Category: Hunter

The emergence of agriculture was the most significant transformation in human history because the capability to produce more food than a certain community needed by farming instead of hunting and gathering wild products meant that some members of these communities could focus on other jobs like specialist craft-workers. Humans had lived in hunter-gatherer communities for several thousands of years, they survived by gathering, fishing and hunting but they had not developed massively over such a long period of time, this was because everyone in the community had to focus on one thing, find enough food for everyone to survive. When agriculture became a reliant food supply, this was no longer something that the whole community had to focus on, this made possible for new social and economic complexities to develop over time (Barker G. 2006). It can also be said the opposite as many argue that agriculture was indeed not the biggest transformation in human history because even though the large majority of communities adapted into this style of living, hunting and gathering was still practiced recently and in some places it still is practised today as these regions have hostile conditions and therefore agriculture isn’t able to develop there. (Scarre, C. 2018) This is actually not correct because the majority of communities that continued to live as hunters and gatherers had a very slow growth over the years and in some cases even to the point of extinction, whereas the communities that had adapted agriculture continued to grow very fast which was a key factor in the development of the first cities.

As mentioned before the domestication of animal and plants had a big impact on how the life of these communities changed and grew throughout time, this domestication was only possible because of the environmental change that happened around 9,600 BC. This change causing the warming of the global warming, caused the ice sheets to retreat and therefore making the sea level rise, this was crucial to the beginning of agriculture as these changes in the world allowed for a big expansion of animal and plant species, perhaps if this environmental change had never happened, communities would have never started to adapt this new way of living and perhaps we wouldn’t be alive today as big and complex societies might have never started to develop and appear. (Scarre, C. 2018). Agriculture didn’t develop in one single place and it was not created by one person, agriculture is the result of a process of interaction between plants and humans over a long period of time. Studies have shown that agriculture rose in at least seven different regions at different times, when speaking of agriculture people mistake what archaeologists mean when talking about agriculture during this time as they just assume that it is just the straightforward definition of the word. This is incorrect because by agriculture, archaeologists not only mean what the first sedentary communities practiced but also the commitment that the relationship between plants and animals requires. This is because farming is not achieved by just throwing some seeds onto the floor, agriculture ultimately requires a change in the way humans were communicating and organizing themselves at the time as agriculture involved more complex thinking and the necessity of doing many activities. Activities such as the clearance of great areas as farming takes large amounts of soil which must be protected as you don’t want animals or other communities to destroy them or steal the things that you have planted or the animals that you have bred.(Scarre, C.2018). Many inventions also derived from this new practice as these communities had to find solutions for the problems they were encountering when farming, also over the time new technologies appeared such as ploughing the soil and the understanding of how irrigation works, when crops were ready to be harvested, how to store them and most importantly how to cook them so that it can feed the never stopping growing communities, another thing that also derived from agriculture was their social values based around their sedentary lifestyle. (Whittle, A. 1994)

Farming settlements started to appear and these settlements were a lot larger than the ones that hunter-gatherers built; these large settlements also started having better protection from other communities but also wild animals. Agriculture made it possible for very large groups to start living together as they could easily get enough food for everyone from fields that were close from their settlements. These settlements could also provide as key places in the landscape, being easier to recognise if lost and it is argued that it started giving the people who lived in these settlements a sense of identity because it became the place where they lived, their home, ancestry because it was the place where your parents and family had lived and been buried before you and ethnicity as you belonged to a community. The change from nomadic to sedentary was one of the biggest changes that happened because of agriculture, this is because archaeological evidence shows that in the other hand, hunters and gatherers were nomadic, which meant hat they travelled around after game as they needed to hunt to survive and if they killed all the animals in one area then they couldn’t stay there as they wouldn’t have a food source, although in some places where environments are rich and productive, hunter-gatherers too could have became partly sedentary for some periods of time.

