Category: Humor

Introduction

Zadie Smith’s novels describing the challenges of the contemporary multicultural and especially interracial dialogue are a rather refreshing change in the contemporary literature landscape (Nkwetisama and Fai 12). By incorporating elements of humor into her work, she manages to create stories that appeal to readers on an emotional level, thus, helping them build an immediate connection with lead characters. The resulting engagement with the lives of her characters makes readers experience the trials and tribulations that Zadie Smiths’ characters have. The emotional journey on which Smith’s novels take readers to challenge the contemporary cultural issues by reducing the gap between representatives of different cultures and making the opportunity for understanding and, therefore, a peaceful dialogue, a possibility.

Zadie Smith is a renowned British writer. She is known mainly for her novels, such as White Teeth, and her articles that scrutinize the nature of the social psyche, such as Generation Why. However, Smith’s novels also dive deep into the waters of social and intercultural relationships, which are becoming increasingly common in the modern diverse society. Therefore, Smith’s stories can be viewed as an attempt to study the associated issues through the prism of comedy, thus, developing an impartial attitude to them and locating the ways of resolving the specified concerns. The focus on comedy, which can be viewed as one of the essential characteristics of her writing, can be considered a coping mechanism that allows her to explore the depth of sociocultural issues.

Humor in Writing Style

The style in which Zadie Smith writes serves as a shorthand to introduce the reader to a situation that can be regarded as ethically or socially problematic and approached from the perspective of Zadie Smith’s sense of humor. When considering the characteristics that make Zadie Smith stand out as a writer, one must mention the inimitable writing style that sets her aside from the rest of contemporary novelists. A combination of realistic setting and characters and a humorous approach toward describing the situations in which her characters were defined by James Wood as “hysterical realism” (Zalewski). Remarkably, the specified epithet was not given to her body of work as an exclusive endeavor at pointing out its strengths; quite the contrary, Wood targeted the weaknesses of Smith’s creations. According to critics,

After Wood skewered Zadie Smith’s first novel, ”White Teeth,” as a prime example of hysterical realism, she publicly admitted that Wood had introduced a ”painfully accurate term for the sort of overblown, manic prose to be found in novels like my own.” (Zalewski)

Nevertheless, it was the overly exaggerated style, which made the comic elements of described situations completely out of proportion, that warranted Zadie Smith’s fame and recognition. Her readers related to the comedic scenarios described in White Teeth, as well as in Generation Why, thus, developing appreciation to the author for her ability to address complex social issues from a humorous perspective.

Because of the nonlinear nature of Smith’s narration, the structure of her stories is extremely complex. Following her characters and, thus, making them even more realistic, Smith does not try to force a traditional story structure into her novels; instead, she builds an experience in which she invites the readers to participate. The specified approach would have made the novel of any other writer very convoluted and practically unreadable, yet Zadie Smith knows that the plot of her novels is not what has to be in focus – or, at the very least, not all the time. The convoluted elements of the plot also serve their purpose since they provide the framing for the humorous outlook on a particular situation that would have been regarded as socially dubious or even conflicting. The combination of humorous elements and deep introspect into nature social conflicts can also be seen in her latest book, “Changing My Mind.” For instance, the importance of a deep insight into the nature of interracial relationships in the novel outweighs the necessity to introduce a clear plot:

I once overheard a young white man at a book festival say to his friend, “Have you read the new Kureishi? Same old thing—loads of Indian people.” To which you want to reply, “Have you read the new Franzen? Same old thing—loads of white people.” (Smith “Changing My Mind” 13)

The quote above shows that, in Smith’s writing, characters and plot are often discarded as the elements that the reader can construct on their own, whereas social concerns must be represented fully. Indeed, instead of hinting at some of the current racial biases, Smith points them out directly, yet she does so nonchalantly and humorously that has become the most easily recognizable characteristic of her writing. Smith’s ability to represent some of the most burning issues in a humorous light, at the same time refraining from diminishing them is truly worth appreciation.

Humor and Characters

Characters are the driving force behind the stories that Smith creates since these are the characters that are allowed to explore the convoluted nature of contemporary racial and social issues. Smith’s characters are the source of humor and, therefore, the key tool for the writer to provide a critical look at some of the modern social issues, at the same time retaining the humorous attitude which defines her writing: “She liked to yell ‘Culllaaaah Struck!’ when she entered a fancy party—almost everybody was. But Hurston herself was not” (Smith “Changing My Mind” 8-9). Thus, people in Smith’s books are the highlight of her story and the means of rendering the concept of hysterical realism, i.e., the idea of addressing complex social issues through humor and comedy.

One might argue that Zadie Smith’s characters are far too cartoonish to represent actual people with real problems. Indeed, in several cases, the people that inhabit the universe created by Smith can be seen as exaggerated versions of real-life people. The specified approach may be seen as far too distracting for some people to become invested in the lives of these characters, their dilemmas, and the trials and tribulations through which they are going. However, when reading Smith’s works, one must keep in mind that her writing contains a significant element of humor. Therefore, cartoonishly exaggerated character traits are not only inevitable; they are necessary to help readers explore their development and interactions without any complications. If the people described by Smith were portrayed as actual people, being just as vulnerable and tangible, the challenges that they were facing would make Smith’s stories far too dark. The element of humor is crucial to retain the lightheartedness of the narration and engage the reader without having to use the power of a shock value.

Therefore, the presence of cartoonishly exaggerated features and characteristics of the people that Zadie Smith describes in her works is essential to the effect that she intends her message to produce. By creating the people that are slightly less believable than the ones after which they were modeled, Smith enhances the believability of her imaginary universe, thus, making the message behind her novels extraordinarily powerful.

Humor and Scenarios

Even though the characters created by Zadie Smith are extraordinarily memorable and extremely relatable, the setting and plots of her novels also contribute to creating a sense of a unique experience that helps one gain a deeper insight into the nature of interpersonal and intercultural relationships. For instance, the fact that Smith’s stories are rarely bound by the rules of a three-act structure deserves to be mentioned. What seemed to be an indisputable law of storytelling has been turned into a rule that has worn out its welcome. Indeed, a closer look at White Teeth will reveal that even some of the traditionally structured novels written by Smith include rather frivolous and very inspiring experiments with the basic structure of narration. For instance, Zadie Smith’s stories can be characterized as a chain of events rather than the traditional combination of a setup, a rising action, and a resolution (Tew 38). For example, in White Teeth, the main plot of the story, while being represented, is rather difficult to place within the borders of a three-act structure. Instead, it can be regarded as a chain of events that represents a slice of life: Archie meets Clara, then he reunited with his childhood friend Samad, he meets the Chalfens, etc. (Smith “White Teeth” 26).

By using the specified technique, Smith manages to create the universe in which character development through interactions becomes the focus of the story. The situations in which people in Smith’s novels find themselves serve as the foil for their further evolution. As a result, the emphasis shifts from the story to the interactions between the characters, the social environment in which they live. The specified strategy helps reveal some of the most complex contemporary social issues, including the ones that are related to cross-cultural communication, at the same time retaining the humorous elements that make Smith’s writing so powerful and inspiring. However, Smith does not restrict herself to exploring solely racial issues; instead, she focuses on all aspects of multiculturalism, addressing the age gap, differences in social worldviews, etc.

For instance, in Generation Why, Smith points to the fact that an entire wall has been built between two generations that are seemingly close to each other in terms of their respective eras: “He doesn’t understand what’s happening as she tries to break up with him. (“Wait, wait, this is real?”)” (Smith “Generation Why”). Smith refers to the generations that she has discovered within the layer of a culture that was seemingly homogenous as 1.0 and 2.0. The not-so-subtle way of marking the effects that information technologies have made on the specified demographics, Smith’s approach toward defining the specified demographics, however, does not leave a sense of bitterness in her readers (Hadjetian 49). Instead, the ease with which she addresses some of the most controversial issues of the contemporary global environment, such as overdependence on technology and especially social media makes readers relate to the characters that she portrays and, therefore, explore the challenges of modern communication through the lens of these characters’ perspective.

Humor and Philosophy

On the one hand, the perspective from which Zadie Smith sees writing, in general, and creating a novel, in particular, is nothing new in the artistic world. According to Smith, writing is an experience that ultimately brings her some form of relief (Smith “generation Why”). The identified philosophy might seem as fairly basic, yet it gains unexpectedly much sense when viewed from a social perspective. Seeing that Zadie Smith addresses an array of socio-cultural issues in her novels, exploring her work through a social lens is essential to developing a better understanding of the rift between cultures (Chiu 14).

On the other hand, the specified approach creates an array of new possibilities. Although the smart and witty way in which Zadie Smith writes her novels also lends a way to a profound analysis of her writing and characters, the emotional aspect of her novels is also very relatable. As a result, her readers can connect to the characters immediately, whether because of the lighthearted fun that these characters share with readers or a caustic and profound remark about the contemporary society that certain scenes and dialogues imply (Tran 14).

The idea of using writing as a form of relief, which Zadie Smith also views as part and parcel of her philosophy, speaks of the necessity to explore complex sociocultural conflicts in the global society through literature. Indeed, in Generation Why, Smith insists that the contemporary sociocultural environment can be characterized by a range of cultural and subcultural levels: “Generation Facebook’s obsession with this type of ‘celebrity lifestyle’” (Smith “Generation Why”). Thus, the author points to the need for addressing cross-cultural conflicts that may occur in the process.

Apart from focusing on the confrontation between the needs of an individual and the standards that the society has built for its members, Zadie Smith also views the importance of the specified dichotomy as an integral part of an individual’s life. Thus, the combination of humorous situations and complex societal issues becomes especially poignant in Smith’s writing. “On Beauty” is, perhaps, the most graphic representation of the specified phenomenon. In the book, Smith states that “The greatest lie ever told about love is that it sets you free” (Smith “On Beauty” 441). The quote creates a combination of wistful and humorous moods, thus, making readers contemplate the problems of interpersonal relationships.

