossae’’ (1977). On the other hand, Yemm (1975) defines the mandibular rest position as a state of equilibrium between the elastic components of the opposed groups of elevator and depressor muscle. Various procedures and devices have been used in an attempt to establish a reproducible rest position.

Rest position has also been explained clinically and graphically. Although the exact mechanism of the clinical rest position is somewhat elusive, three explanations have been suggested based on muscle tonus, myotatic reflexes, and gravity-elasticity. Moyers defines rest position as the contraction of the postural muscles of the mandible resulting in a rest position of balance between the opening and closing muscles. He also states that the rest position is likely to be a position of least muscular activity and not a true rest position because postural muscles are very rare. On the other hand, Ramfjord et al (1971) found gravity elasticity to be another physiological explanation for the rest position which means that there is a force between the effects of gravity and the elastic nature of the soft tissues (mainly the muscles) surrounding the mandible. This force then affects the mandible. All these explanations are relevant.

Wagner did a comparison of four clinical procedures of obtaining the rest position. Each method produces different rest positions; simply resting position produces less high and low readings, saying ‘’mmm’’ produces the largest RVD, and swallowing the smallest. This would suggest that simply resting is the most reliable technique. However, other research studies found all these methods to be unreliable and as such, care is required.

The majority of dentists today would use the Willis gauge, a pair of dividers, or a ruler to measure the distance between two reference marks placed on the tip of the nose and the chin. These methods are very inaccurate indeed. Originally, the rest position was thought to be stable throughout life (Thompson, 1946). However, the majority of the research studies now show that the clinical rest position could vary according to the head position, loss of teeth, environmental changes, and muscle tone.

In his study, Olsen (1951) found out that the rest position is not rigidly stable and could vary for many reasons. On the other hand, Atwood states that the degree of variability of the clinical rest position in a patient depended on the relative values of and complex interplay between some 30 influential factors.

EMG

Clinicians always face difficulties in determining rest position and for this reason, many studies have been conducted to develop precise methods. Electromyography (EMG) is one such method. The accuracy of determining rest position by the electromyography method has been a subject of controversy (Satish et al.1987). The difference between the rest position determined by conventional methods and the electromyography method was found by Sheppard and Sheppard (1975). A similar conclusion was drawn by Satish et al (1987). To compare the resting position determined by electromyography with that obtained using conventional methods. Feldman, Leupold, and Staling (1978) reported that the mean resting position was similar for both methods produced by a more consistent reproducible determination of the position than did the conventional technique.

Hickey, Williams, and Woelfel (1961) used electromyography to determine the position of the mandible at which the voltage from temporalis and digastrics muscles was lowest. This was used in combination with the phonetic method to obtain the rest position which was then recorded with a cephalometric radiograph. The study indicated that electromyography could produce a consistent jaw position, but the experimental method did not indicate to what degree this position coincided with that obtained phonetically (Hickey et al 1961).

It has been suggested that it would be better to refer to the rest position as a postural position because it is not a position of rest due to some degree of activity (Lyons, 1988). Therefore some EMG activity should be accepted. However, dental literature has not universally agreed that ‘’ no’’ ‘’little,’’ or ‘’minimal’’ EMG activity should be anticipated at the clinical rest position (Lawrence, 1982). Minimal activity is not necessarily synonymous with the clinical (physiological) rest position. Moller (1966) has confirmed ‘’little’’ or no EMG activity at the clinical rest position. Ramfjord and Ash (1966) have gone further to report that there was minimal EMG activity at and beyond the clinical rest position (a vertical dimension increase that obliterates the interocclusal space). The active theory is supported by Moller(1966), who demonstrated electomygraphyically that the elevator muscles exhibit slight activity when the mandible is in the rest position. He also found that when a subject whose jaw is in the rest position moved from an upright position to a supine position, a reduction in the electrical activity of the temporalis muscle could be demonstrated and this was cited as evidence for a servo-controlled mechanism producing a response to changes in position (Moller,1966). However, Yemm (1969) reported that stress induced by the experimental environment can initiate muscle activity and this could account for the activity recorded at the rest position that is reduced through the diminution of anxiety when the subject assumes a supine position. In addition, the activity in muscles shown by EMG could be due to other sources such as electrical activity or electronic noise generated within the amplification circuits (Yemm, 1969).