As mentioned in the introduction, some argue that agriculture was not the biggest transformation in human history because there continued to exist hunter-gatherer communities that never evolved and seemed to survive all of these years, for example the Martu people in Australia are a traditionally nomadic community, they live in Western Australia in the Pilbara desert. These people have been living here, in this part of the world, have been able to live without agriculture for at least 40,000 years. This makes them one of the living cultures in the world today which has not been affected by agriculture, many have been taken into religious camps where they have been introduced to farming but there are still many out there with no such knowledge that keep on surviving and will keep on surviving for many more years. (Gill Gracie, 20111). There are other examples of hunter-gatherer societies that still exist in 2019, for example Kalahari bushmen live in the Kalahari Desert of Africa and they still hunt to survive, they not only hunt but they also use one of oldest methods of hunting in the world, they persist hunt which consists in following a prey until the prey gets tired and falls to the ground, after the prey collapses, they kill them. These hunters do this on a daily basis for multiple hours per day, showing how agriculture isn’t necessary. Even more fascinating than the Kalahari or the Martu people is the Sentinelese because this tribe not only has managed to live for such a long time as hunter-gatherers, they have resisted complete contact with the outside world, this makes them unique, which not only shows that perhaps agriculture was not the biggest transformation in human history but also that agriculture isn’t fundamental to the survival of communities around the world. (Alex Czartoryski, 2011). Although the hunter-gatherer communities prove that you do not require agriculture to live or survive such long periods of time, unlike some people argue, it does not show that agriculture was not the biggest transformation in the human history. Even though it it’s possible to live without agriculture, it was agriculture that allowed societies to become more complex as the surplus of food, meant that they now had new resources for trading, there was a currency for the payment of taxes or tributes, you could start selling the surplus, this meant that societies were starting to get more complex as they had the resources to do things that hadn’t done before. Most importantly agriculture was being able to be done but only a group of people, farmers and still feed the entire society which meant that there was food for non-food producers and therefore these could focus in developing new skills such as a specialist craft-work and different jobs such as warriors and priests. This surplus of food and the lower rates of death which were a lot higher in nomadic hunter-gatherer societies, gave half of the society the time to invent new tools, develop mathematics, improve the language and many more things, this is known as the division of labour and agriculture made it very easy to happen. (Christopher Muscato). Farming and the division of labour therefore allowed for the development of the first big cities such as Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Another example of how agriculture was the biggest transformation in human history is the fact that as social theories argue, present-day notions that we have in our societies such as the notion of equality, property were shaped by the organization, the new technologies and the food surplus that is entailed in our dependence on agriculture. (Winterhalder B, Kennett D. 2006). The significance that this transformation had is comparable to previous transformations such as the change into becoming bipedal, the early stone tool manufacture and also the origins of language. These were some of the biggest transformations in human history before agriculture, even though these were some of the biggest transformations in human history, the biggest is agriculture, this is due to the fact that hunter-gatherer communities had adapted the transformations mentioned before but without agriculture they were not able to develop like the communities that had adapted to this new style of living. The reason for this is that without the surplus of food that archaeology provided communities with, many of the changes and transformations that happened after agriculture were would not been able to happen because they were consequences of this new practice which was farming.

In conclusion, after having analysed different arguments, farming is the biggest transformation in human history because without agriculture we would still be like the hunter-gatherer tribes that still survive today, hunting everyday trying to find just enough to feed everyone and many times struggling because of it. The surplus of food that farming was able to give to the communities made many things possible, it allowed for people to focus on other skills, it allowed for new jobs to develop and therefore bigger cities to develop and be built, it allowed for the army to develop which was crucial in a time where there was a constant battle about territory, the development of an army made it possible for these cities to be better protected than hunter-gatherer societies which depended on the same people to get food and to fight. Agriculture had a snowball effect in the way that everything that it caused, made something else happen which ultimately developed societies into the places we know. A civilization was only able to start forming governments, education systems, the armies previously mentioned, class systems and others because of the substantial surplus of food. A surplus of food was the key difference between hunter-gatherer communities and the communities that had adopted agriculture is that like previously mentioned the hunter-gatherer communities were not able to construct larger permanent settlements and have a more complex society than the simple hierarchy that these communities have whereas the farming communities could do such things. (Tauger, M. 2010). To conclude, these points that I have mentioned above were the key factors that made agriculture the biggest transformation in human history and without it we wouldn’t have been able to reach the point where we are, this can be seen as we have evolved in such a small period of time whereas hunter-gatherer communities had lived on earth for many thousands of years before us without a significant amount of change throughout time, this therefore makes me to conclude that agriculture was the biggest transformation that has ever happened in human history.

What is a Hunter Syndrome?

Hunter syndrome, additionally referred to as genetic disease kind II (MPS II) could be a rare hereditary condition nearly solely moving boys. Hunter syndrome is one in all variety of lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). it’s calculable that the condition is gift in one in 162 000 live births.

Hunter syndrome will have an effect on any a part of the body and causes variety of signs and symptoms. within the majority of individuals with Hunter syndrome, the signs and symptoms gift between the ages of two and four years.

Many of the signs and symptoms are common childhood complaints, and it’s the mix of them which will indicate Hunter syndrome. The symptoms of Hunter syndrome are completely different in every person, therefore there’s no single typical patient expertise.