The specified characteristic of Smith’s philosophy is what makes it remarkably subtle and poignant. Instead of switching to one of the extremes and heralding the importance of either an introversive or extroversive perspective, she makes it clear that both are intrinsically essential to one’s existence In White Teeth, she makes the following remark: “Every moment happens twice: inside and outside, and they are two different histories” (Smith “White Teeth” 299). Although the specified remark is mentioned without particular emphasis being placed on it, it plays a crucial role in the novel since it stresses the importance of acknowledging one’s feelings to oneself and then discussing them with someone else. As a result, Smith creates a delicate balance between the internal and the social self of her characters, which appeals to the audience on a subconscious level.

Thus, it could be argued that Smith’s writing can be condensed to the search of the point in life where harmony between all of its elements can become a possibility. Smith wisely points out that the identified goal must not be viewed as a thing in itself, and that the search for the ultimate point at which people can reconcile and live in harmony can hardly be deemed as a possibility. Nevertheless, her writing stresses the importance of search or the specified utopia as the means of becoming complete and, therefore, reconciling with not only the people around but also with oneself. The identified motif can be tracked down in both “White Teeth” and “Generation Why,” the latter being, perhaps, somewhat more explicit in its message concerning the necessity to balance between the external and internal environment. A closer look at both works will reveal that, in “Generation Why,” the conflict comes primarily from the within (Shaw 190).

However, the problem of identity loss, which can be seen in “generation WHY,” is also fueled by the increasingly large drift between two generations of people that were supposed to represent a complete whole, yet were separated at some point. Nonetheless, a closer look at how the story in “White Teeth” is paced will reveal that the delicate balance between communication with society and the dialogue with one’s self is also viewed as essential (Brunn 21). Particularly, Smith renders the specified idea with the following line: “Not everybody deserves love all the time” (Smith 382). The specified statement is profound on several levels, including the societal (i.e., interactions with others) and personal (i.e., the search for and the ultimate reconciliation with ones’ self). Therefore, Smith points out the importance of both external and internal conflicts as the state of the unceasing search for one’s own identity and the means of relating to others. As a result, Smith’s writing leaves a bittersweet feeling of the lack of and the future hope for self-fulfillment from both personal and societal points of view.

Conclusion

Zadie Smith’s characters leap off the pages of her books, encouraging readers to connect with them emotionally and, thus, helping readers use humor as the means of confronting complex social and racial issues. Although it would be wrong to claim that Zadie Smith’s novels eliminate any differences between members of African American cultures and representatives of other ethnicities, her stories contribute to bridging the gap between different cultures. By portraying her characters in very relatable situations and placing them in familiar settings, she manages to help readers establish a connection to them, at the same time retaining the cultural and ethnic integrity of her characters. Zadie Smith depicts people in her novels from a humanistic perspective, thus, convincing audiences that they do not have to fully merge with them to sympathize with them and understand their motivations.

As a result, the scenarios in which the characters interact, as well as the humor that surrounds these interactions, become the highlight of Smith’s novels. Thus, the genre of hysterical realism truly shines through in Smith’s books. Therefore, when reviewing Smith’s style, one must mention her ability to incorporate the elements of realism into her novels, at the same time retaining the air of emotional tension that fuels the conflict in her stories. Since Smith refuses to use the traditional three-act structure in most of her works, these are the interactions between lead characters that are placed at the forefront of her stories. Thus, the reader is provided with an opportunity to explore complex societal, sociocultural, and ethical issues that can be located in the contemporary global environment. Offering their readers to embark on the adventure that will get them prepared for the challenges of the real world, Smith’s stories help their readers grow emotionally and socially.

Works Cited

Brunn, Stefanie. Zadie Smith’s White Teeth – Irie as an Example for 2nd Generation Immigrants’ Desperate Search for Their Place in a Multicultural Society. GRIN Verlag, 2013.

Chiu, Monika. Scrutinized!: Surveillance in Asian North American Literature. University of Hawaii Press, 2014.

Hadjetian, Sylvia. Multiculturalism and Magic Realism in Zadie Smith’s novel White Teeth: Between Fiction and Reality. Anchor Academic Publishing, 2014.

Nkwetisama, Carlous Muluh, and Gilbert Tarka Fai. Decompartmentalisation of Knowledge: Interdisciplinary Essays on Language and Literature. Editions L’Harmattan, 2016.

Shaw, Kristian. Cosmopolitanism in Twenty-First Century Fiction. Springer, 2017.

Smith, Zadie. Changing My Mind. Penguin, 2009.

“Generation Why.”NYbooks.com. 2010, Web.

On Beauty. Penguin, 2006.

White Teeth. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2003.

Tew, Philip. Reading Zadie Smith: The First Decade and Beyond. Bloomsbury, 2013.

Tran, Thu. Language and Gender in Society. A Literature Review. GRIN Verlag, 2017.

Zalewski, Daniel. “The Year in Ideas; Hysterical Realism.”The New York Times Magazine. 2002. Web.

Introduction

In most cases, minority groups use comedy as a way of gaining acceptance from the mainstream society. For a long time, African-Americans have been branded as second-class citizens, selfish, and lazy individuals. Unlike in the past when African-Americans retaliated to such prejudices and criticisms with defiance, comedians in the contemporary times use humor to settle most of these social injustices. Besides humor, different individuals are advancing numerous social commentaries regarding race and class interlink in the United States.

While comedians may revoke uncomfortable sentiments at some points, comedy is gradually becoming essential in society by compelling people to face realities that they would otherwise confront through aggression. The purpose of this article is to show that humor has been employed by the African-American population as a tool of diminishing the stereotypes that get in their way towards the realization of equal privileges in the mainstream society.

Stand-up comedy has been used as an alternative to liberate African-Americans by pushing social boundaries through stories that at times might seem unacceptable, but they are met with espousal when narrated on stage. With this assertion in mind, this article agrees with Joseph Boskin’s claim that the contemporary African-American humor demonstrates that this minority group has been liberated from the past and it has advanced to a state beyond defiance.

Humor as an alternative to violence

In cases where the truth hurts, it is better to respond with a joke as opposed to violence. Covert resistance declined at the peak of the civil rights movements in the late 1960s. Although retaliation through violence recurred during the 1992 Los Angeles incidence, the pressure was too much not only for blacks, but also for other minority groups to retaliate (Williams 67).

These events forced black comics to seek their way into white platforms by breaking the walls that had restricted minority groups from the popular culture. Stand-up comedy has developed to instigate change in a manner that leaves the audience with a lasting impression about the truth and a desire to get more of it. The fact that the truth is cemented in humor gives the critics a reason to smile, since the humor drives away the stigma thereof.

This new platform gives African-American the chance to neutralize all inequalities that face them in the mainstream culture of the United States. Good humor provokes tension and the comedians help the audience to release that tenseness. This concept of tension and tension release enables the comic to talk about sensitive issues without the fear of intimidation and victimization. Even talking about taboos becomes easy regardless of how controversial they are in the normal day-to-day life.

African-American comedians have embarked on doing comedy about their culture with a sense of humor. Then the audience realizes that the stereotype is difficult to perpetuate for the potency of the prejudice declines. Talking about what mainstream society thinks and says about one’s culture will not necessarily harm anyone, but it will destabilize people’s power and force them to rethink their stance.

For example, contemporary comedy reminds people of the interweaving racial and political conditions during the times of civil rights movements coupled with what today’s minority groups continue to face (Comer 32). Civil rights commentators such as Malcolm X and Luther King both fought hard to attain equality for African-Americans, which set the grounds for the contemporary comics who use jokes to pass similar messages. After the assassination of King in 1968, the nonviolence moral principles were immediately replaced by looting. The consequences required alternative ways to respond.

The 1992 Los Angelis riots were a demonstration of anger experienced by African- Americans concerning the verdicts in the Rodney King’s trial. Although the riots cannot be justified, the violence was an unavoidable consequence of the persisting racism, police brutality towards minorities, and the vagaries of poverty amidst the minorities (Boskin 161). From this perspective, it becomes hard to condone lawless vandals as a means of rectifying the system.

African-American comedy sought to convey the message that everyone, regardless of race or any other disparity, deserved equal opportunities. Even when African-Americans were restrained by flawed interpretation of the law and resistance, which led to the loss of lives by black radicals, comedy emerged to rekindle hope for the highly discriminated individuals. Even when the media intentionally victimized African-Americans for atrocities committed by the whites, black comics did not relent in their fight to alleviate social ills against the minority groups.

Humor in the fictions of slavery

Slavery is one example of how African-Americans were exploited and discriminated from the mainstream American culture. In his book, Rock This, the African-American comedian, Chris Rock, presents a stereotype of a minority who gives in to the mainstream culture in a bid to cope (Boskin 149). Rock gives examples demonstrating how slavery created grounds and a substantial source of African-American humor.

The examples provided in this book treat humor seriously by appealing to slavery-centered stereotypes reminding people of the past events and linking them with the present in a way that changes suffering into jokes and insight. As Boskin shows, Joel Chandler Harris and Al Jolson greatly utilized black history and present expressions to generate humor (146). They made fun of the experiences of an elderly slave working on a plantation in North Carolina.

The laughter of resistance, enhanced not only ego strength among the African-Americans, but also it served to disarm the misfortunes of the victims. Most white supremacists acknowledge what Chris Rock joked about the black people by admitting that it underlines the truth. Apparently, even white supremacists have started appreciating the opinion of an African-American comedian. Doing jokes about racial stereotypes should only be based on facts. This aspect gives the audience the element of humor when it clicks true to their experiences.

As rising social concerns cause new scenes and stereotypes in the US, African-Americans have continued to show resilience in the way they address such issues. They have used stand-up comedy as a platform to counter assumptions and treat prejudice lightly. For example, the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States created rift between the Muslim society and other individuals. In response to the anti-Islam atmosphere, Muslim American comics are touring the US in a bid to change the mentality of the mainstream society that Muslims are terrorists. In the same perspective, African-Americans abandoned savage behavior of resistance and opted for comedy to drive home their grievances (Munby 40).

The role of the mainstream media

In the past, media platforms inclined to representing what protected white supremacy. Media had the tendency to depict the conflicts as being instigated by the blacks against the whites. Unfortunately, media platforms would treat white suspects as better individuals than black victims. Often, African-Americans were discriminated by the mainstream media, which meant continued subjugation of African Americans.