Atwood (1956) reported that the EMG silence at the clinical rest position is dependent on the sensitivity of the equipment, the judgment of the operator, and the patient’s state of rest. Most physiologists agree that the EMG shows complete relaxation (zero EMG activity) when the muscles are at rest (Basmajian, 1967; Pruzansky, 1955). Moyers (1950) found by using EMG that there is a range of mandibular positions about which minimal activity occurs. In addition, minimal activity or silence over a range of jaw positions has been reported by Jarabak (1957), Garnick &Ramfjord (1962), Yemm &Berry (1969), and by Manns et al. (1981). Some authors described an EMG silence or minimum EMG activity at mandibular postural position and during passive movements of the jaws along the habitual path of closure (Arturo et al, 1981). The view that relaxed bodily posture is not maintained by tonic muscle activity induced by the stretches reflex is now widely accepted (Watkinson, 1987).

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which the patient awareness’s of the surrounding world, including somatic sensation, is diverted to an awareness of a more comfortable world within his or her mind (Goldman, 1989). Hypnosis comprises a range of procedures that can be used to help a patient achieve a psychological state which we call a trance. It is also important to recognize that the trance state is not always accompanied by eye closer or even relaxation (Auld, 1989). However, Kirsch (2001) states that hypnosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon during which the body remains relaxed while the mind goes into a highly focused state. Hypnosis is not new. It is as old as mankind (Slone, 1961).

Ericson et al (1976) reported that during a hypnotic session, patients are encouraged to focus on the hypnotherapist’s voice and pleasant images and to fix their gaze in a particular manner. During this induction phase, the patient begins to enter a hypnotic trance. A trance is associated with many physiologic changes that include flattening of facial muscle, decrease in orienting movements, immobility, changes in blinking and swallowing, catalepsy in a limb, autonomous motor behavior, altered breathing and pulse (Simon and Lewis, 2000). As subjects enter a trance, the conscious mind becomes less and less vigilant to the immediate surroundings. The word ‘hypnosis’ however is relatively new, dating back to 1841 when the physician Dr. James Braid Manchester named this state of mind after the goddess of sleep, Hypnos (James,2010).

During hypnosis therapy, the patient focuses on the stimuli of images offered by the therapist’s voice and this is called hetero-hypnosis, which is done by one individual (an operator) to another (subject) (Johanson et al., 1983; Moss and Magaro, 1989). On the other hand, when individuals undergo self-hypnosis, they take themselves into a focused state by using their awareness as the operator. Some research studies have proved that self-hypnosis is an easy and cost-effective method (Ghonemi, 2000). Health care providers who specialize in treating oral-facial pain may want to consider medical hypnosis as a valuable treatment modality for their patients who are reluctant to try conservative treatment (Simon and Lewis, 2000). Hypnosis has advantages over biofeedback because it can be administered to groups and does not require expensive or unwieldy equipment. Hypnosis also has advantages over habit reversal because such techniques involve extensive office monitoring, coaching, and practice, and they are still not appropriate for the exceedingly common patient with TMD who clenches or grinds during sleep.

Many studies have shown the application of hypnosis in dentistry. For instance, Gerschman (1989) reported in his study in Australia that hypnosis can minimize dental phobia anxiety, and pain. Gottfredson’s study adds further support to a growing body of evidence relating hypnotisability to both the acquisition and management of pain. However, many dentists have been reluctant to use hypnosis in controlling pain because pain control is associated with deep trance which takes time to achieve. Simon and Lewis (2000) found that after hypnosis treatment, subjects exhibited a significant decrease in symptoms in terms of reduced frequency, duration, and intensity of their TMD pain. Additionally, they reported a significant improvement in their overall daily functioning. In addition to the previous use to hypnosis Barsby (1994) found that hypnosis is very effective in the management of ‘’gagging’’ and intolerance to dentures.