What causes Hunter syndrome?

Hunter syndrome is one in every of variety of lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). LSDs are conditions within which cells are unable to properly break down sure molecules. In Hunter syndrome, AN accelerator referred to as iduronate-2-sulfatase (I2S) is deficient or typically utterly absent.

In a healthy cell, I2S breaks down specific molecules, referred to as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These molecules were antecedently referred to as mucopolysaccharides, that is why Hunter Syndrome is additionally referred to as genetic disorder kind II (MPS II).

If I2S is deficient or absent, GAGs build up, that prevents the cell from functioning properly. All healthy cells (except red blood cells) create the I2S protein, thus its deficiency will have an effect on any a part of the body. this can be why Hunter syndrome might have symptoms in many organs, and is named a multisystemic unwellness.

Symptoms

Hunter syndrome symptoms vary and vary from delicate to severe. Symptoms aren’t gift at birth, however usually begin around ages two to four because the harmful molecules build up.

Signs and symptoms may include:

• An enlarged head
• Thickening of the lips
• A broad nose and flared nostrils
• A protruding tongue
• A deep, hoarse voice
• Abnormal bone size or shape and other skeletal irregularities
• A distended abdomen, as a result of enlarged internal organs
• Chronic diarrhea
• White skin growths that resemble pebbles
• Joint stiffness
• Aggressive behavior
• Stunted growth
• Delayed development, such as late walking or talking

What are the risk factors for Hunter syndrome?

People are at a better risk for Hunter syndrome if they need a friend with the illness.

Boys have a better risk of heritable the illness than ladies do. This distinction exists as a result of the illness is connected to the sex chromosome. ladies inherit two X chromosomes, whereas boys have only one. If a woman inherits the faulty factor, her different sex chromosome will offer the required catalyst.

How is Hunter syndrome diagnosed?

Treatment o The identification of Hunter syndrome is typically tough thanks to its slow onset and overlapping symptoms with alternative childhood issues. Early signs that recommend a identification embody facial changes within the kid. The baby doctor then sometimes completes an in depth personal case history and physical examination of the individual. Blood, urine, and/or tissue samples may be tested for either the deficient protein or excess mucopolysaccharides. Definitive identification is finished by a genetic analysis of the child’s X chromosome(s). there’s no routine newborn screening obtainable to diagnose Hunter syndrome. However, in families with noted Hunter syndrome, antenatal testing of the humour or placental tissue is also obtainable and may verify the identification in an exceedingly craniate.f Hunter Syndrome

What is the treatment for Hunter Syndrome?

Currently, treatment is meshed toward managing symptoms and complications as there’s no cure for this progressive unwellness. Treatments rely on the organ(s) concerned and might embody help with respiratory, physiatrics to take care of functions, drain of fluids to make up within the brain and/or medulla spinalis, heart valve replacement and alternative treatments like behavior management. Some physicians utilize specific protein medical care to switch child’s deficient enzymes. The treatment is termed protein replacement medical care (ERT) mistreatment AN IV – infused enzyme (Elaprase). it’s still being refined at the side of sequence medical care to switch the abnormal a part of the sex chromosome.

Prenatal testing of the fluid that surrounds the baby or of a tissue sample from the placenta can verify if your unborn child carries a copy of the defective gene or is affected with the disorder.

References

1. ADAM, Unknown. Sex-linked recessive. [Online]. [16th November 2019]. Available from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002051.htm
2. Unknown, Unknown. Sex-linked Traits and Disorders. [Online]. [16th November 2019]. Available from https://www.thoughtco.com/sex-linked-traits-373451
3. Unknown, Unknown. Hunters Syndrome: Risk Factors, Causes, Symptoms and Treaments. [Online]. [16th November 2019]. Available from https://diseasesdic.com/hunters-syndrome-risk-factors-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/
4. Unknown, 2019. What is Hunter syndrome?. [Online]. [17th November 2019]. Available from https://www.huntersyndrome.info/public/about-hunter-syndrome/?gclid=CjwKCAiA_MPuBRB5EiwAHTTvMVhzNXTvv8qoTiWP9-mrvKc-jHDf0m-30fNd
5. Unknown, 2019. Hunter syndrome. [Online]. [17th November 2019]. Available from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hunter-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20350706
6. Unknown, 2019. Hunter syndrom. [Online]. [17th November 2019]. Available from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17932-hunter-syndrome
7. Unknown, 2019. [Online]. [Unknown. 17th November 2019]. Available from https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=221010
8. Unknown, 2019.Hunter syndrome. [Online]. [17th November 2019]. Available from https://www.medicinenet.com/hunter_syndrome_mucopolysaccharidosis_ii_mps/article.htm#what_is_the_treatment_for_hunter_syndrome
9. Unknown, 2014. Disorders of the Sex Chromosomes. [Online]. [13th November 2019]. Available from https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Disorders_of_the_Sex_Chromosomes