The media did not focus on communicating the cries of misery, poverty, and hopelessness of individuals living in the slums. Going back to the 1980s, the famous Cosby Show gave an insight of the President Reagan’s attack on liberal calls. Regan’s administration turned focus away from the minority concerns and concentrated on reforms that embraced the desires of the rich (Jarrett 87). It also presented viewers with a new African-American condition.

Despite the notion represented by Reagan about African-Americans being lazy, blacks did not choose to retaliate violently. The rising African-American market attracted mainstream media with shows such as The Cosby Show. This show illuminated social injustices of the time in a way that brought laughter, but relayed the message that addressed the persisting situation. The success of the Cosby Show indicated that times had changed and African-Americans had been liberated. The appeals through comedy demonstrated to the public a new image of African-Americans who were distinct from their earlier stereotyped version of being lazy and deviant.

Conclusion

Despite the election of the first African-American president in 2008, African-Americans remain the targets of hate crimes. Although anti-black violence has greatly decreased in the recent years, it persists in some areas, thus creating a negative impact on the minority society. However, the most important factor is that African-Americans have now liberated themselves from the past and they no longer respond with violence. The media has become less inclined to the interest of the majority and the African-Americans utilize this opportunity to change stereotypes associated with them as a minority group. As a result, African-American humor is developing to address different themes regularly in a bid to reinstate dignity and diversity in the mainstream society.

Works Cited

Boskin, Joseph. The Humor Prism in 20th-Century America, Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1997. Print.

Comer, Krista. “Imagining the African American West; Wrangling Women: Humor and Gender in the American West.” American Literature 82.1 (2010): 202-204. Print.

Jarrett, Gene. A Companion to African American Literature, Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. Print.

Munby, Jonathan. Under a Bad Sign: Criminal Self-Representation in African American Popular Culture, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011. Print.

Williams, Dana. African American Humor, Irony, and Satire, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007. Print.

Japanese literature is, perhaps, richer in poignant stories than in humorous tales. According to ancient chronicles, even the Sun Goddess paid the high price for exploding in mindless mirth: she was seized by gods and forced to stay in the sky (Hoffman par. 1). The lack of humor could be explained by endless wars; nonetheless, even four hundred years of peacetime during the Heian Period were marked by the tears that “flowed and flowed, unconcealed and unashamed, for tears were a badge of sensitivity, and sensitivity was the highest human quality the age conceived” (Hoffman par. 3). Even though the ancient literature of Japan was shrouded in a vale of tears, laughter has managed to infiltrate it from time to time.

For example, Otomo no Tabito (665-731) in his Manyoshu called for happiness in this life (Hoffman par. 5). Heian peace also engendered wit that could be evident in Sei Shonagon’s Pillow Book. Interestingly enough, the fourteenth-century chronicles Taiheiki include the story of boisterous laughter; however, the source of humor is simultaneously admirable and terrible—self-inflicted death (Hoffman par. 7). The Edo period (1603-1868) was associated with protracted peace during which commercialization of society allowed to shift from warrior humor to commoner humor (Hoffman par. 7). The messages delivered by the novelists of Edo period were bawdy and crass. Humor was taken to whole new levels (Hoffman par. 7).

The aim of this paper is to explore the use humor and parody in the following works of Edo and Tokugawa periods: Shikitei Sanba’s Ukiyoburo, Ihara Saikaku’s Life of a Sensuous Man, and Hiraga Gennai’s Theory of Farting. It will argue that these works are, perhaps, the most poignant social satire of the Tokugawa and Edo periods.

Theory of Farting

Theory of Farting or Hohiron is an allegorical essay written by Hiraga Gennai (1728—1780) who is often referred to as “Japan’s da Vinci” due to his achievements in the fields of medicine, art, fiction, dramaturgy, poetry, and science among others (Borriello 141). The work is generally agreed to be a perfect example of kyobun or humorous prose that is similar to kyoka which is a form of comic waka. Hiraga Gennai was among pioneers of the genre who employed vernacular prose for lampooning societal mores of his time.

The essay tells the fictional account of an artistic performance by a farting man in the vicinity of Ryogoku bridge in Edo (Shirane 515). The performer is so talented that he can imitate various sounds ranging from rhythmical music of drums and flutes to thunderous noise of a waterwheel. A narrator of the essay has an argument with a spectator of the show who doubts the merits of the performance. The narrator provides a rational defense of the artist by criticizing other supposedly superior art forms. Using exaggeration for humorous effect Gennai states that with the help of nothing else but his ‘instrument’ “the Farting Man is blowing away all the other shows” (Shirane 518).

It could be argued that Gennai uses parody and humor in Theory of Farting to elevate the common men and lower those who believe they are better than ordinary people. The writer’s satire is full of wisdom that serves as a weapon against elegant. Namely, Gennai injects into his work rational arguments aimed at demonstrating the superiority of the zoku (common, vulgar) over the ga (elegant) (Shirane 512). The technique of deliberate criticism of the ga is employed in all Gennai’s satire.

Ukiyoburo

Ukiyoburo or Floating-World Bathhouse is a collection of bath-inspired stories by Shikitei Sanba written during the late Edo period. The book is one of many author’s kokkeibon or humorous works; however, it is universally considered to be his masterpiece (Schalow and Leutner 158). Sanba was inspired by a masterful description of a public bathhouse inTravels on the Eastern Seaboard written by Santo Kyoden and decided to write Ukiyoburo (Shirane 1277). During the Tenmei era (1781-1789), common people immensely enjoyed hearing professional storytellers who were delivering humorous pieces about everyday lives of simple folks (Shirane 1277). This form of verbal entertainment is called rakugo, and it is associated with exaggeration of gestures and speech for humorous effect. The written version of such stories later transformed into kokkeibon (Shirane 1277).

Ukiyoburo is arguably a form of rakugo because it employs subtle exaggerations of dialogue that were inherent to the oral tradition of storytelling. The Sanba’s work does not have a structured plot: it simply depicts a wide range of characters from different economic strata, genders, and occupations (Shirane 1279). He derives humor and parody from insignificant incidents that stem from foolish behaviors of his characters. However, whereas the first volume of Ukiyoburo, “Men’s Bath,” is largely based on situational comedy at the expense of a doctor, a blind man, and a family man among others, the second volume, “Women’s Bath,” provides a harsh social critique (Shirane 1279). Sandba’s characters speak in a diverse range of dialects that were intelligible to his readers in order to transport striking contradictions between various social types exaggerated by the use of tongue-in-cheek dialogues (Shirane 1279).

Life of a Sensuous Woman

Life of a Sensuous Woman is a book by Ihara Saikaku that was published in 1682 (Shirane 107). It is believed that the writer originated a vernacular fiction genre called ukiyo-zoshi that was extremely popular in the late eighteenth century. Ukiyo-zoshi is an urban commoner literature that stems from the long tradition of the pleasure quarters guides that heavily emphasized on hedonism and exaggeration of reality (Shirane 107).

Life of a Sensuous Man is the second work of prose written by Saikaku who was recognized as a haikai master who had a distinctive language characterized by the use of earthy humor often referred to as “the Dutch style” (Shirane 109). Therefore, it could be argued that embarking on a journey of “five volumes and fifty-four sections” (Shirane 113) was rather an unusual literary exercise for the writer. Nonetheless, he managed to fill the Life of a Sensuous Woman with a great portion of social parody and humor that go “well beyond the stereotypes found in contemporary courtesan critiques” (Shirane 114). The book tells the story of a woman who goes through “a descending order of fates as a courtesan, geisha, teacher of courtly manners and calligraphy to young ladies, hairdresser, go-between for marital engagements, and finally as a common streetwalker” (Sheppard par. 4). Saikaku provides the narrative of the life of sinner who does not want to repent sins of her past with a cautionary smile. He mocks upper-classes of Osaka society revealing dark secrets of pious priests, wealthy samurais, lords, and merchants (Sheppard par. 5). His characters could be easily identified with actual people, and his witty moralizing often has a quality of spiritual melancholy.

Discussion

It could be argued that Ukiyoburo by Shikitei Sanba, Life of a Sensuous Man by Ihara Saikaku, and Theory of Farting by Hiraga Gennai’s are, perhaps, the most poignant social satire of the Tokugawa and Edo periods. It is clear that the three writers prided themselves on appreciating the simple side of human existence. They lived in the culture dominated by samurais and merchants; therefore, they wanted to explore the lower tiers of the Tokugawa social strata. To this end, they used humor, parody, and satire as the most reliable instruments of targeting social ills. However, the writers did not criticize commoners; rather, they aimed their wit at the corruption of excessively biting social mores formed by Confucian teachings. The writers’ forays into the literary realm left Japanese culture with new genres and forms of artistic expression that could provide a firm ground for building new literary forms.

Conclusion

The analysis of the use of humor and parody in Ukiyoburo by Shikitei Sanba, Life of a Sensuous Man by Ihara Saikaku, and Theory of Farting by Hiraga Gennai’s has revealed that these works are, perhaps, the most poignant social satire of the Tokugawa and Edo periods. The three writers used humor, parody, and satire as instruments for targeting social ills and criticizing excessively strict class system that was mandated by the power of patriarchy and, often, hypocrisy. It could be argued that the messages delivered by the novelists of Edo period were bawdy and crass and that they took satire to whole new levels. Moreover, characters depicted in the three books speak in a diverse range of dialects that help to emphasize striking contradictions between various social types exaggerated by the use of tongue-in-cheek dialogues.

Works Cited

Borriello, Giovanni. “The Leonardo da Vinci of Japan: Hiraga Gennai (1728-1780).” Philology, vol. 58, no. 1, 2013, p. 141-146.

Hoffman, Michael. “Laughter the Best Medicine for Humanity.” The Japan Times. 2014. Web.

Schalow, Paul, and Robert Leutner. “Shikitei Sanba and the Comic Tradition in Edo Fiction.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 46, no. 1, 2011, p. 158-160.

