Category: Humanism

This essay will explore three psychological approaches. Further comparison and contrast made from assumptions about human behaviour from the selected three approaches will be deeply discussed throughout the whole essay. Modern psychology branches out into several approaches that are currently used nowadays.

In psychology, an approach is a point of view that includes different kinds of beliefs carried out by the most famous psychologists towards human behaviour. This also discusses the way they function, what areas of them are worthy of study, and what research methods will be considered appropriate for undertaking this study.

An approach will have different theories within, but mostly all these (theories) will have common assumptions. Each approach has its strength and weaknesses, and to those who may wonder why these approaches in psychology may be so different from each other, it is to bring a different point of view on human behaviour.

There are mainly five psychological approaches. But this essay will only treat three approaches.

THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

When speaking about this perspective there are a few psychologists who gave a major help to found what is behaviourism today. The main founders were John B. Watson and B.F Skinner, there are also other few remarkable behaviourist psychologists such as Ivan Pavlov, Clark Hull, etc.

The behaviourist approach which is also known as behaviourism relies on the theory that all behaviours are acquired and maintained through conditioning, these following are categorised in Classical and Operant conditioning. Behaviourism is based on the fact that conditioning only manifests throughout interaction within a specific environment; as individuals, our responses to a certain environment will have an impact on our behaviour causing to change the shape of it.

From a behaviourist point of view, all learning method used in experiments can be proved on animals and humans. Therefore, animals can replace humans in circumstances where experimenting is needed, and there’s also a clearer understanding that this approach doesn’t rely on internal emotions such as moods and emotions because they are considered subjective and unobservable from a behaviourist perspective.

Classical Conditioning: The principles of classical conditioning have been applied by many therapists this it’s a method of learning that happens through association where the occurring stimulus is paired with a response. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) transits from being neutral to the conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response. One of the most remarkable psychologists who is set to believe he is the one who discovered classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov.

Although Pavlov had inspiration from Thorndyke’s foundings, The Animal Intelligence (1898) where animals were kept in boxes and food were placed outside of the boxes which were visible to the animals. Thorndyke’s proceeded with different experiments where he concluded that an association was formed between the visual and tactile stimuli plus the automatic mechanism from the animals. Pavlov came with the classical conditioning through an experiment carried out on his dogs. He demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate upon hearing a bell. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimuli (food) automatically produces an unconditioned response (salivation), while during conditioning the unconditioned stimuli were constantly paired with a neutral stimulus (bell) to produce an identical unconditioned response which is salvation. After conditioning, an association was made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus, the process after this association was the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response of salivation. Pavlov tried using different pitches for the bells in his experiments but no change occurred in a matter of conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning: This is a method of learning where behaviour is developed and also maintained relying on consequences. The operant conditioning adopts reinforcement where this increases its chance of the behaviour to be repeated, where punishment (unpleasant consequence based on behaviour) decreases the chances of it. Reinforcement can be categorised in two ways.

• Positive reinforcement: This happens when good behaviour it is being repeated, which also leads to rewarding it if this happens again.
• Negative reinforcement: This happens when observed behaviour chooses to avoid negative consequences causing it to improve.

B.F Skinner believed human behaviour could have been explained by their motives and how environmental factors and stimuli could have affected the human behaviour, reaction and response. Skinner carried out a lot of experiments trying to demonstrate his theory. Skinner proved, using a rat plus positive and negative reinforcement (Skinner’s Box) that when positive reinforcement was used when the rat pressed down the lever to received food (reward), unconsciously the rat learned to repeat this action to receive more rewards. When negative reinforcement was used, the rat to avoid unpleasant consequences (electric shock) learnt to press down the lever.

Strengths and limitations of behaviourism

Behaviourism makes use of scientific data and research methods, especially laboratory experiments. Scientific experiments are strictly-controlled to reduce and control the volume of misunderstanding and unnecessary information. There is also an increase in reliability and validity when it comes down to findings as these are most likely to be replicated in the same circumstances. Behaviour can be observed and measured, increasing the scientific credibility of psychology. In a matter of limitations, behaviourism sees all behaviours as a product of past reinforcement, without considering the aspect of free will or voluntary choices. Behaviourism seems more appropriate towards animals, as it does not recognise human emotions nor consider them as essential.