Abstract

There are genetic disorders that affect or disrupts the metabolism. These disorders are called inborn error of metabolisms. Most of the errors are due to difficulty or lack of enzyme that break down substrates. A substrate is the substance at which an enzyme act upon. The enzyme iduronate 2-sulfatse is what breaks down the sugar molecule called glycosaminoglycans or GAGs lacks in someone that has Hunter syndrome. Mucopolysaccharidosis Type 2, also known as Hunter syndrome is a rare progressive genetic disorder that affects mostly males. A child that has Hunter syndrome appears to be healthy at birth but throughout early life, symptoms will progress or develop in multiple organs systems. Symptoms such as re-occurring ear infection, enlarged liver and spleen can be seen early on. A severe form of this disorder may exhibit intellectual deterioration, and death occurs by the age 15 in most cases.

Hunter Syndrome

Hunter syndrome is a rare metabolic disorder that are seen mostly in males. This disorder is an X-linked disorder, hence affecting mostly males. Females can compensate due to having another X chromosome. On a cellular level, there is an accumulation of the glycosaminoglycans dermatan and heparin sulfate due to the deficiency in lysosomal enzyme called Iduronate-2-sulfatase or I2S. The buildup leads to permanent and progressive damage that can affect many body systems starting with appearance, organ functions, physical abilities and mental and cognitive development. Hunter syndrome has a variety of symptoms that exhibits in an assortment of severity. These symptoms can be managed and treated with various treatments such as enzyme replacement therapies and other ways to improve function. Also, there is no cure known cure for Hunter syndrome.

Hunter syndrome is a rare and inherited disorder. The risk of inheriting Hunter syndrome increases for each family member that has the disorder. According to Cleveland Clinic (2019), Hunter syndrome is passed down from the mother to the child in a gene mutation or abnormality. The body does not produce enough of Iduronate-2-sulfatase that is responsible for breaking down complex sugars the body produces. The person with Hunter syndrome does not produce enough if any at all the enzyme that leads to the molecules of sugar to buildup. The child with Hunter syndrome can exhibit normal growth up to 5 years of age and at which point the growth and development declines and slow down. Children that are born with this disorder does not exhibit signs early, but “between ages 2 and 4, they develop full lips, large rounded cheeks, a broad nose, and an enlarged tongue. The vocal cords also enlarge, which results in a deep, hoarse voice. Narrowing of the airway causes frequent upper respiratory infections and short pauses in breathing during sleep.” (Genetics Home Reference, 2008). Another sign that is evident with someone that has Hunter syndrome is that they are short in stature and significant impairment in mobility. Additionally, individuals with this disorder have distinguishing features such as a prominent forehead, a nose with flattened bridge and large abdomen.

Genetic testing concluded that the age of onset and severity can vary in the affected individuals. Progressive cognitive deterioration, airway impairments, and cardiac diseases can result in the death within the first 20 years of life. The accumulation of GAGs on organ systems can be progressive parallel to the rate of the cognitive decline simultaneously. Clinical signs of Hunter syndrome include frequent ear and respiratory infections, inguinal hernia, short stature, behavioral problems, sleep apnea and facial dysmorphisms are common. These signs assist on early diagnosis of Hunter syndrome. According to Cleveland Clinic (2019), doctors uses several tests to diagnose this disorder. One way this is tested is using a urine test where the individual is checked for sugar levels in the urine. Unusually high levels of sugar molecules may indicate the possibility of Hunter syndrome. Blood tests can show low or absent levels of enzyme activity, which is also a sign of the disorder.

Additionally, evaluations follow the diagnosis of Hunter syndrome. There are many recommended tests and procedures to be done to assess the degree of the disorder. The test includes echocardiogram, to graphically assess the hearts movements as the ultrasound sends high frequency sound waves that evaluates the pumping of the heart. Another test is the pulmonary function testing, however “pulmonary function testing can be quite challenging in younger individuals and may be impossible for individuals with significant CNS involvement since it requires their full cooperation and is effort dependent.” (Scarpa, 2018). Sleep study is also conducted when sleep apnea is a major concern. Other tests include; audiologic evaluation, nerve conduction velocity and nerve ultrasound examination for carpal tunnel syndrome, MRI of the head and assessments for hydrocephalus and spinal cord compressions. Additional evaluations include ophthalmologic evaluation, and developmental assessments. These evaluations are due to the complications centered in the major organs including the lungs, heart, joints, central nervous systems and the connective tissues.