Shpuntoff and Shpuntoff (1956) found that there was an absence of electric muscular activity in the mandibular postural position. In addition, Carlson and Jarabak state that there is electromyographic silence at-rest position. The study of Yemm and Berry (1969) also noted that there is a coincidence between the rest position and electrical silence. On the contrary, in the present study EMG activity was recorded at rest position and slight position. EMG findings agree with several studies that found masticatory muscle activity was not minimal or absent( Garnik and Ramfjord,1962; Drago,1979; Wessberg et al,1982;Moller,1976,Michelotti,1997).

However, a recent review by Miles(2007) found low activity in jaw closing and opening mucles which does not contribute to the rest postion and he states that the mandible is supported by passive viscoelastic forces in peroral soft tissues. Variables such as gender shown in the previous study that did not have any effect on the EMG activity at rest postion (Ferrario et al,)

The muscle activities in a slightly open position were less than the activity at rest position similar results were obtained in other studies. these studies showed that the activity in the muscles diapered, immediately after the contact between the teeth is open ( Carlsoo 1956; Jarbak 1957Garnick; Ramfjord 1962).

EMG recording was performed during hypnotic stat and the rest position has been also measured between two spots one on the tip of the nose and the other one on the chin. The divider has been used instead of the Willis gague because it will not interfere with the subject during hypnotic state also it dsent displace the soft tissue in the submental area. the measurements showed a decrease in muscle activity, together with a great increase in the rest position. This results in agreement with Cranio (1990) who found when the subject was under hypnosis a significant reduction of the tonic EMG activity was observed (43 to 50%), together with a great increase of the inclusion space. this observation suggests that the muscle activity is not a result of the subject’s emotional reaction to the experiments as Yemm,(1969) claimed in his study.

This observation could be due to the subject being relaxed under hypnosis, the jaw muscles also relaxed, and then the mandible dropped. Therefore the opening of the mouth is increased and consequently, the EMG decrease. this is in agreement with Manns et al (1981) who found decreases in electrical activity in three muscles Masseter, anterior and posterior temporal muscles when the subjects open his mouth. this has been explained that the action of opening the mouth implies a mechanism of reciprocal innervations with nervous impulses that excite the motor neurons of the mandibular depressor mucles and inhibit those of the elevators muscles (Kawamura, 1967).

Final measurement for the rest position and the slightly open position was performed after hypnosis to confirm that the decrease in the muscle activity is due to hypnosis not due to other reasons. The results showed that the activities of the muscles rose again but still less than before hypnosis this confirms that the muscle activity was decreased inactivity was due to hypnosis. These results disagree with what other researchers state about that EMG activity at rest position was a result of the subjects emotional stress to the experimental environment; clinical rest postion was passively maintained by gravity. Yemm.

Hypnosis findings

The breathing rate was monitored during the experiment and the results showed that if the subject is hypnotized, breath differently. Hypnotize subject breath slowly and deeper breathes compare to their normal state respiratory rate. Whorwell et al (1992)

stat that hypnosis could change the breathing rate and in most cases, he found that the breathing rate becomes longer and deeper breathes compare with waking state respiratory rate. he also reports that sometimes people have a higher respiratory rate when hypnotized, but this occurs only if the person has an exciting or upsetting experience in hypnosis.

Hypnotic susceptibility was measured to test how easily a person can be hypnotized by using the eye roll test, which was first proposed by Herbert Spiegel. Most of the subjects scored between two and three. This is surprising because the majority of the subjects were not English native speakers despite that they showed highly susceptibility be hypnotized. However, It has been argued that no scale can be seen as completely reliable and no person can be hypnotized if they do not want to be; therefore, a person who scores very low may not want to be hypnotized, making the test scores invalid.