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

The psychodynamic approach consists of all theories developed in modern psychology that are currently used nowadays. This approach is based on the interaction of drives and forces within a human, especially the unconscious side, this also focuses on the differences between structures of a personality. Sigmund Freud is the main psychologist who formed this approach, his psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory. Freud’s theories are the foundation of the psychodynamic approach, his followers have similar theories that add up to this approach. Freud identified three levels of consciousness which were: The conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The human mind is only aware of the conscious, whereas forms of the preconscious are revealed from sudden moments of slips or dreaming, the human mind has no control over the unconscious side and this stores our biological instincts or drives (e.g. hunger or sadness) plus unpleasant thoughts which are repressed by our conscious mind.

Freud saw personality as three components (i.e tripartite) these are identified as Id, ego and superego. The id is the core part of the personality which is an altogether of traces of personality found at birth, this operates on biological instincts (e.g. hunger) and instant gratification of it, The ego is developed in the first 3 years of life, where this helps to resolve conflicts between the superego and the id, this is considered the decision-maker part of a personality. Lastly, the superego is developed between 3 to 6 years of life (phallic stage) this is based on the morals and values of an individual, children at this age tend to recognise the sense from right and wrong which are learned from one’s parents. The id and superego are always in constant conflict.

Freud (1905) believed that life was built around instincts and pleasure, he also believed that all tension was due to the build-up libido (sexual energy) where all pleasure derived from. For this reason, he identified that psychological development in childhood takes place in five psychosexual stages which are: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Freud hardly believed that the first five years of an individual were crucial to the development of an adult personality. Each stage characteristic is affected by a conflict which is needed to be resolved to step into the next stage, failure to achieve so results into ‘fixation’ which leads into dysfunctional behaviour that can be carried into adulthood. Oedipus and Electra Complexes were developed by Freud based on the case studies of Little Hans, where phobia of horses stopped from fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires towards his mother.

Strengths and limitations of psychodynamics

The psychodynamic approach is still used in modern psychology, this is used especially on a client-therapist relationship. This approach is really promising as it improves the outcomes of each client-therapist session, Freud contribution to psychology also plays a big role in mental disorders such as depression, anxiety etc.

In terms of limitations, the psychodynamic approach places a lot of emphasis on psychological factors without considering the biological standpoint of view, the following factors which influence and contribute to mental health issues. This approach reduces free-will, not allowing human behaviour to express its opinion in addition to that categorising the human mind into categories and stages show how limited the approach is.

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

The humanistic approach based itself on the concept that all human beings have access to their free-will and they are in control of their own development, this also ignores internal or external influence on factors concerning our behaviour. The humanistic approach underlines the importance of the personal worth of an individual, this mainly focuses on human values and its creative nature. Self-actualisation targets psychological growth (e.g. fulfilment) as a motive to reach the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy. Since human beings possess free will, this enhances the chances of striving and progressing through this hierarchy.

Self-actualisation is when an individual comes a realisation (full understanding) of its potential and full development of its abilities. The humanistic approach has three individuals who had a massive impact on understanding self-actualisation, these are Kurt Goldstein, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Goldstein perceived self-actualisation as a final goal for every creature, he believed that man’s desire for self-fulfilment will encourage an individual to reach its potential, Goldstein (1940) perspective on self-actualisation was that individuals not reaching their goals in future was not needed because he believed that every creature was able to reach its full potential at any given time.

Rogers perceived self-actualisation as a constant lifelong process where an individual concept of itself is maintained and improved through reflection, this enables the individual to develop, recover and grow. From Rogers perspective each person who wants to achieve self-actualisation must be in a state of congruence, this happens when an individual ‘ideal-self’ matches their actual behaviour ‘self-image’. Those who are not able to reach or achieve self-actualisation are deemed of not being able to achieve their full potential, those who can reach their full potential are described as ‘fully functioning’, to become a fully functioning individual, unconditional positive regards from other must be detected. This is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their feelings.