Respiratory issues start with the individual having an enlarged tongue, thickened gums and nasal passages that makes the process of breathing more difficult. This leads to having interrupted sleep due to ineffective breathing pattern. The presence of these abnormalities leads to developing sleep apnea. Individuals with Hunter syndrome also exhibit re-occurring ear infections and infections ranging from sinus, respiratory infections and pneumonia.

Cardiac complications for someone that has Hunter syndrome is due to the thickening of heart tissues that leads to the impairment of heart valve functions. These functions are due to the irregular closing of heart valves that leads to certain body organs not receiving blood properly. Individuals with this disorder also exhibits high blood pressure due to the narrowing of the aorta and other blood vessels. This can also lead to the narrowing of arteries in the lungs making it difficult for oxygen to be distributed. The irregularity in the cardiac region can result to heart failure as the condition worsens.

The skeletal system has abnormalities that causes the individual to be short in stature and other cases that may reach close to normal height. Individuals that are affected with this disorder have other abnormalities that can progress to having an unusually shaped vertebrae, spines pelvises. These irregularities can also manifest in irregularly shaped legs, arms and fingers. Other disorder like carpal tunnel syndrome can result from bone deformities and buildup of sugar molecules in the tissues. Carpal tunnel syndrome can result in nerve compression that causes pain, numbness, and tingling in the hand and arm.

The central nervous system complications progress and continue to develop in individuals with Hunter syndrome. Due to the buildup of fluids in the individuals’ brain, pressure can lead to headaches, cognitive impairment, and can even hinder vision. The individual with this disorder may develop a condition in the spinal cord that leaves the membrane surrounding it thickened and scarred. This may lead to excess pressure on the upper spinal cord. This can lead to the individual to be fatigued and may become less active. A child with Hunter syndrome “also experiences a decline in intellectual function and a more rapid disease progression. Individuals with the severe form begin to lose basic functional skills between the ages of 6 and 8.” (Genetics Home Reference, 2008).

Connective tissue problems manifests due to sugar molecules accumulating in the tissues that affect the joins and ligaments. Swelling of the joints and abnormalities in cartilage and bones causes the joint to stiffen. This can lead to pain and difficulty in mobility. Another complication are hernias. Hernias occurs when soft tissue usually part of the intestine, pokes through a weak spot or tear in the lower abdominal wall. In cases with Hunters syndrome, the individual can develop hernias that are large. This may also be caused by internal pressure caused by the enlargement of the liver and spleen.

Management of Hunter syndrome ranges from therapy to medical procedures and surgery. Treatment can include “developmental, occupational, and physical therapy; shunting for hydrocephalus; tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy; positive pressure ventilation; carpal tunnel release; cardiac valve replacement; inguinal hernia repair; hip replacement.” (Scarpa, 2018). To manage symptoms of respiratory complications, removal of tonsils and adenoids can assist in the opening of the airway and possibly alleviate sleep apnea. Another way to assist with sleep apnea, is the use of breathing devices such as the CPAP machine. It is also important to keep a strict bedtime schedule in a safe environment with soft pillows and padding on the walls to promote rest and safety.

Treatments for individuals with Hunter syndrome can include therapy that allows the improvement of mobility by alleviating stiffness and promoting joint function. Adaptive equipment such as wheelchairs are also used for individuals experiencing pain and limited join motion and mobility. Hernias can be repaired through surgery but is often repeated due to the impairments in connective tissues. Another way hernia is managed is by having supportive truss. A supportive truss is an undergarment that prevents the protrusion of tissue and promotes comfort. Most of the therapies are dependent on the individual’s symptoms. According to Cleveland Clinic (2019), the treatment shown to do tis best is enzyme replacement therapy. Doctors replace the missing enzyme with a human made version of the enzyme. This enzyme replacement is given intravenously once a week since, “an enzyme replacement therapy, Idursulfase (Elaprase), was approved in 2006 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a treatment for MPS II.” (National Organization for Rare Disorder, 2019).

Early treatment of Hunter syndrome can prevent permanent organ and tissue damage. Individuals with the disorder may have to adapt and adjust their daily activities according to the progression of the symptoms. Provide the child with a safe home environment to assist in managing the individual’s behaviors. There are other emerging treatments such as stem cell transplant that infuses the healthy blood stem cells into the persons body to promote new cell development with the potential to create the lacking enzyme. Another emerging treatment is gene therapy where the individual will have the chromosome replaced to cure Hunter syndrome, but much research is to be done for this therapy to be available.