Sheppard, Robert. “Libertines and Sexual Excess in World Literature.” World Literature. Web.

Shirane, Haruo. Early Modern Japanese Literature. Columbia University Press, 2013.

Literature writing is an expression of the happenings in society. Authors normally voice their opinions about issues affecting the society through various themes. These themes closely relate through study of a character’s actions. Literature study involves enjoying the phrases, feeling the narrator’s words in action, imagining, and placing one’s self in the writer’s shoes. Writings with upright thoughts and use icon proposition add complete touch to the main idea which often appears as hidden in books.

Thus, this reflective paper attempts to explicitly explore the use of satire, laughter, comedy, and humor in the books, “Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe and “A Simple Heart” by Flaubert Gustave, the poem “Devine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri, and the article “The Rise of Islam and Islamic Literature”. The scope in this analysis is to capture influence of satire and humor in extrapolating themes in these writings. In the conclusive segment, conceptualization is put in place in order to ensure relevance in review of prospect schema.

Things Fall Apart

In the novel “Things Fall Apart”, Chinua Achebe portrays a futuristic community while adopting humor in use of jargon and slang writing styles. Actually, Achebe employs four-word-sub-section paragraphs and snappy sentences to illustrate his message without difficulties.

This style of writing is appealing especially to young generation who does not entertain or like ambiguity. Definitely, the main character Okonkwo’s consciousness and his endeavor to grasp and comprehend the necessity of change have actually driven the plot of the novel. Humor is extensively used in this book to regulate intense mood.

For instance, in the fight between Okonkwo and Amalinze ‘the cat’, the author breaks tension by use of satiric such as fish to connote Amalinze’s back. Okonkwo’s description in itself is comedy. He engages in self-gratification behavior and is interested in fulfilling his own needs. In representing the themes of poverty and failure, Achebe applies satire.

Okonkwo is a direct opposite of his lazy father Unoka. Ironically, despite hating his father, Okonkwo nickname his son after Unoka. Here, the comedy of absurd is presented in the description of the state of poverty in the family of Okonkwo’s father. The author comically describes the only inheritance Okonkwo got from his father as unending debt. The sense of humor goes further to clarify that Unoka did not even leave his youngest wife for Okonkwo to ‘inherit’.

The theme of economic disparity and respect are painted as intense across the novel “Things Fall Apart”. In the series of elder meetings, respect is accorded to those with blotted household and stores of yams. The weaklings among the elders are comically teased as women, bachelors, and a disgrace to manhood.

Despite the fact that these terms are abusive, the comical twist in their use lowers tension among community members united by clan but divided by economic disparities. However, due to the fact that the main character was ignorant, nobody was certain of how the community carried out its duties.

Moreover, “Things Fall Apart” presents an atmosphere that is socially declining in a comical gesture. For instance, introduction of Christianity, which offers an abode to the outcasts, is initially thought as a harmless home of the busybodies. In a comical twist, Okonkwo loses his first son Unoka to the mission centre. In the end, the modernity system which the elders spent days and years ridiculing sweeps the entire village.

Okonkwo loses everything he believed in and dies like an outcast. In a satiric twist of events, the sacrilege taboo of commit suicide on the rope overcomes Okonkwo. The author has succeeded in toning down tension in his rather emotional description of a typical traditional African society before neocolonialism drains the last remains of pure African culture.

A Simple Heart

The 1877 book “A Simple Heart” by Flaubert relies on comic connotation to tone down tension in the life of the main character Felicite. Her rather fruitless existence is described in constant ebbs of satire. Flaubert criticizes such kind of a society by describing it as a ‘non reciprocating’ piece of existence.

The themes of life and death are presented in a satirical touch, especially as a reader views the boundless world in which the main character nurses her naïve dreams. Reflectively, love and spirit have been made easy to accommodate in the thoughts of a reader through use of a light language. As the “Le Perroquet” story develops, the servant girl loses what she proudly refers to as her ‘only love’ to another lady.

Though the departure of Theodore weighs heavily on her, the author lightens the tone by pushing a reader far away from this experience to introduce two lovely children of Auben. Despite the series of people who take advantage of her fragile nature, comedy of absurd indicate that the main character remains selfless in her strong but yet fragile personality.

Reflectively, religious inclination often triggers suspicion and caution among societies. The author uses a toned down language to hallucinate on the pet parrot that double up as a perceived Holy Ghost above the death bed of Felicite. The sound made by this parrot completely distracts the tensed mood as the main character display altruist love.

Though the moment creeps tension and bad feeling on a reader, the main character seems to careless and has a bestial attitude. In the end, the rather somber mood of the story line is lightened by the parrot, the main character’s unexamined life, and a soft awakening language.

Devine Comedy

The poem “Devine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri addresses the theme of building own insight and understanding through reflection and deeds that is comically painted as oscillating continually. Moreover, Dante claims that people acquire intellectual superiority as a consequence of their experience both in their subjective involvement in environment and to apply such models in their practical life.

The imaginative description of afterlife leaves a reader gasping for breath. The author introduces a soft stance on death and classifies it as a good thing. In the paradiso lines, the author states that any variance between actual heaven and the perceived heaven are a creation of the mind.

The “Devine Comedy” is visionary poem which paints an image of a life that operates below expectations. Actually, the events of the poem happen in an afterlife imagined in the mind. Unluckily, people with inadequate resources are simply left behind and brushed away. The “Devine Comedy” is a poem that focuses on futuristic fiction. In fact, all characters are not future minded people. Similarly, in the modern world, most kids are heartless and insensitive.

Moreover, the modern world is a rotten place where people only involve in callous behaviors with intention of self gratification. This is a culture where people are not open minded, but are superficially entrenched to fulfill selfless desires. This results into social problems. In fact, people are so much concerned with materialistic possession without endeavoring to build religious faith. However, the tensed theme is presented in a light comical language that keeps a reader focused.

The poem “Devine Comedy” is actually significant to not only young people, but also to older generation. Although, the poem commences on a good note, the end is horrible. This conveys a special message to modern people to thinks about their lives. Actually, the poem compels people to be open-minded and to embrace objective deeds beyond personal gratification.

The poet conveys useful message to people who continue with their technological blindness without nourishing spiritual and humane values of life. Too much entrenchment in artificial intelligence and technological material possession has led to the collapse of human thought.

The Rise of Islam and Islamic Literature

The article “The Rise of Islam and Islamic Literature” relies heavily on a balance of irony and realism to present a very unique literary style of depicting different religious inclinations. Religion is simply indicated as a very important factor which plays a role in development of one’s identity in terms of race, gender, family relationships, and social status.

The article shows how an individual’s sense of character is vulnerable to control by others when their religious beliefs are shallowly rooted. Interestingly, the subjective description of the sojourn as Muslims interact with Persians creates a comical irony. Satire creeps in the rejection of non Arabic language Koran despite the fact that such a translation would be beneficial to non Arabic speaking Muslims.

Without a religious angle, this article would be similar to watching a movie with no camera effects, no sound effects, and with unknown characters as the only aim is passing a message. In the author’s use of the religious desires as a theme, he succeeds in characterizing the powerful in the society and the weaker ones in their desire to find love, maintain marriages, and climb economic ladder within the religious cycles without having to introduce resentment for either quarter.

Interestingly, the wall limiting desires in these persons is an unending phenomenon which cannot be destroyed. Instead of focusing on either antagonistic or protagonist stand, the narrator present a brief on both sides. Religion grooms people to be caring. Indeed, religious idea was rarely discussed in the society. However, with intelligence and braveness, the article talked about religion in an open, attractive and agitating language.

Actually, religion comprised one of the many mysteries that writers never dare to investigate upon. Furthermore, the conflict in the narrative was due to religious vision that associated with time rather than the mankind. However these ideas are sarcastically narrated. Indeed, this is an eventual remark to the short feature of religious pleasure in life.

Conclusively, the authors have succeeded in assimilating comical touch in their rather emotional story lines. Fortunately, the self regulating society seems to offer a facilitated explanation for common support. The authors have imposed the above thoughts in a comical, satiric and humorous presentation.

Through recognizing aspects of loyalty, moral crisis, honor, and revenge, the authors give their stories a portrait of a typical society filled with human action drama that combines stories of self-discovery and love without creating discomfort in personalities in the plot.

Introduction

What makes people laugh? Something funny, of course. But not always. One may laugh from embarrassment. Sometimes we laugh for no reason at all. This brings us to the questions “what is funny?” Most answers involve disparity or surprise. The latter is just a reaction to disparity or incongruity. But not all disparity is funny. Any violation of our sense of justice tends not to amuse us but anger us. The first specification, therefore, is that the funny disparity must be painless. People cannot laugh at what gives them a real sense of hurt.

Making the suffering unreal or trivial are two aspects of the same technique for allowing other painful events seem funny. A different technique involves making the suffering acceptable to the audience because it is deserved. Comic villains get it in the end. Their misfortunes are much more acceptable since we do not sympathize with one who gets what he deserves.

Take the case of Harpagon – the main character in “the Miser”. Since he has alienated himself from all the other characters, whatever unfortunate happens to him in the course of the play is a source of humor for the audience. As Valere says to Elise of her father in Act I, “When I speak to your father (Harpagon), there is very loittle good that comes to mind.

Analysis

The disrespect that Harpagon is shown by his servants is well-deserved. Consider the following example when he fires La Fleche;

La Fleche: Why are you dismissing me?

Harpagon: You’ve got your nerve asking me for reasons.

La Feche: Very well, I’m leaving.

Harpagon: Hold on! Are you taking anything with you?

La Fleche: What could I take from you?

In Scene 4, Elise and Cleante come upon their father talking to himself about the ten thousand gold pieces he has buried in the garden. We find it funny that the very people he should trust should also be prime objects of his suspicions.

Harpagon: Good Heavens! I nearly betrayed myself. What is it?

Cleante: Nothing, Father.

Harpagon: Have you been there a long time?

Elise: We just arrived.

Harpagon; Did you hear…

Cleante: Hear what, Father?

Harpagon: Come now…

Elise: How’s that?

Harpagon: What I just said

Cleante: No

Harpagon: Yes, you did! Yes, you did!