Maslow instead had the same view on self-actualisation as Goldstein, However, Maslow (1943) found out that human beings have lower needs before reaching higher needs, he classified them as basic needs which can be subcategorised in physiological needs ( e.g. water, food and rest) and safety needs. Psychological needs which were also subcategorised in belongingness needs (e.g. close relationships) and esteem needs (ex feeling of accomplishment). Lastly, an individual needs to realise its full potential (self-actualisation).

Maslow believed that not a lot of individuals would have reached the final stage of his hierarchy, further ahead he acknowledge a few individuals who he believed they were self-actualised, and argued that most individuals are suffering from the psychopathology of normality. Maslow’s perspective towards human is indeed optimistic which sees individuals striving to reach their full potential.

Strengths and limitations of humanism

The humanistic approach focuses specifically on the individual rather than other aspects such as unconscious, observable behaviour of DNA. Roger’s therapy which was client-centred played a key role in today’s counselling psychology. This therapy recognises an individual free will and their room of improvement to reach full potential by focusing on the patient’s actual problems. Humanism values personal and self-fulfilment which meet most individuals way of thinking. On the other hand, humanism does not rely on biology, this approach is entirely focused on humans ( unlike behaviourism which relies on animals and human comparisons) which means there is no comparison between animals. Lastly, this approach is culturally biased because humanism is more likely to be accepted by western culture.

Each psychological perspectives are surely different and have contrasting theories, however, some of these perspectives are still used in modern psychology. It is undeniable that certain perspectives are considered to be unethical nowadays because of their way of experimenting and theories which are based on. Behaviourism seems to be the most outdated one compared to the other two psychological approaches which have been treated on this essay while humanism and psychodynamic approaches have massively contributed to today’s’ psychology.

REFERENCES

1. Freud, S., 1949. Three Essays On The Theory Of Sexuality. 7th ed. London: Imago Pub. Co., pp.123-246.
2. Goldstein, K., 1940. Human Nature. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.
3. Maslow, A., 1943. A Theory Of Human Motivation. 5th ed. [Place of publication not identified]: Wilder Publications, Inc., pp.96-370.
4. Mcleod, S., 2020. Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: [Accessed 8 November 2020].
5. Pmt.physicsandmathstutor.com. 2020. Approaches In Psychology. [online] Available at: [Accessed 8 November 2020].
6. Pavlov, I., 1940. Conditioned Reflexes. 1st ed. New York.
7. Prera, A., 2020. Self-Actualisation. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: [Accessed 10 November 2020].
8. Simplypsychology.org. 2020. Psychodynamic Approach. [online] Available at: [Accessed 9 November 2020].

With the nailing of the ‘Ninety-five Theses’ upon the Wittenberg Cathedral by the German monk Martin Luther, an uprising against the Catholic Church was raised. Soon, people began to really question the Catholic Church’s almost dictatorial attitudes, and the Protestant religion was created. Bearing its roots from the word ‘protest’, the new religion and its protest was facilitated by the invention of the printing press, which was present in every city, and too the younger generation of students who were increasingly attending heterodox universities/schools.

With inceptors of the Protestant Reformation requiring support, soon patronage was sought and later found in the form of lords, barons, and members of the upper classes. This could probably be considered a short-term effect of the Protestant Reformation; the shift in power and the increase of secular beliefs. Furthermore, one of the more overt long-term effects is the creation of new Christian religions apart from Catholicism, such as Anglicanism. Too, dissent pertaining religious orientation amongst countries’ people increased significantly, one of the main causes for the Thirty Years’ War.