The prevalence of this disorder is rare, and groups are available for those that are affected by this disorder. Regular supervision may be required for the child in day to day activities and many of the body systems affected may require the individual and the family to visit primary doctors, specialists and other therapists at a regular basis. The early recognition of the signs and symptoms of Hunter syndrome can benefit the individual by getting treatment early on to manage symptoms and promote comfort.

References

1. Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Hunter Syndrome. Retrieved November 20, 2019, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17932-hunter-syndrome.
2. Mucopolysaccharidosis type II – Genetics Home Reference – NIH. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/mucopolysaccharidosis-type-ii.
3. National Organization for Rare Disorder. (n.d.). Mucopolysaccharidosis Type II. Retrieved November 24, 2019, from https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/mucopolysaccharidosis-type-ii-2/.
4. Scarpa, M. (2018, October 4). Mucopolysaccharidosis Type II. Retrieved November 24, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1274/.

The term “affluence” plays a important role in interpreting the both hunting and gathering societies and modern consumer societies. With the common notion, a society which all the people’s material wants are easily satisfied is affluent. However, the notion is not acceptable for both societies. There are two possible way to be affluent according to Shalins. Firstly, wants may be easily satisfied either by producing much or desiring little, which is familiar with the Galbraithean way. In this way, people’s wants are great, while their means are limited, and industrial productivity can narrow the gap between means and ends. Secondly, there is a Zen road to affluence, which is that wants are few, and technical means are fixed. The hunter’s economic behavior seems to be prodigality since hunter consumes everything that hunter have at once. From this perspective, hunter’s economic tendencies may be more affluent that modern market economy. However, there are some arguments that deny that hunter are affluent since hunter have no time for leisure, and hunter have to explore for food, seeming hunter to be poor. As for modern consumer societies, people, conversely, take advantage of these scarcity or inadequacy of the societies. The other term “scarcity” is also important to understand both societies. In modern consumer societies, people do economic activity to improve societies of scarcity with technological advances. The notion of scarcity means not an intrinsic property of technical means but a relation between means and ends. In other words, the perspective of scarcity is different depending on a relation between means and ends within the societies. In addition to these terms of “affluence” and “scarcity”, the terms “wants” and “needs” are also helpful in order to look at goods from both points of view of two societies. “Wants” means things that you do not have but would like to have, whereas “needs” implies thing that you have to have to survive. Accordingly, this paper is intended to examine how goods are differently perceived in hunting-gathering societies and modern consumer societies paying attention to the notion of affluence and scarcity. First, I will outline goods in both hunting-gathering and modern consumer societies. Then, I will examine the goods differently perceived focusing on values of goods. Finally, I will conclude the difference of both societies.

Outline of hunting -gathering societies

Since hunters are themselves engaged in quest for food, they do not much demand material goods. As for them, a movement of quest for food is significant, so the possession of enough goods are oppressive for their mobility . Although few hunters belong to canoes and dog sleds, almost all hunters only possess what they can comfortably carry themselves. Or hunters have no sense of possession, and they do not know how to take care of their possessions. Therefore, decisive value is portability and small goods are generally better than big ones. Further, they do not place value on goods that they possess and the goods are often lost but just as easily replaced. According to Gusinde’s study, hunters took care of expensive things that were given to them for a few hours, after that they put them away in the mud. Their wants are few. Therefore, what is important for hunters is not how goods are valuable but what makes them survive. They can replace what is broken down. In other words, hunter’s wants against goods are scarce and their means are abundant. That hunter possess less is to allow them to travel more comfortably. Hunter is free of material pressure except for food and water which are so-called needs, although it is seemed that they can have what they need and want. In addition to acquisition of food and water, needs of clothing and shelter are essential to survive in hunting and gathering societies. Adaptation of the tools allows hunter and gathers to live in material abundance. Hunters and gathers may work less than people in modern consumer societies and the food search is not continuously, therefore they have plenty of time that can be used for leisure and rest. More precisely, the average length of time to acquire and prepare food was four and five hours per person each day. The subsistence quest is greatly intermittent. Moreover, despite such intermittent work, one person’s labor will support four or five people. Some research shows that hunters and gathers have varied and abundant food resources like nuts in spite of harsh climate condition including a low rainfall. The variety of their diet depend on the seasons and environment that they live. These findings suggest that hunters and gathers’ food collecting are efficient. Therefore, acquisition of food is indifferent for them since it is readily procured.