Elise: I beg your pardon.

When Harpagon decides to reveal his intention to marry Mariane Cleante is taken aback. The audience finds it funny for Harpagon to be impatient over his children’s reaction.

Cleante: You say that you have decided…

Harpagon: To marry Mariane

Cleante: Who? You, you?

Harpagon: Yes, me, me, me. What do you mean by that?

The audience would shake their heads, realizing how much of a skinflint Harpagon is as shown by the following:

Harpagon: this is an opportunity that calls for fast action. It is not everyday that such an advantageous situation presents itself, and if he agrees to take her without a dowry…

Valere: Without a dowry?

Harpagon: Yes, This will save me a lot of money.

Valere: But your daughter may claim that marriage is nothing to take lightly.

Harpagon: Without a dowry?

It is almost incredible that such a stern man as Harpagon can fall so easily to flattery: Consider Scene 5:

Frosine: My, my, you look exceptionally well. A veritable picture of health!

Harpagon: Who. Me?

Frosine: Never have I seen you so hale and hearty.

Harpagon: Really?

Frosine: I know some twenty five year olds who look older than you.

Harpagon: Nevertheless, Frosine, I’m still a good sixty years old.

A time comes when Harpagon has to give instructions to his houselhold for the coming party for Mariane. Since he does not treat them well, it is to be expected that they make fun of him; however, they do so in an imperceptible manner.

Harpagon: Maitre Jacques, I’ve saved you for last.

Jacques: Are you addressing me as your coachman or your cook, sir, for both jobs are mine.

Harpagon: As both.

Jacques: But which one in particular?

Harpagon: As my cook.

Jacques: Then wait, please (He removes his coachman’s coat and appears dressed as a cook.)

Serious matters such as marriage and money have been combined with humor in the play. Humor is achieved by exaggerations of harpagon’s miserliness to the point of incongruity bordering on the ridiculou8s. Stage technique also helps a lot. For example, an effective actor can hold his eyes upward in response to one of Harpagons’ weird suggestions to a servant in order to save money. “The Miser” is truly funny and down to earth. In the long run, Harpagon is satisfied with his money; the lovers are united and all’s well that ends well.

Aristophanes’ classical Greek play Lysistrata and Oliver Goldsmith’s 18^th century British play She Stoops to Conquer, both contain various types of humor. The humor found in these plays was certainly enjoyed by the audiences of the time. However, it is certainly true that much of this humor is still enjoyed today.

For contemporary audiences yet delight in the satire of Lysistrata, the farcical comedy of manners in which the themes of national war and peace, and yes, even war and peace between the sexes, all receive humorous treatment. Next, She Stoops to Conquer is a comedy of manners, where irony prevails amid frequent misunderstandings. Set in the environs of that prevailing polite society, the characters try very hard to preserve the amenities and civility, but frequently fail, as their true actions become known.

First, in Lysistrata, there is much levity in the degree to which the men are made to appear foolish, and to be rather easily manipulated by their women. Further, constant sexual innuendos abound.

There is humorous interplay between the choruses of old men and women. Clearly, the language is very earthy and bawdy. For example, in Part 12, an exchange between several chorus members goes thusly: The woman threatens, “Suppose I let fly a good kick at you?”

Whereupon, the old man rejoins with, “I should see your thing then.” Then, the woman, older herself as well, has the last word with stating, “You would see that, for all my age, it is very well plucked.” (Aristophanes 753)

Further, a primary component of the costuming was an enormous phallus, constructed from leather. And all the men persistently maintain large penile erections. In addition, there’s sexual referencing throughout the play.

Then, there are incongruous and ridiculous situations as well. A definite slapstick element is present as women run after old men using their spindles as weapons.

Then, too, even the dialogue between Lysistrata and the commissioner debating the futility of war is mildly funny. (Aristophanes 782) In addition, note how Aristophanes blends the slapstick scene of the women chasing of old men with weapons like weaving spindles and the intellectual humor of the commissioner’s attempt to argue with Lysistrata’s exposition of the incompetence of the men’s pursuit of the war.

The culmination comes when the warriors return from the Peloponesian Wars, all with gigantic erections. Their women tease them further by showing them a nude female servant, which only makes the men feel more desperate. However, the women will not allow their men sexual satisfaction, until all Athenians and Spartans declare a truce.

In the second play, She Stoops to Conquer, the elitist Charles Marlow is a study in contradiction. A snob by nature, he does actually seek out servants and maids rather than females from the upper classes.

The main premise of the play is that he is en route to meeting up with a family friend, and is “pranked” on the way, which actually ends up with a variety of misunderstandings.

There is humor in these events, such as culture clashes and identity confusion. Also hilarious are the secretive love entanglements surrounding himself and the other male protagonist.

He even has a slightly humorous way of insulting a young lady, claiming, “ Goodness ! “What a quantity of superfluous silk hast thou got about thee, girl!”

(Goldsmith 41) Then, on his journey, he becomes lost, and levity ensues when he and his companion are told, “Why, gentlemen, if you know neither the road you are going, nor where you are, nor the road you came, the first thing I have to inform you is, that — you have lost your way.” (Goldsmith 55) This is definitely understated humor.

Finally, another example that will provoke a chuckle is the scene between Tony and Hastings. Hastings asks eagerly, where has Tony left the ladies. Tony them replies, by way of a riddle, “Left them? Why, where should I leave them, but where I found them? (Goldsmith 176)

In summary, these are but a few of the scenes and references from these two plays that may be as funny today, as they were at the time of the original productions. It is definitely true that although humor evolves through time, some elements of levity remain both timeless and universal.

Works Cited

Aristophanes, Lysistrata, edited by Jeffrey Henderson, The Focus Classical Library, 1992.

“She Stoops to Conquer.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web.

Mark Twain was born Samuel Langhorne Clemens on November 30 1835. He is a celebrated American author, critic, and humorist who first used his name Samuel Clemens in Nevada and California. He worked as a printer in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri. He also became a steamboat pilot at the river ports of St. Louis and New Orleans. He and his family moved to Nook Farm in Hartford, Connecticut in the 1860s then to Fredonia, New York and Keokuk, Iowa. These localities embedded in Samuel Clemens a hybrid of cultures, commerce and traditions. At age 22, Twain became a steamboat pilot. He also became a miner in Virginia City, Nevada after traveling with his brother Orion across the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains (Gribben).

Twain’s “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County” was first published in November 1865 at New York Saturday press after failing to make it in a compilation. He was then commissioned by the Sacramento Union to write travelogues. He also became a travel correspondent to the Alta California newspaper. His The Innocents Abroad is also the product of his 5-month sail with the pleasure cruiser Quaker City in 1867. The follow-up to this travel literature is Roughing It chronicling his journeys to Nevada and the American west. It lampooned western society as much as The Innocents Abroad critiqued the Middle East and Europe. The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today is his collaboration with neighbor Charles Dudley Warner and an attempt to writing a novel. His next important works are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, called the first Great American Novel.

Twain made a great deal of money through his writing but his investments on scientific inventions and investment in publishing made him lose money faster so that in order to pay his creditors in full, he lectured around the world even if it was no longer his legal obligation to pay them (Cox, 127). The wit and humor of Mark Twain is what endeared him to his readers and set him apart from his contemporaries and most of the well-known writers before him.

Van Wyck Brooks suggested that Twain entered New England, “emasculated by the Civil War” (90) of which at that time had the male population reduced so that there was feminization of the then American culture and Twain as Cox observed, became “an invader” (Sewanee Review, 596) where, “genteel society he brought free drinking and smoking, to morality he added humor, to sentiment, burlesque, to seriousness, play” (Krauth, 368). He was chronicled to own personal copies of works by Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Joseph Field, William Tappan Thompson, George Washington Harris, Johnson Jones and Joseph Baldwin. His humor is much credited to “the Old Southwest ” which was very evident in Huckleberry Finn. According to Krauth (369), Twain’s writing became humorous because of the impact of New England culture which the writer adopted when he moved to New England in 1880s. As a correspondent for Alta California, Twain was noted to have opined about Harris’ humor as quite usual and normal in the West but as something unacceptable by the eastern people. Twain “reshapes the tradition of the Southwestern humor by writing within it as a Victorian” (Krauth, 369). He however, did not sell out to New England gentility at the cost of his art but an innate part of Mark Twain is a propriety that separated him from frontier life.

Through Huckleberry Finn, Krauth insists of Twain’s propriety in the following ways:

• Reshaping some of the stock situations and the characters which were predominant to the Southwestern humor such as the common Southwestern characters: the con-men Duke and the King, the camp meeting, the circus and the Royal Nonesuch
• Selected from the raw materials few certain subjects and discarding the rest
• His propriety governed his creation of characters such as Huck who has become a classic challenger of morality until today, thus, “as a Victorian, Twain reformed Southwestern humor” (Krauth, 369).

It is but normal to base most of Twain’s humor on his greatest as well as most popular novel. Here, he described the orgies of camp meetings as something that could induce “a cow laugh” (127) that nevertheless maintained the innocence of Huck as the child observer. Southwestern humor was enumerated to include hunting, fights, mock fights, animal fights, courtings, weddings, honeymoons, frolics, dances, games, horse races, contests, militia drills, legislature and the courtroom, sermons, camp meetings, religious gatherings, visitor of a humble home, country boy in the city, riverboat, rogue adventures, pranks and tricks of a joker, gambling, trades and swindles, cures, sickness and medical treatments, drunks, foreigners and dandies, and local eccentrics. Some of these themes are present in Adventures of Huckleberry, but they are mostly ridiculed and share the sense of dehumanizing men through Twain’s presenting them as bestial creatures (Krauth, 373).