Johannes Gutenberg (b. 1400, d. 1468) lived in the Holy Roman Empire in the electorate of Mainz during the early Renaissance period. Largely credited with the invention in c. 1440 of the mechanical movable type printing press, he was instrumental in the development of the Age of Enlightenment, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution. Fifty-four years later, Aldus Manutius, a Venetian scholar, humanist, and educator, founded the Aldine Press, which published several famous works, such as a five-volume folio edition of Aristotle. Thus, Manutius initiated the printing of books in Venice, with Latin and Greek texts able to be published in growing numbers to constitute the Italian Renaissance, instigating a great emphasis upon classicism and understanding of ancient texts amongst scholars.

Furthermore, early works published by the Aldine Press did not include many religious works. Instead, the literature of the Italian Renaissance drew much from science and philosophy, both developing fields at the time. An instrumental man pertaining humanism in the early Italian Renaissance was Francesco Petrarch. Regarded by many as the ‘father of the Renaissance’, his most prominent work Secretum meum, notes that the vast human intellectual and creative potential was bestowed by God to be used to its fullest, irrespective of secular achievements. This introspective thinking greatly influenced the nascent development of humanism throughout the Italian Renaissance, contributing to other great works such as those of Giovanni Boccaccio, Petrarch’s disciple.

Politics too was influenced greatly by the mass production of the printing press throughout Italy, as scholars sought to make use of the ancient and emerging texts now at their disposal. One such scholar was Niccolò Machiavelli (b. 1469, d. 1527), who lived in the Republic of Florence. His most famous work, The Prince, which was dedicated to the patriarch (at the time) of the renowned Medici family, Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici, gained much attention due to its rather revolutionary views on politics republicanism. In his book, it is suggested that the ‘new leader ’ must carefully balance the greater interests of the people, and his controversial consequentialist view of “the end justifies the means” is still debated about today. In the end, The Prince was banned by the Catholic Church due to its controversial views and analysis of politics, as it was placed on the Index Liborum Prohibitorum.

A prominent Italian banking family and political dynasty, the House of Medici originated in modern-day Tuscany. The Medici family ruled the signoria of Florence, at the time a region of much growth in the arts field, supporting the Pope, however, this had not always been the case. Only with the prospering of the Medici bank, founded by Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, did the family rise to a noble and lordly status. This enabled the Medici family to gain control of not only the region of Florence but arguably more importantly, the region’s economy too. With the Renaissance being a time of ‘new birth’, re-discovery of classical elements, and the invention of new ones, the Medici family was in a prime position to capitalise upon their upper socio-economic status, through patronage.

By the year 1469, Lorenzo de’ Medici had become the head of the Medici bank, and sought to divert from previous methods of operation. This meant ‘abandoning’ the family banking business, which would later lead to the decline of the Medici bank and too the House of Medici, and rather, developing the vast patronage network whose foundations were laid by his grandfather, Cosimo. Lorenzo created a Humanist academy, along neo-Platonic lines, in Florence, which Michelangelo attended, in effect ‘carving’ the superb artists and sculptors of the near future. Leonardo da Vinci even lived with the Medici family during 1480 and enjoyed the security of patronage for the entirety of his life. Works by prolific and prominent artists and sculptors, such as Botticelli, da Vinci and Michelangelo, were all commissioned by Lorenzo; the mark he has left upon Renaissance art as it is now considered in the modern world is indelible. It is hard to imagine the modern world without great works of Renaissance art, and hence it is hard to imagine the modern world without Lorenzo de’ Medici and indeed the Medici family.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines ‘Humanism’ as: n. Frequently with capital initial. A European intellectual movement or climate of thought from the 14th to the 16th cent., which was characterised in scholarship by attentiveness to classical Latin (and later Greek), in neo-Latin and vernacular literature by the creative imitation of ancient texts, in education and public life by the promotion of some or all of the wide range of cultural ideals which these texts were supposed to transmit, and in the fine and applied arts by creative response to Roman and Greek artefacts or principles.

This was to be attained through the studia humanitatis, the Latin for ‘the study of humanities’, in modern terms, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. As mentioned in Part B of this Extended Investigation, Petrarch, a member of the Early Renaissance, is regarded as the Father of Humanism, due to his dedication and ‘reverence’ of ancient Roman and Greek literature and texts. Too mentioned in Part B, with the invention of the movable type printing press by Gutenberg, scholars and commoners alike were able to study and investigate, and learn in an unparalleled way, particularly in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino – the centres of Renaissance Humanism.