Outline of modern consumer societies

In modern consumer societies, needs are more social and political to sustain lifestyle. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, there are 5 different levels of importance of needs. This hierarchy are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem, and self- actualization. The modern consumer societies’ needs are diversified and developed in terms of not only physiological needs but the others. These varied needs lead to growing of wants, which leads to perform consumption. In the light of consumption , goods are commodities that are placed on value due to price tag, and commodities have not only functional values and cultural. Due to consumption of goods as commodities, mass production and mass consumption is emerged with the market geographically and socially spread and organization of production diversified. These economic movements on societies spread purchasing power and diminish traditional restraint over consumption. The societies promotes further production to become affluent. Demand for buying goods come after their introduction which is a advertisement. therefore, needs are created by advertising and people feel satisfaction thorough purchase of goods and fulfillment of their needs. Thus, the marketing and advertising dealing in consumerism itself. According to the process of advertisement, people are made to think that they need to purchase things that they do not need, reshaping consumer’s conception of truth and culture and in doing so people can make profits. According to Warde, there are five practices in consumption. These practices are expression of self-identity, marking attachment to social groups, accumulation of resources, exhibition of social distinction and participation in social activities. The idea of self is formed through individual choices, and it affect their lifestyles.

Main difference of two societies

In hunting and gathering societies, they do not collect food in subsistence, although the work is primary activity. The food that is acquired by some individuals is shared among their family and kinship, which is called reciprocity that is one of the economic behavior. The reciprocity appears in non-market economies and it leads family and kinship to help each other for safeguard protection and sustenance. Solidarity among hunters and gathers allow them to share goods and assist their life altruistically. According to gene-culture co-evolutionary models’ proposal, a process of cultural learning and the approval of norm violators maintain prosocial behavior, which cooperative groups are apt to sustain and expand rather than less cooperative groups. Therefore, hunters and gathers see goods for not individual’s ones but groups as shared things and assortment brings different resources, abilities and skills, and they see value as goods to cooperate each other. In modern consumer societies, reciprocity seems to be conducted among family and friends in various ways, from donating kidneys to sharing food. People also help and cooperate with unknown person in large groups by donating money and blood. The common economic behavior in modern consumer societies is “exchange”. According to Polanyi, exchange means vice-versa movements happening under a market system and bargaining behavior is a essence of exchange, which makes price of goods. “Exchange is the transmission of wealth from one transactors to another, whereas reciprocity refers to the specific quality of the relationship between the transactors. In the course of exchange, money is used as a medium for promoting exchange. In modern consumer societies, people exchange or trade commodities to make profit, which causes destruction of the house hold’s bonds. People pursue gaining money and affluence of individual is up to amount of money that they have. Market exchange makes disparity between community’s members through benefit within internal and external societies and remove the broad solidarity and bonds of dependence between communities. Moreover, These notions of money lead to relationship between the producer and the product since workers are just paid labour and they are aliened from what they produce. For example, in Ghana many farmer make cocoa which is a ingredient of chocolate, but they have never tasted chocolate. Money itself seems like one of commodity which is physical properties rather than labour of production but the perception of money is different depending on societies. In modern consumer societies, there are many commodities that hunters and gathers do not place values. One of the goods that are differently perceived in hunting and gathering societies and modern consumer societies is land. For nomadic hunters and gathers, they do not have perception that they belongs to land. They move the land to quest food with a changing season. Conversely, in modern consumer societies, people perceive the land as a commodity for the production and living. A value of the land varies depending on the productive capacity, location and so on. Thus, how societies are affluent or scarcity depend on amount of property, especially money and land. In the societies, the land is commodified globally since, for instance, some western organizations hold farm land in Ghana to make cocoa. In doing so, Law plays indispensable role in making things commodify.

The function of money leads to trade globally with the advance of technology. Technological innovations change the world globally. One of the most essential technology is Internet. In terms of consumption, people use Internet as a advertisement of commodities in which promotes people’s interest. Consumers have choices of their want and needs. Therefore, they fulfil their scarcity and become affluent through the consumption, which the process of satisfaction, however, increases their wants. Moreover, production drives more wants and needs for more production.

Needs: food, water, clothing, shelter

Needs are fundamental things to survive for both hunting and gathering societies and modern consumer societies. Specifically, needs are assumed to be food, water, clothing and shelter. In hunting and gathering societies, needs are easily acquired. They have little preference against needs.

Wants: leisure

As I have stated above, hunters and gathers have plenty of time to use leisure.

In modern consumer societies, leisure itself is commodified. Even though technological advance brings about a availability of many kinds of leisure, the amount of leisure decreases since the amount of work increases.