Krauth keeps to an idea that despite the Southwestern description of a man as “hard, isolate(d), stoic and a killer,” (374) Twain disparages him (a man) and “reveals the pernicious traits in gentleman and commoner alike” (Krauth, 374). White adult males in Adventures of Huckleberry do possess these features, because the new Judge, the drunken Pap, and Colonel Sherburn are indeed depicted as aggressive and destructive people, but such an imminent violence is attributed to white males only (Krauth, 374). Nevertheless, sentimentality which was typical for Victorian life on the nineteenth century is still present in this novel. Huck often gives voice to his emotions being quite sentimental at this. He “dismisses emotional outpourings as “tears and flapdoodle”, “soul butter and hogwash,” “rot and slush,” (Krauth, 377) because he is a gentleman with extraordinary tenderness. As Krauth has observed, Huck’s “remark reveals […] how bound together in Huckleberry Finn humor and sentiment are” (381).

When it comes to literary intention, Robinson (358) finds Melville and Hawthorne to present conscious ideas accessible to critical scrutiny and describes Twain to be a “shakier ground […] notoriously makeshift, fragmentary, and prone to drastic contradictions” (358). The shift and blending of a black child’s voice to a white child’s was effortless and unconscious that leaves even modern critics wondering. Another, Henry Wonham who’s work Mark Twain and the Art of the Tall Tale proposed that the humorist adopted “the rhetoric of the tall tale […] to provide a structural and thematic pattern that he would return to throughout the rest of his career” (Wonham, 12). He further observed that in balancing anecdotal quality and developmental theme, Twain sustained a “digressive, exaggerative style of humor and thematic coherence at the same time” (114).

To this, Robinson (363) concluded that Twain was unconsciously drifting and surrendering to the min’s natural flow with narrow focus on specific incidents disregarding structure and thematic concerns such that his novels took time to be finished. As Twain himself wrote to William Dean Howells, he was delighted with the “dewy & breezy & woodsy freshness” against the “darling and worshipful absence of the signs of starch, & flatiron, & labor & fuss & the other artificialities” (363). In most of his sharing with friends and fellow critics, Twain upheld those which did not seem to have a method, where there is careless progress of a story unmindful of how it ends, whether brilliant or not, or if it shall end at all as if what he wrote “write itself” (Robinson, 364). Here, restraint, expediency, policy, and diplomacy were shunned and what is presented to the reader is unencumbered authenticity which lies in penetrating a transparent disguise. Some of Twain’s books had been perceived to have lacked literary design or planning, fragmented at most, so that he advised his audience of aspiring writers in 1902 that when working on a story and a moment lags, they should set the work aside, “until some future tie, when the right way to treat the subject shall have come to you from that mill whose helpful machinery never stands idle – unconscious celebration” (Robinson, 365).

Twain indulged on the unconscious creativity although he acknowledged to have methods, as if what he wrote were passed on to him, the mind, like a machine of which one cannot dictate on it, “unless it suits its humour” and that all ideas came from the outside, second-hand and drawn from a lot of external sources (Robinson, 366).

Wonham (12) further noted Twain tall tale rhetoric “as a strategy for drawing his disparate comic material into extended and coherent narratives’ ‘ (12). Wonham believes that Twain tried to include the naïve reader or audience to his narrative through “his drawing speech and affected seriousness” (147). Wonham further suggests that Twain was fully conscious, a spinner of tall tales and as such, Twain considered a multiple audience, his words with multiple meanings all at once so that the words may mean different to each audience (31). Robinson (364) joined that this meant there are both outsiders and insiders to the joke, and one of them is the butt of the ridicule.

This however, is not the case in all of his works. There is much criticism especially on Pudd’nhead Wilson of which Twain was seen to have the most inconsistent narration thereby, readers are cautioned by critics to beware (Robinson, 370). It was considered a merging of bits and pieces, of characters that appear from nowhere without purpose but for completion and for profit, seen as Twain’s way to address his dwindling resources at that period of his as publisher.

Further, Robinson noted on previous view about Twain as a well-suited travel writer as the humorist is freed to examine diversity of the world instead of consistency and transitions. Again, Twain’s structure was seen as weak, linking it to twain’s perception of worldly order as tantalizingly elusive. In the later chapters of Roughing It, Mark Twain obviously becomes disenchanted with the Far West. The deception of tall tales become cruel and painful with consequences which the humorist could not ignore as he narrated about a practical joke played on him, and its impact on his new-found attitude of shunning practical jokes, or even practicing them (Robinson, 375). Robinson attacked Woman’s interpretation of Tom Sawyer as “a carefully planned and elaborated rhetorical contest between the narrator, who is improbably characterized as an inflated sentimentalist, and Tom, whose tall tales are subtly contrived” in order to affirm community values.

For Wonham, all these tall tales affirm the community’s commitment to common sense, that inspire sappy women to petition the governor for a after-death pardon of Injun Joe. For Robinson, on the contrary, there is irrationality everywhere in Tom Sawyer which he contends to have un-designed penetration to “complex social dynamics, conscious and unconscious, racial and sexual, of village life” and as Twain wrote, his intent for Tom Sawyer was for the entertainment of boys and girls. As such, Robinson (380) proposed that the question of intention when it comes to Mark Twain is quite questionable and delicate. Those readers should be conscious of what the humorist wrote and what he actually meant. Twain for Robinson is not a highly conscious writer humorist but “an artist of decidedly inchoate intentions whose work invites, and even demands, close attention to unconscious motives” (380).

Budd (233) also considered much about the perception of critics and readers of Desperate Encounter with an Interviewer as classically humorous. It was a play at the absurdity of interviewing, fame, of death and living, of absurdity and it being a classic Mark Twain the humorist (233). Written in 1874, the short anecdotal went into its conclusion:

“A. Goodness knows! I would give whole worlds to know. This solemn, this awful mystery has cast a gloom over my whole life. But I will tell you a secret now, which I never have revealed to any creature before. One of us had a peculiar mark, a large mole on the back of the left hand,–that was me. That child was the one that was drowned.

Q. Very well, then, I dont see that there is any mystery about it, after all.

A. You dont? Well, I do. Anyway I dont see how they could ever have been such a blundering lot as to go and bury the wrong child. But, sh!–dont mention it where the family can hear of it. Heaven knows they have heart-breaking troubles enough without adding this.

Q. Well, I believe I have got material enough for the present, and I am very much obliged to you for the pains you have taken. But I was a good deal interested in that account of Aaron Burrs funeral. Would you mind telling me what particular circumstance it was that made you think Burr was such a remarkable man?

A. O, it was a mere trifle! Not one man in fifty would have noticed it at all. When the sermon was over, and the procession all ready to start for the cemetery, and the body all arranged nice in the hearse, he said he wanted to take a last look at the scenery, and so he got up and rode with the driver.

Then the young man reverently withdrew. He was very pleasant company, and I was sorry to see him go” (Twain).

It was said that when Twain wrote this, he had been siding with the “would-be elite who warned that the circulation-hungry newspapers were pandering to shallow tastes while lowering the standard for public discourse” (Budd, 234). It was sneered upon as a collaboration of a humbug politician with an equally humbug newspaper reporter. However, Twain at that time was not yet trailed upon or interviewed by reporters. In fact, he has known to have encouraged interest of the press. It was also viewed as an attack on the New York Sun which sensationalizes (p 235). The anecdote is also an attack on the common sense. Rationality is mocked as mass media is saturating the world with information both useless, and mostly senseless. It asks the interviewer to spell “interview” as well as directly states that reporters go after those who are “notorious” and not emulation-worthy individuals. Here, Twain shows how disappointed he is with the media. As Budd has noted, Twain “teased, baited, and insulted (and sometimes offended) his audiences” (236); he was irreverent, but ascertained equality between himself, his audience, and his host. And he admitted that it took a heap of sense to produce a good nonsense (Budd, 238).

Mark Twain is a man of talent. It cannot be said that he sustained a consistent writing ability as a humorist, a critic and a great novelist, but it was enough that two or three made it to the consciousness of millions. It is not, however, the form or intent of Twain that has endeared him to his readers but his humor, off-sided, unconscious, flowing and natural in self-deprecation manner, from his travelogues to his opus — Huckleberry Finn, and maintained even in his lesser-known writings.

Twain is a man of mistakes and a man who made bad financial moves and choices. This is quite often shown in his works. However, his sentimentality cannot be ignored; he tried to express this sentimentality through his leading characters. He was able to present this to his readers by making them laugh about the sublime subtleties of “other centeredness” most apparent again in his opus, his unforgettable Huck Finn. Namely this character was used by Twain to depict Victorian life and to present the image of a man of Victorian times.

In sum, critics have different ideas about the humor which is present in some works of Mark Twain. At this, most of them agree that Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is the novel on which Twain’s humor is based. This novel presents different images of men in Victorian times mixed with Twain’s own ideas about the features which a real gentleman should possess. Today, as more readers discover Huck or Tom, they are reminded of true values that are not dictated upon by what is acceptable or popular but what one truly feels as which he should do, right or wrong. By providing his readers a character that is Huck, Twain has forever given joy and humor as well as sense of direction not about his method or work style, but to humanity as a whole. It is not so much about who was the better humorist or greatest novelist, but who has given his readers an insight to what shall remain wrong and what shall remain forever as right. And with the bonus to laugh it all out, that is the essence that is Mark Twain and his humor.

Works Cited

Brooks, Van Wyck. The Ordeal of Mark Twain, rev ed. New York, Dutton. 1970. Web.

Budd, Louis J. “Mark Twain’s “An Encounter with an Interviewer”: The Height (or Depth) of Nonsense. Nineteenth-Century Literature, Vol. 55, No. 2, 2000, pp. 226-243. Web.

Cox, James M. Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor. Princeton University Press, 1966.

Gribben, Allan. 2004. “Mark Twain, 1835-1910.” The University of North Carolina. Web.

Krauth, Leland. “Mark Twain: The Victorian of Southwestern Humor.” American Literature, Vol. 54, No. 3., 1982, pp. 368-384. Web.

Robinson, Forrest G. An “Unconscious and Profitable Cerebration”: Mark Twain and Literary Intentionality Nineteenth-Century Literature, Vol. 50, No. 3, 1995, pp. 357-380. Web.

Sewanee Review. “Humor and America: The Southwest Bear Hunt,” 83. 1975.

Twain, Mark. “An Encounter with an Interviewer.” 1874. Cyber Studios, Inc. Web.

Wonham, Henry B. Mark Twain and the Art of the Tall Tale. New York: Oxford University Press. 1993. Web.