By the mid-15th century, many upper-class Italian families had received Humanist educations, probably in addition to Scholastic educations. These upper-class Italian families were probably influenced by the senior church figure and ‘ruler’ of the time, the Pope. Most notably, Pope Pius II wrote a significant work, a treatise, named, The Education of Boys, which focussed solely upon the benefits and details of a Humanist education, later to be known as the study of Humanities. Soon, Italian Humanism spread to the Low Countries and the other regions of the civilized Western world.

In the following paragraphs, Renaissance Humanism will be further explored, in relation to several examples provided by the great artists of the Renaissance era.

Renaissance Humanism placed great emphasis upon Realism. Though initially developing separately, by the re-appearance of Humanism in the Renaissance, particularly in Italy, the two began to intertwine, co-existing in a mutual discourse. A notable artist who paid particular awareness pertaining Realism was Giotto di Bondone, an early Renaissance artist of Florence. Through painting many frescoes and panel paintings in tempera, inclusive of decorations in the Chapels of Assisi, Rome, Padua, Florence, and Naples, his focus on reviving ancient Roman Realism techniques is overt. In the Scrovegni Chapel of Padua, The Nativity adorns one of the walls as a fresco, depicting the birth of Jesus (c. 1305-06).

Even his contemporary, the afore-mentioned Boccaccio, wrote in his Decameron;

“there was nothing in Nature—the mother and ruling force of all created things with her constant revolution of the heavens—that he could not paint with his stylus, pen, or brush or make so similar to its original in Nature that it did not appear to be the original rather than a reproduction. Many times, in fact, in observing things painted by this man, the visual sense of men would err, taking what was painted to be the very thing itself.”

Renaissance art, too, placed great emphasis upon Anthropocentricity and Individualism the bestowal of paramount attention to humans and their experiences. Renaissance Individualist artists would seek to exact the precision and dignity of human portraits, the paintings of significant men such as Lorenzo de’ Medici provide extremely, almost photographically accurate depictions of the men themselves. By diverging slightly into the discipline of science, still however maintaining roots in art, it can be understood that polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci too placed great emphasis upon Anthropocentricity. da Vinci’s ‘The Vitruvian Man’ exemplifies Individualism in every sense.

The diagram of the human body as encapsulated by Leonardo da Vinci, a 15th-century polymath, supported by notes based on the works of Vitruvius, a Roman 1st century BC architect, is pictured; an in depth explanation is not necessary as the topic has been covered extensively in class. Provided, however, is a concise explanation of details within the specimen. A man is depicted in two superimposed positions, inscribed within a circle and a square with a form of measurement beneath. Particular detail has been given to external anatomical features of the human body, such as proportional limbs and a symmetrical face. The text is written in mirror writing, and the full translation is below:

“(UPPER SECTION) Vitruvius, architect, puts in his work on architecture that the measurements of man are in nature distributed in this manner: that is a palm is four fingers, a foot is four palms, a cubit is six palms, four cubits make a man, a pace is four cubits, a man is 24 palms and these measurements are in his buildings.

If you open your legs enough that your head is lowered by one-fourteenth of your height and raise your hands enough that your extended fingers touch the line of the top of your head, know that the centre of the extended limbs will be the navel, and the space between the legs will be an equilateral triangle.

The length of the outspread arms is equal to the height of a man; from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-tenth of the height of a man; from below the chin to the top of the head is one-eighth of the height of a man; from above the chest to the top of the head is one-sixth of the height of a man; from above the chest to the hairline is one-seventh of the height of a man. The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of the height of a man; from the breasts to the top of the head is a quarter of the height of a man; the distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is a quarter of the height of a man; the distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-eighth of the height of a man; the length of the hand is one-tenth of the height of a man; the root of the penis (sic) is at half the height of a man; the foot is one-seventh of the height of a man; from below the foot to below the knee is a quarter of the height of a man; from below the knee to the root of the penis is a quarter of the height of a man; the distances from below the chin to the nose and the eyebrows and the hairline are equal to the ears and to one-third of the face.”