Limitation

Further research on the effect of hypnosis on the EMG activity would obviously be strengthened by a large sample. Because of the sample size (n=17)in this study it was impossible to confirm that there wasn’t a correlation between increase in rest position and decrease in EMG activity. The results would be further explained if a three measurement was performed in waking state for all the subjects not only for the last 11

Most researches including this study have utilized surface elctrodes on the masseter muscles. There are many possibilities for erroeonus interpretation.increased skin resistance due to oil,the presence of hair,and the movment of the electrode can cause false negative EMG response (Weinberg,1982). The limitation to EMG recording lies in the difficulty of distinguishing a very low level of activity from none at all.it is difficult to determine how much of an increase is required in the background ‘noise’ of the recording system to indicate an increase muscle activity.Also,the stress induced in a situation such as an experimental set up influences the electrical activity of the masticatory muscles (Yemm,1969).

Implication

In summary, the results of this study add more evidence to previous studies which suggest that the physiological basis of the postural position of the mandible is maintained actively. And significant effects were found on the effect of hypnosis on the EMG muscle activity.

Further research is needed to study the effectiveness of hypnosis on the masseter muscle activity at rest position and rest vertical dimension.

Abstract

Hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management has become a non-invasive and efficient method for reducing women’s discomfort when giving birth. This paper will critique the article written by Steel, Frawley, Sibbritt, Broom, and Adams (2016) who aimed to examine the characteristics of women who use intrapartum hypnosis for managing their pain. The critique includes points for consideration with regards to the article’s presentation of information, such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion. Also, the paper will summarize the key points of the article and assess its overall presentation.

Introduction

It was chosen to critique the article “The characteristics of women who use hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management: Preliminary insights from a nationally-representative sample of Australian women” written by Steel, Frawley, Sibbritt, Broom, and Adams (2016). The critical problem stated in the article refers to maternity discomfort such as intrapartum pain, which should be managed through appropriate methods; however, this issue has not been reported clearly. The problem is fundamental because complications while giving birth may lead to adverse outcomes for women, subsequently requiring additional nursing care.

The justification for the study is associated with analyzing the effectiveness of holistic intrapartum pain management methods such as hypnotherapy. While the hypotheses and objectives were stated clearly, the article did not mention specific research questions. Also, the authors did not identify a particular theoretical or conceptual framework; thus, no links were made to the research purpose. The literature review in the article was predominantly included in the introduction (there was no separate section); the majority of sources were up-to-date and directly related to the research objectives. The review was organized logically and supported the need for the study, with background information presented at the beginning to lead to the research’s conclusion that there was a need in analyzing a sizeable nationally-representative sample of women.

Methods

The study is a qualitative cross-sectional analysis of a sample of 2445 women drawn from a sub-study of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health. The design fits the purpose of the study because it allowed the researchers to access a large sample of women without the need to employ sophisticated sampling strategies that take a lot of time and money (Grove, Gray, & Burns, 2014). The study’s design is directly linked to the sampling method and statistical analysis since it provided data on the entire population of women who used hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management. A sample described in the article consists of 2445 women aged between 31 and 36 years; however, only 1835 of those women completed the survey that was given to them. Because the researchers did not have to perform a search for the sample population, they did not discuss any procedures associated with it. The justification for the large sample size was given to support the view that the research needed to represent an entire population; the more participants involved, the more efficient the research will be.

With regards to the study protocol, it was not concise; the article only mentioned surveys, Fisher exact test for comparing categorical variables, and a modified Bonferroni correction employed for multiple testing compensations. However, the key instrument was a survey for studying the characteristics of women who implemented hypnobirthing as a tool for pain management. This instrument allowed the researchers to measure the concept it was intended to measure since the surveys asked participants about their experience with hypnobirthing for intrapartum pain management. The authors did not present information on the reliability and validity of the instruments probably because the study sample was based on previous research. Also, the article did not address any threats to the internal and external validity of the instruments. No evidence was provided regarding the review of human subjects and their approval; no indications of ethical concerns were present. It is crucial to mention that the study did not contain enough detail on the methods for replication; it is advised to revise some points to make the description of the design, sampling procedures, instruments, and the study protocol more complete.