The things that make us laugh mostly occur in the real life. According to Shaw, reality is an excellent material for comedy. Hence, works of comedy can reveal cultures and traditions in a way that it is easy for us to grasp and to perceive them. In Mel Brooks’ spoof Robin Hood: Men in Tights, the villainous Prince John asks to hear bad news in a Good way. The Sheriff of Rottingham responds by delivering the bad news in between boots of laughter. The above could be considered as the function and the purpose of comedy: to make us laugh in order to drown our tears. In difficult time, this is the most effective tool to distract masses from the problems that make them cry. Owing to the fact that we are on the edge of the election year, we will analyze how humor, with an emphasis on sarcasm and irony, is being used to inform and distract. Currently, there have emerged many comedy shows that are politically oriented and are focused mostly on the satirizing the political events in order to cheer up the audience and to influence the positive thinking. One of the best-known TV comic shows of such type is The Colbert Report, satirical program on Comedy Channel. Hence, Stephen Colbert presented a parody of major cable news by satirizing the report from CNN and NBC. (Andersen et al. 295). Therefore, the main function of such programs points out the news parodies are aimed not to inform people but to entertain and to make them laugh. Considering the 2008 elections in particular, the Colbert Report served as accelerator of the people’s self-awareness and patriotism; it aimed at revealing the truth to people in humorous ways in order to compensates the lack of information about the force coming event.

In this respect, Colbert greatly influenced the political life and contributed to the rapid changes in the media delivery since most of his jokes were perceived as a serious argument (Maisel et al. 369). Actually, that was the trigger point of the foundation of this program and the reason why the audience was more inclined to watch satirical programs rather than boring and oppressive news. People were getting the information about the elections from this show and did not want to watch the CNN channel or BCC news channels. In his show, the anchor invited many political influential figures that were making jokes and speak in front of camera about the inadmissible things that were not censured. The show, on the one hand, pokes fun at boring politics and, on the other hand, it is quite a down-to-earth depiction that manifests reality from humorous angle. This is the first show that introduce such neologism as ‘truthiness’ where Stephan Colbert overtly satirizes on the other television stars and politicians who have often been convicted of confusing humble population with the false information. Hence, this program is directed at depicting the right things, without imposing the support of reason on it (Language Log unpaged). “Colbert is less concerned with examining how our ideas of truth are used to manipulate us. His subject is not some abstract, capital-T Truth but truthiness… that cannot be navigated on the two dimensional axes of “true” and torture.” (Peterson 144).

The show proved that the power of humor is considerable especially in the political field since it is capable to persuade people to build certain stereotypes. The Colbert Report’s ironical treatment of 2008 elections revealed the actual state of affairs of this process and turned out to be useful for the viewers in terms of the validity of the election itself. The self-humiliating humor sometimes increases the likeability of the program. The 2008 election caused many contradictions among the American society since the newly elected president was the first African American president in the history of the USA. That is why, most comedy talk shows have many issues to discuss and to poke fun at. Thus, The Colbert show brought the viewers political coverage of the fateful election with analysis of the candidate headquarters. In his satirizing the force-coming election, Stephen Colbert decides to run for presidency as if teasing the seriousness thus announcing that his intensions are serious. In the release of the program devoted to the election, he implicitly expressed his political views and his fidelity to South Carolina region although he revealed himself as the supporter of both a Democrat and a Republican. The pseudo-campaign also disclosed the bias, prejudices, and humorous situation based on the veritable elections. Moreover, the show discovered the daily issues of main political parties thus showing parody pictures and video games (Election 2008 unpaged).

The main purpose of the parody was to highlight the process of preparation of the candidates of the election so that the audience could be involved in the political processes. These programs are not only aimed at entertaining people; they function to get people know about politicians even if they are not interested in politics. Therefore, such political parodies are a kind of political propaganda on the one hand and the way of distracting people from the essential issues in politics on the other hand.

The device used by Stephen Colbert is quite simple and serious in delivery but this exaggerated seriousness made people laugh and treat the force-coming elections in a humorous way. (Election 2008 unpaged). During the election campaign, Colbert strived to attract the attention of the younger voters saying, “By the way, voter out there: Do not blow this for us! Every four years we hear about your vote-rocking powers, and every four years you stay home and play Super Mario. Not this time” (Election 2008 unpaged). This humorous call was, probably, even more efficient, as that might provoke the self-awareness of the young generation during the election. In this calling, Stephen also pokes fun at the actual situation at the election when the target voters are still adult people. By joking and mocking at the present youth, the anchor intended to demonstrate the absence of knowledge and experience that should be cultivated among the youngsters.

The program devoted to the controversial elections humorously highlighted the hesitation of people in terms of the position they take during the election. Therefore, the show implicitly expressed the moral and ethical issues of the electoral campaign. Considering this, the work satirized on the issues of people’s awareness of the elections and their participation in it. Due to the fact that an American society is too much concentrated on the problems of justice and equality of human rights, the promotion Colbert’s candidacy attracted people and make them look at the problem from another angel. This step made the younger generation participate in the election (Young University, unpaged).

In his show, Colbert touches upon the question of racism thus expressing his position against racial discrimination. He also reveals liberal and a bit neutral view on the confrontation of the parties. His humorous approach to the elections revived the interest among the students so that their love of the show makes them pursue the debates (Young University, unpaged). Colbert, here tried to appeal to people who lacked information about the elections campaign and who, therefore, were reluctant to vote.

Generally speaking about the humor and purpose, it is necessary to mention that humor and irony has a specific social function. Hence, humor may express social approval or disappointment; it can shape stereotypes and develop your attitude to different aspects of life and politics in particular. According to Stephenson, “social functions [of humor] have been interpreted largely in terms of intergroup conflict and social control” (569). In this respect, a detailed examination of jokes and humor discloses their origin takes its roots in social conflict and contradiction of views. History witnesses that many jokes are aimed at mocking at the American upper classes and their high income so that people joke when they envy thus compensating their lower status. That implicit attitude to welfare class shows that jokes can be also stratified and are mostly focused on the economic and social differences (Stephenson 572). In contrast, by joking at poor people, the rich try to hide their vices. Anyway, joke is the method to compensate you disadvantages and to justify them. In the modern society, jokes saved their functions since the social problems have remained. The Colbert Report is the bright example of the presence of controversies within the American society. However, it does not intend to aggravate life of people but to inform about them in a relevant way.

Essay

Conflict and Control Functions if Humor

The role of humor is of great value for the current society as it helps not only to entertain people and but also to control the social environment at the current moment. Relying on this the article called Conflict and Control Functions of Humor by Stephenson is reveals sociologic aspect of humor whose primary function is to restrain conflicts and to monitor the people behavior. Moreover, it enlarges on the connection of humor with economic status of a person in a society. I chose this paper for my assay because, it facilitates the comprehension of the importance of irony and parody as the method to monitor the balance between the poor and rich class in the current society.

As in my work I analyze the significance of the work of humor from the cultural and historical point of view, the article promotes the understanding of historical background and nature of the conflict humor. The idea may be supported by the following abstract: “adaptability of humor as a conflict weapon lies in the fact that humor may conceal malice and allow the expression of aggression without consequences” (Stephenson 569). The socially predetermined conflicts distorted the morale thus aggravating the class controversies. That is why humor was an effective tool for establishing the peaceful relations between diverse community groups.

My paper also enlarges on the creation of ironically fixed stereotypes that helps to avoid tense situation in the society. The article under consideration gave me the opportunity to realize that humor could also shape our attitude and feelings (Stephenson 570). Hence, as the recent political events have caused bias on the racial and economic ground, the humorous approach has help to relieve the conflict situation and to create the favorable conditions for the elections.

Considering the racial issues in more detail, Stephenson writes, “Most jokes in which manual laborers or servants are the butts of the story use subjects of foreign origin or minority race” (Stephenson, 572). This statement explains what the major reasons are for using humor as the method to defend the racial groups. The passage turned out to be valuable for the analysis of my work of comedy, as it also runs about the problems of racial prejudice. In that respect, the article emphasizes that ethnic communities use humor in order to compensate their lower status. Considering the current situation, ironical treatment of African Americans and Latinos are partially based on that ground. Here, jokes also functions as the method of achieving balance between social and ethnic classes and to perpetuate the moral values that are typical for each culture. To minimize the aggression and to enhance economic stability our current society feels an extreme necessity for the humorous TV programs that serves to divert people’s attention from the hardship of political life.

As a conclusion, it should be stressed that humor has a multifunctional nature since it helps to keep the society in order. Relying on the article, the historical background of jokes forces the understanding of the human as one of the methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, the analyzed paper helped me to find the connection of humor with political and economic situation in the country, which is especially important during the elections.

Works Cited

Andersen, Robin, and Gray Jonathan. Battleground: the Media US: Greewood Publishing Group, 2008.

Colbert’s Candidacy: Great President? or Greatest President ever? Young University 2007. Web.

Colbert’s Fights for Truthiness. Language Log. 2006. Web.

“Election 2008” Campaigns, Voting, and Elections in the United States 2009. Web.

Maisel, Louis Sandy & Brewer, Mark D. Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process. US: Roman & Littlefield, 2007.

Peterson, Russell Leslie. Strange bedfellows: how late-night comedy turns democracy into a joke. US: Rutgers University Press, 2008.

Stephenson, Richard M. “Conflict and Control Functions of Humor” The American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 56.6 (1951) pp. 569-574.

Will youth vote… or play Super Mario? Election 2008. Web.

Introduction

Humor and laughter are essential parts of the discourse that intend to express a happy emotion. Historically, the two aspects of conversation did not acquire substantial attention until the 1990s when studies and publications regarding the topic intensified.

Since then up to now, a synthesis of the different elements of humor and laughter lacks thereby, triggering the relevance of evaluating the maturation of the field. Therefore, analyzing the developmental period of the field that include the precursors (1974-1984), the functionalist stage (1985-2000), and the corpus synthesis that spans from 2000 up to now is crucial (Attardo, 2015).