Why a diagram of a human body? Why not a plant, or an animal? The answer is simple. Individualism was held in high esteem during the Renaissance period. Patrons such as Lorenzo de’ Medici would provide financial support and support by means of social status (although artists and polymaths were quickly gaining upper social statuses at the time). It is no wonder that da Vinci would choose the physical anatomical properties of the human body to represent in what is now one of his most famous works. Vitruvius believed that the ideal human should be eight heads in height, hence too representing the Renaissance pursuit for Order and Rationality. Da Vinci utilised his mathematical knowledge in the book Divina Proportione, which he co-authored/illustrated with Luca Pacioli.

To conclude, Humanism was one of the Renaissance Ideals partly due to the emphasis placed upon Classicism and also eminent people such as Petrarch. Humanism has placed an indelible mark upon not only literature, science, and the various other disciplines of the Renaissance, but too the modern way of study. Forsaking human conflict, discontinuity, and the like, the Humanist Movement is now considered as one of the greatest movements of all time. I conclude this essay with an introspective and philosophical quote from Petrarch, considered to be the ‘Father of Humanism’:

“Often I have wondered with much curiosity as to our coming into this world, and what will follow our departure.”

Bibliography

1. 2019. Leonardo da Vinci. 14 September 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci (accessed September 2019).
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3. Encyclopædia Brittanica. Humanism. 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism (accessed September 2019).
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7. Wikimedia. “Copernicus’ Model of the Universe.” The Model of the Universe as Theorised by Nicolaus Copernicus. n.d.

Identification

This research analyses the interior aspects of the National Parliament House in Dhaka by comparing the key importance in the response to three chosen scholarly texts. By analyzing three scholarly texts: (1) Architectural culture in the Fifties: Louis Kahn and National Assembly Complex in Dhaka by Sarah Ksiazek, (2) Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order by Klaus-Peter Gast and (3) Louis I. Kahn by Robert McCarter. In the first text, Ksiazek explores how the combination of humanism and regionalism that Kahn drew those oppositions together to create monumental architecture as a whole. In the referred text; according to Kahn, humanism in National Parliament House in Dhaka was designed not only with human-centered scale and forms but also embodied perceptual reasons that reflect individuals’ spiritual relation “the spirit of commonness”. Contrast to humanism, the author interprets that by weaving mosque and regional Moghul architecture with the use of traditional material into the assembly building create monumental assembly building that represents both humanism and regionalism. In the second text, Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order, Gast elaborates the importance of programming the hierarchy within the space. Gast examined Kahn’s attitude and his fundamentals of architecture in the Parliament building mainly analysing from the principal of ordering in terms of technique and basic geometrical fundamentals applied to the assembly building layout to achieve traditional and geometrical configuration of Mandala with a bit of distortion of original (diagonal and symmetrical) configuration in designing the plan of the building, and the use of simplified archaic symbols, poetic natural lighting that create different atmospheric interior spaces. Thirdly, McCarter explains Kahn’s inspiration and ideas and designing process, challenges, and changes of the plan throughout the process due to change in the political movement of Pakistan and Bangladesh. Kahn’s inspiration of poetics of human actions reflects in the plan of National Parliament House in Dhaka, and how their spatial planning articulate. Based on the above key identification, the research mainly explores the relations and fundamentals of humanism in architecture applied to the National Parliament Building project.