The Hadza are a group of about 250 hunter-gatherer’s living around Lake Eyasi in Tanzania and have been roaming Africa since before the Agricultural Revolution 12,000 years ago (Finkel, 2009). The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions changed human subsistence patterns and, as a result, have devastated the Hadza’s way of living. This major change in human subsistence was the alteration of ecosystems for human benefit, known as agriculture. The manipulation of ecosystems can cause complicated issues known as surprises (Liu, et. Al., 2007). These surprises can create unforeseen circumstances for people like the Hadza, who do not intensively alter, and heavily rely upon, their ecosystems. For the Hadza these changes have been a reduction in prey, foraging, territory, and population. The Hadza have been fortunate to experience a time-lag on these consequences stemming from changes in human subsistence patterns during the Agricultural Revolution.

The environment of the Hadza has been changing rapidly since the agricultural revolution and, as with each human revolution, extreme changes have been made to Tanzanian ecosystems which the Hadza subsist upon. These changes have meant mostly a reduction in prey and edible plants to forage over many years. Such ramifications have been studied in-person by anthropologist and author Michael Finkel. In an article exploring the lifestyle of the Hadza, Finkel explains that the Hadza are resilient and continue to hunt anything that can be brought down with their poison (Finkel, 2009). This demonstrates one of the many ways that humans don’t benefit from human advances. Many people may become worse off as a direct result of these advances, like the Hadza. In the article Complexity of Coupled Human Natural Systems, Liu et. Al. explains the principal of surprises, which are (mostly adverse) effects crop up from our inadequate understanding, and over-zealous modification of, our ecosystems (Liu, et. Al., 2007). The deterioration of the environment experienced by the Hadza is one such surprise. The Hadza can cope with a rapidly changing ecosystem due to their thousands of years of ancestral knowledge and the fact that they require little besides space to roam.

A changing environment isn’t the only thing the Hadza must cope with. Recently the Hadza have been coming across other groups of hunter-gathers in their territory. Due to the non-combative nature of the Hadza these groups can take the territory without any ramification. According to Face to Face with Tanzania, an article published in the Smithsonian in 2016, the Hadza have lost 90% of their roaming territory in the last century, mostly to other tribes (Gritz, 2016). This can be framed as a legacy effect (Liu, et. Al., 2007) of capitalist expansion. One of the central tools of capitalism is the commodification of land. One of the central needs of hunter-gather tribes is space. Space is a necessity because tribes must move from place to place in search of resources and sometimes to visit family or other tribes (Finkel, 2009). The commodification of land has wiped out any hunter-gather tribes in Europe, North America, and most of Asia. The only places hunter-gather tribes still live and thrive are in South America and Africa because these are the only places land ownership haven’t completely taken hold. However, as we can see with the Hadza, this is quickly changing. Even in Africa tribes of hunter-gathers are being pushed together and forced to compete for resources like space.

Another major social revolution is clearing a path to the Hadza: wage labor. Wage labor draws its origins from the Agricultural Revolution and boils down to working for a reward, which in the end, feeds you. During the Industrial Revolution this form of subsistence was popularized, if not globalized, and it is partially to blame for the crowding of Hadza territory. Wage labor has made profound changes to the Hadza’s way of life over a few decades. Only a quarter of all Hadza are still hunter-gathers, and many take part in wage labor as farm hands and tour guides to the people surrounding and visiting Lake Eyasi (Finkel, 2009). The commodification of land becomes twice the threat when combined with wage labor as a shift in values occurs. The Hadza have, and thus value, very little. According to Finkel each Hadza living in the traditional hunter-gather way only keep three to four items each (Finkel, 2009). The values of privacy and ownership have, over many years, changed the way humans interact with natural systems . As John Lancaster explains in his paper “The Case Against Civilization”, published in the New Yorker, human “…adapt the landscape to our purposes.” (Lancaster, 2017, p.2). These swift changes in human behavior have led us to completely consume the wilderness, leaving very little for people who subsist as hunter-gathers. The Hadza have felt the effects of these changes as they continue to lose family and territory to a more modern humans.

The Hadza are coping with a rapidly changing environment, both socially and physically. New ecological circumstances stem from a change in human subsistence patterns 12,000 years ago. Combined with a lack of knowledge about how these systems work, humans have consumed most of the wilderness on the planet and created a flurry of unforeseen complications. Socially the Hadza are experiencing crowding and the threat of wage labor taking over their hunting gathering way of life. Wage labor has been propagated throughout history and is now finally making its way to Africa, pushing many tribes of hunter gatherers together, and forcing them to compete for resources that were abundant in the past.