Results

When it comes to the characteristics of the sample, the researchers suggested that there were no socio-demographic differences in the study sample of women who used hypnobirthing and those who did not. Since there was only one hypothesis developed in the research, it was answered separately in the results section. Data collected during the research was qualitative and referred to women’s experiences with hypnobirthing as an intrapartum pain management tool. Fisher exact tests were used for the comparison of categorical variables within the study population; however, the researchers did not describe specific data analysis procedures used for answering study questions. The article included a table, which presented differences between women who used hypnotherapy as a pain management tool for labor and women who did not. The text of the article supplemented the data in the tables and was more descriptive while the table included quantitative data on 54 women who used hypnobirthing and 1294 that did not.

Steel et al. (2016) found that women who used hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management were more likely to consult holistic specialists such as acupuncturists or naturopaths and take meditation or yoga classes. Also, these women were more inclined to practice holistic therapy. It is important to mention that the use of hypnotherapy was directly related to women’s place of giving birth due to the need for certain environmental requirements for performing a successful procedure for managing pain. If to analyze the findings of the research, the collected information should not be used as a definite conclusion on the use of hypnotherapy but rather a preliminary set of data for further research since the study can be considered incomplete and indefinite.

Discussion

When presenting a section on the discussion, the authors make direct connections between the findings and the objectives of the study. Since the sample and preliminary data were drawn from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health, the results of the research align with the findings of the previous study. The authors did not discuss the findings that conflict with previous work; however, they mentioned that the ALSWH research was restricted and did not represent the entire population of women who would be relevant for analysis in the study.

With regards to the limitations of the study in terms of practice and future research, researchers mentioned that “the findings from this analysis need to be interpreted with caution; despite the nationally representative sample, the cross-sectional study design limits the ability to determine causality between variables” (Steel et al., 2016, p. 68). This suggestion is similar to that given by Downe et al. (2015) who also concluded that further investigation of women’s mental and physical condition during labor was needed. Also, the researchers mentioned that the small number of women who reported using hypnotherapy for pain management during labor was another limitation that impacted the study’s statistical power. While no new research emerged from the study, it is expected that Steel et al. (2016) will continue their studies and overcome the identified limitations for achieving reliable and meaningful results. The potential for use in nursing practice with regards to the findings of the research is associated with educating women about the possible benefits of hypnotherapy as a non-invasive method for managing their pain during delivery. Nurses can provide consultations to future mothers and provide advice on how to combine hypnotherapy with traditional nursing methods targeted at the reduction of intrapartum pain.

Overall Presentation and Summary

When it comes to assessing whether the title accurately describes the type of study, major variables, and the target population, it is essential to mention that the title is long and contains as much key information as it is possible to fit in it. While the type of study (cross-sectional analysis) is not mentioned in the title, the authors included the major variable (characteristics of women who use hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management) and the target population (Australian women). Also, the abstract accurately represented the article; it included research objectives, design, setting, main outcome measures, results, and conclusions.

By reading the abstract, one can understand the purpose of the study, discover new information to a previously unknown phenomenon, and access brief data on the research findings without the need for reading the entire article, which is the primary purpose of abstracts. The report can be considered logically consistent; the presented information was divided into sections for better navigation throughout the entire article. Overall, the writing style of the article was clear and concise; the information did not contain complicated language, which meant that even individuals without particular knowledge of hypnotherapy and pain management during labor could understand what the researchers wanted to achieve and what results they attained.

References

Downe, S., Finlayson, K., Melvin, C., Spiby, H., Ali, S., Diggle, P., … Williamson, M. (2015). Self-hypnosis for intrapartum pain management in pregnant nulliparous women: A randomised controlled trial of clinical effectiveness. Bjog, 122(9), 1226-1234.