Comparison

By considering the key points made by writers, it is clear that there are clear relations and evidence that are supporting each other. Ksiazek explains her thoughts on humanism in Kahn’s National Parliament House is not just about man-centered scale and forms. It is “assembly of transcendent of nature” – a way of life that concern government institutions “men came to assemble not for personal gain but to touch the spirit of commonness” (Ksiazek, pp.429). Explaining that humanism in the building contains a meaningful interpretation of that individuals assemble in the space has commonness in the spirit of individual democratic idealism for civic responsibility and patriotism. Similarity, those individuals assemble with the spirit for common goods is related to the collective sphere of government institutions while elaborating “the relationship of assembly, mosque and supreme courts and hostels, in their interplay psychologically, is what expresses the nature of government institution” (Ksiazek, pp.429). Besides, the author points out the bodily relationship of the massive scale of the grey concrete building is soften by contrasting the use of materials where the white marble band is tiled every five feet brings comfort reference to the human body.

However, consideration of humanism in terms of human-centered form and scale is obvious through the process of planning layout for the parliament building according to Gast’s examination. Applying the principle of distortions, diagonal arrangement and extensions throughout the planning layout is “how Kahn’s concept “…that was implemented directly in principle here for the first time as a ‘primal figure’ and ‘a mandala’….” (Gast, pp.100), interpreting the octagonal plan of the assembly building with the simplified modern version of Mandala configuration. The layout planning was started with simple squares and dividing those squares by using the proportion of the Golden Section which is known as the ideal of humanism in Renaissance and the perfect ratio of the divine-human beings. “… Half the length of diagonal is now divided in the proportion of the Golden Section. ….The shorter section of this division forms the minor Golden Section …” (Gast, pp.104). Then, the use of the golden section becomes the starting figure of the inner circular hall which is the main assembly hall of the building. Together with the human-centred ratio, the principal of distortions and extensions elaborates imperfect human individual in expressing Kahn’s architectural plan.

Stressing the importance of the assembly hall, McCarter explains that humanism of what “Khan conceived of architecture as beginning with the room, with each human understood as ‘a society of rooms’, their spatial relationship articulating their collective institutional purpose.” (McCarter, pp.222). This statement aligns with the ideal of humanism expressed in the assembly of transcendent of nature under collective government institution and affects transitions and programming hierarchy of rooms in the assembly building. Since the assembly buildings and mosque are the main buildings of the project from the beginning, Kahn placed them in the center as islands within a lake, showing its importance. The main entrance of the building exits at the north where Presidential esplanade symbolizes as democratic participation public sphere in front of the fortress-like building. The mosque is extended and fur enough from the assembly hall with the ablution court in between which acts as a sound barrier. The mosque is placed at the southern part by slanting the mosque to face east “as required and giving it certain independence from the rest of the Assembly Building” (McCarter, pp.262) indicating the Bangladesh which was initially part of East Pakistan gain independence from Pakistan. By centralizing the Assembly hall, the four office blocks are a combination of two squares forming rectangular block as a whole, located in the form of an octagon bracing around the main circulation of hall housing the service components. The ministry’s lounge facing to the west and ministry’s dining and recreation to the east. Thus, the overall form of the building reflects the traditional Mandala configuration; and each room are independent and self-defined but interlocking with the circular passage around the central assembly hall, proving the ideal of humanism exists as both transcendent nature of assembly and society of rooms.

Evaluation

Firstly, Ksiazek’s with ten years of experiences in the teaching of the History and Theory of Architecture at many universities, the structure of her text is well structured with relevant detailed reasoning. Before she analyses Louis Kahn’s responses, as reflected in his project, she carefully elaborates the relating contexts and their concerns arising in the fifties by comparing many architects’ responses and voices. The author explains the influence in arising concerns in new monumentality, humanism and regionalism architecture in the 50s, and presenting respective architects’ point of views and their contradictions then discussed Lou’s Khan Responses to those conditions. Based on that, Ksiazek illustrates how Kahn came up with his reflection of humanism and religion theory applied to the monumental building and articulation for the occupants to encounter sensorial experience. Ksiazek research explores the beginning of the context, where Palladian humanism influence on new humanism and theory of it “clear, man-centered, forms, which asserted a sculptural, symbolic, monumental presence” (Ksiazek, pp.421). Then, interprets Khan’s expanded ideology “assembly is transcendent”. Together with the previous explanations on the theory of new humanism, the concept of Khan’s humanism fundamental become more relatable and architect’s decision becomes more comprehensible and compelling the strong concept which allows spiritual engagement of spaces in the National Parliament House.