The Precursors

The works of Harvey Sacks provided the foundations for studying the strands of humor and laughter as he endeavored in the Conversation Analysis approach. Essentially, Sacks analyzed the three elements of jokes that include the preface, telling, and the reactions that facilitate the introduction, delivery, and the conclusion of the conversation.

Therefore, jokes are similar to narratives whereby the speaker introduces the joke by asking the audience if they are willing to hear one. Then, the narrator proceeds to relate the joke after a successful preface. In most cases, jokes intend to test the audience’s awareness about a certain issue that would also welcome their interaction. The reaction part characterized by “systematic possibilities” constitutes the aspects of laughter, delayed laughter, and silence (Attardo, 2015).

The facet of laughter has received more inquiry than humor and it should be noted that the two features of discourse are not coexistent since the latter is not a physical depiction of the former. Thus, laughter can occur without the presence of humor, and the reverse is true. Further, laughter could signify the appreciation of humor or the termination of discourse.

Additionally, the teller could use laughter to validate the response of the audience regarding the topic of discussion. Besides, the functionality of laughter entails taking turns, depicting the speaker’s humorous intent, affirming the interpretation of the discourse, requesting for additional information, and acting as an affiliate resource (Attardo, 2015).

Delayed laughter is usually prompted by two incompatible needs in the audience. Firstly, depicting a comprehension of the text; secondly, tracking the audience’s reaction throughout the conversation. Silence, as the last strand of response to jokes, portrays the disapproval of the audience concerning the teller’s ideas or maintaining the character as the audience takes some time to get the joke.

Another form of reaction to jokes involves the speaker’s expression of seriousness to jokes associated with playful insults or irony (Attardo, 2015). Moreover, there is a distinction between canned and conversational jokes since the former comes at the end of a narrative in the form of a punchline while the latter occurs spontaneously.

The functionalist phase

Humor fulfills several functions that scholars intended to analyze during this stage of studying the aspects of discourse. The chief functions of laughter and humor are affiliative and the less common disaffiliative or aggressive aspect (Attardo, 2015). In most cases, humor and laughter seek to streamline conversations in an interactive manner.

Furthermore, some scholars perceive the function of humor as that of evoking “laughable” situations. However, other scholars have refuted the claim owing to situations whereby the audience experiences a failed joke (Attardo, 2015).

Laughter and humor occur partly in a controlled manner through which the speaker fosters their communication for a particular purpose. In shared laughter, for instance, the speaker introduces the joke in an “invitation-acceptance” manner that involves taking turns with the option of renewing the joke to enhance the continuity of the shared laughter.

In this light, the speaker fosters the functionality of humor and laughter by introducing new jokes or saying something funny after driving a particular message. Thus, providing the humor support and observing the principle of least disruption facilitates the affiliative functionality of humor and laughter whereby the in-group attains a “we-feeling” that strengthens their interaction and relationships (Attardo, 2015).

Besides the affiliative function, laughter and humor could also yield negative aspects that have the potential of biting instead of building the bond within the group engaged in discourse. However, the negative functionality element of humor and laughter occurs rarely since discourse seeks to instill a positive impact on the audience thus signifying meaningful interactions.

The Corpus-Based Synthesis

Recently, corpus-based studies have fostered conversational analysis regarding humor and laughter by enabling a better understanding of the different strands of discourse. Before the year 2000, studies that integrated the use of corpora lacked due to less annotation concerning the features of discourse on humor and laughter. For this reason, the study of the various types of humor faced challenges concerning the uninformative feature of delving into the study.

The assertion holds because there lacks adequate or none at all corpora that labels the existence of humor in a particular discourse situation (Attardo, 2015). For the purpose of mitigating this challenge, studies regarding the analysis of the different elements of humor have recently integrated varied corpus to enhance the analysis of discourse.

Some of the studies analyzed teenage conversations, press conferences, and newspaper stories. Therefore, it is indispensable to conduct studies that specifically analyze either laughter or humor. In this light, corpus studies that involve humor styles, humor support, and style seek the distinction of its unique features.

Humor adopts the form of many styles depending on the situation at hand. Hence, one should expect different types of humor at the dinner, workplace, classroom, or wedding settings. One of the unique aspects of an individual’s personality manifests in their style of humor.

Thus, the introduction of “family” styles of humor have expressively enhanced the understanding of the element of conversations. The frequencies of the humor occurrences also depend on the “family” or situation with more of it experienced in multiparty discourses. Corpus studies as the Language in the Workplace Project initiated in 1996 carried out in at least 20 workplace environments have been instrumental in facilitating the understanding of humor styles concerning setting and gender (Attardo, 2015).

The concept of humorous support involves the integration of conversational initiatives that foster the acknowledgment and support of humorous utterances that centrally seek the occurrence of additional humor and laughter.

The scope of humor support focuses on the trait of verbal support by disregarding strands like exaggerated facial expressions, laughter, or smiles among other expressions. Humor support could be achieved through more humor contribution, echoing the jokes, and bolstering the conversation involvement. Reactions that do not support humor include withholding appreciation and lack of reaction (Attardo, 2015).

The integration of timing in humor corpora is essential for picking the humorous moments from the non-humorous ones in discourse studies. Thus, the application of instrumental phonetic analysis improves the identification of different aspects of humor to enhance the accuracy of the analysis and evaluation. Further, the prose at which canned joke-tellers drive their punch lines should be noted to foster its identification.

Paradigm Shifts in Humor Discourse Research

Methodological changes in the study of humor and laughter have taken place over a period as seen in the move from narrative and canned jokes to conversational and discursive humor. Furthermore, the move from the conversation analysis and discourse analysis methodologies that used transcriptions to the application of quantitative methods that integrate video recording as seen in corpus-based research depicts the change in approach.

Currently, mixing discourse analysis with cognitive resources has proved to be instrumental in analyzing the critical aspects of humor and discourse. Cognitive resources like the General Theory of Verbal Humor (GTVH) enrich the analysis of humor by facilitating its identification and validation (Attardo, 2015).

Additionally, humor has multiple functions that it can execute concurrently. Thus, the indeterminate strand of humor and irony may, and normally does, result in diverse interpretations amongst the discourse participants. Moreover, adopting the co-construction approach to humor has improved the understanding of humor and laughter. In this respect, both participants collectively engage in the production and elaboration of the joke unlike in the approach used by Sacks whereby a narrative and reactive approach was applied.

A paradigm shift in the study has also been manifested in the identification of humor as scholars involve extensive corpora in the analysis of humor. Besides, the use of laughter to identify humor has diminished in contemporary studies since it does not assure its existence. The several reasons for failed humor that include lack of utterance comprehension, failure in the identification of humorous keying, and lack of joke appreciation or participation (Attardo, 2015).

Conclusion

Humor as an element of conversations is great and complex. Initially, studies on humor entailed an analysis of the story-telling aspects to the functional features of laughter and humor. Later, more emphasis on the affiliative functions resulted in considerable insights especially on the discernment of humorous utterances from non-humorous ones.

Moreover, paradigm shifts as portrayed in the changes from the corpus-based inquiries to the statistical comparison of the humor and laughter aspects of discourse demark the development of the field over years.

Reference

Attardo, S. (2015). Humor and laughter. In D. Tannen, E. Hamilton & D. Schiffrin (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis (pp.168-188). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Purpose of the Study

The article under consideration focuses on the use of humor in psychotherapy with depressed older adults. In their article, Scott, Hyer, and McKenzie (2014) addressed the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and problem-solving therapy. The authors noted that research in this area has unveiled the particulars regarding the needs of older clients and ways to meet these needs. However, numerous gaps still exist, especially in terms of the use of humor in psychotherapy with older patients. Thus, the researchers concentrated on humor as one of the most valuable components of therapy, having the potential to lead to positive patient outcomes. Scott et al. stressed that a combination of components of the mentioned frameworks should be used when treating older patients suffering from depression and anxiety. The researchers also mentioned psychoeducation as another vital element of effective intervention for the target population. According to Scott et al. (2014), humor as a part of psychotherapy is instrumental in establishing rapport, facilitating honest discussion, and reducing intimidation or other negative emotions.

Methods and Findings

Scott et al. (2014) provided a review of specific cases illustrating the effectiveness of incorporating humor in psychotherapy. The authors described a group consisting of ten older adults who were experiencing depressive symptoms due to various reasons. The patients also endured feelings of loneliness and isolation, had a considerable financial burden, and felt frustration because of trauma or chronic health issues. One example of the positive impact humor had on patients, according to the authors, was its contribution to creating the necessary atmosphere (Scott et al., 2014). For example, when some patients shared emotional stories, leading to an increase in tension in the group environment, jokes served as a soothing influence that brought feelings of fun and calm to the group’s members. Humor also helped in making group members more active and open as they felt safe and motivated to contribute to group discussions.

Implications

This review has important implications for nursing practice as it can help nurses in many different types of medical units to provide high-quality care. Clearly, psychiatric mental health nurses (PMHN) will benefit most from reading this article as it can expand the scope of their knowledge related to using different theoretical frameworks in their daily practice. Furthermore, the revealed benefits of employing humor provide encouragement for practitioners to safely employ this approach. Exact instances of ways to incorporate humor are mentioned, which can make it easier for many nursing professionals to start trying this method. The study also encourages medical staff to be more active and creative in their practice while acknowledging that an evidence-based approach remains a major pillar of nursing practice.

In addition to direct implications for daily nursing practice, the research contributes significantly to the development of the field as the study reviews the major characteristics of the current research and identifies certain gaps. It is clear that great potential exists for researchers to dig more deeply into the matter, which will lead to the development of new interventions and approaches to care. Finally, the focus of the study is relevant since the ratio of older adults is increasing rapidly even as little attention is paid to psychotherapy for this population. Older people need mental health care due to their health condition as well as the socio-economic problems they may face. Thus, the development of effective interventions is critical for public health in both short- and long-term perspectives.

Reference

Scott, C. V., Hyer, L. A., & McKenzie, L. C. (2014). The healing power of laughter: The applicability of humor as a psychotherapy technique with depressed and anxious older adults. Social Work in Mental Health, 13(1), 48-60. Web.