Grove, F., Gray, G., & Burns, S. (2014). Understanding nursing research (6th ed.), New York, NY: Elsevier.

Steel, A., Frawley, J., Sibbritt, D., Broom, A., & Adams, J. (2016). The characteristics of women who use hypnotherapy for intrapartum pain management: Preliminary insights from a nationally-representative sample of Australian women. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 25, 67-70.

Obesity is one of the most dangerous and disturbing health problems with various severe complications. Not so long ago, this problem has been not paid much attention due to the fact that obesity has passed for normal. At the same time, the increasing number of people suffering from obesity makes many nutrition specialists take this phenomenon seriously. “It is estimated that one-third of the adult population in the United States can be classified as obese.” (Donner, n.d, p.1)

In recent years there have been established many weight management programs. There are several criteria in accordance with which this or that program may be evaluated. They are the effectiveness of the program, which means that a weight loss achieved in the course of treatment must be significant, safe for health and availability.

Among a great variety of approaches to weight management, it is possible to distinguish several basic principles. They are nutritional methods, methods of unconventional cytology, physical exercises, physiotherapeutic methods, psychological methods, surgical methods, and pseudoscientific ways of weight management.

In recent times the method of hypnotherapy is very popular for weight-reducing treatment. Hypnosis may be defined as “an altered state of consciousness characterized by heightened susceptibility to suggestion” (Mastering Hypnosis. A Stage Performers Guide, 2001, p.8). It is a connection between the conscious and unconscious parts of the human mind. Hypnosis is a temporary state, which provides a wide range of opportunities for treatment that are unavailable in a state of awareness. At the same time, hypnosis is not a treatment in itself.

Hypnotherapy is an alternative treatment, which uses the hypnotic trance – “a period during which patients are able to break out of their limited frameworks and belief systems so they can experience other patterns of functioning within themselves” (Ericson and Rossi, 1999, p.15). Sometimes this method is used in cases when conventional medicine cannot help.

As a rule, a hypnotic séance begins with a preparatory stage. During this process, with the help of deep relaxation, guided imagery, or concentration on definite objects, a patient tries to calm his mind and to achieve an unconscious state. During a hypnotic sleep, a hypnotherapist may ask questions or give suggestions in order to change the perception of a patient. When a patient returns to his ordinary state, there may be observed certain physical, psychological, emotional, and behavioral changes in him.

The effectiveness of such a treatment of the weight loss has been proved by numerous researches in this sphere. Thus, according to the investigation conducted by Cochrane, Gordon, and Friesen (as cited in Hypnosis Statistics for Weight Loss, 2015, para.2), “hypnosis was more effective on an average of 17 lbs. Lost by the hypnosis group vs. an average of 0.5 lbs. lost by the control group, which was not exposed to hypnosis.”

The same researchers provide an example of another investigation. 109 people have experienced two various weight management programs, either with or without the usage of hypnosis. By the end of the course, both groups have shown a significant bodyweight loss. Nevertheless, “at 8-month and 2-year follow-ups, the hypnosis subjects were found to have continued to lose significant weight, while those in the behavioral-treatment-only group showed little further change.” (Hypnosis Statistics for Weight Loss, 2015, para.4)

These examples may serve as a good demonstration of the effectiveness of hypnotherapy in the weight-reducing treatment. At the same time, it should be added that the competence of a therapist is of a great importance in this process. Those patients who have made a decision to resort to hypnotherapy should consult only credible physicians.

Reference List

Donner, K. (n.d.) Hypnosis and Weight Loss: Alternative Treatment for Obesity. Web.

Ericson, M., & Rossi, E. (1999). Hypnotherapy An Exploratory Casebook New York: USA: Irvington Publishers.

Hypnosis Statistics for Weight Loss. (2015). Web.

Mastering Hypnosis. A Stage Performers Guide. (2001). Web.