Secondly, Gast, the German architect who is living and practicing in India shows a detailed interpretation of the Mandala configuration compared to the other two authors. Since Mandala is originally a spiritual or geometrical configuration in Indian culture, Gast seems more relatable and explains thoroughly. So that, the spatial configuration of the layout which he relates to Principal of Golden Section and distortion of primal traditional Mandala is clarified and simplified step by step explanations and several creative phases through illustrations from the basic square grids to octagonal plan. By comparing with the principal of Mandala diagonal arrangements and symmetry, Gast introduced the four office blocks, symmetrical in terms of form and proportionate to each other, exist diagonally across the centralized assembly. This strong principal applied as the fundamental of the layout planning in the National Parliament Building and Khan’s interpretations of human-centered experience and ideologies become easier to understand. Moreover, the idea of human-centered principle is compelling to me personally since it demonstrates Louis Khan’s profound value of context in humanism.

Thirdly, McCarter, an American architect who is also an author and a professor in many universities analyses architecture as occupants’ experience emphasizing on interior spaces and their interrelations. And, even in the referred text, he expresses Khan’s interrelationship and occupation of interior spaces as ‘inspired composition in the poetics of action’, discussing the importance of hierarchical spatial planning especially for a legislative building like the National Parliament House. In developing. Supporting Kahn’s idea of connection in the government institutions with the grand hall, for example, the tall corridor exits in the main hall which is extremely important since it is where the first impression that the spatial area provides for first time visitor.

Personhood is a very controversial and complex topic that academics and jurists have different views on. Commonly, personhood can be understood from three main positions: positivism, humanism and liberalism. In this essay, I will explore the positivist position and the inherent flaws in its definition of legal persons. I will further incorporate and evaluate alternative approaches to personhood such as humanism and liberalism. Finally, I will discuss how liberalism is the most compelling out of the three positions, but how these approaches fail to sufficiently address personhood on their own and may require us to define personhood using collective viewpoints.

Positivists are concerned only with what the law is and not what it ought to be; therefore, they take a more abstract view when it comes to personhood. F.H Lawson would argue it is futile looking at the metaphysical elements that make us persons i.e. things that set us aside from animals because “legal persons are […] mathematical equations devised for the purpose of simplifying legal calculations”. This can be seen as a very simplistic view, because whether someone classifies as a human purely depends on their ability to engage with the legal system; “The legal person has no particular moral, social, political or historical character; indeed, he has no substantive nature. He exists only as an abstract capacity to function in law”.

While positivism may oversimplify what it means to be a ‘person’, this approach may be the most inclusive definitions of personhood. This is because it could include the dead, foetuses, animals and the environment; since “Anything can be a legal person, because legal persons are stipulated as such or defined into existence”. However, in our current law this can see as untrue; even though animals “may have non-moral and non-legal responsibilities, they are not well understood as having moral or legal obligations”. Furthermore, this is a “device-based conception of personhood” that is completely detached from metaphysical elements such as morality. This is arguably a colourless way to perceive persons. Naffine Ngaire argues “by denying the moral, the natural, the spiritual, even the rational dimensions of her subject…she takes out the real people and replaces them with cardboard cut-outs”. It is because of this that a positivist stance appears too far removed from the standard conception of what a ‘persons’ are, which tends to include morality, and so personhood should not be understood purely from this position alone.

By contrast, humanism seems to adopt a ‘natural dimension’ to personhood: humans are born with natural legal rights and when a person dies those rights are taken away. Understanding personhood from this position allows non-law areas such as medicine to contribute to the definition making it less mechanical and law orientated, like that of the positivist stance. In support of humanism, the opening statement of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace”. This shows the humanist definition of personhood to be compatible with the human rights movement and includes all human lives regardless of any metaphysical characteristics.

An obvious criticism here is the lack of inclusivity and blatant speciesism. Peter Singer, a moral philosopher challenges our bias in favour of our own species since many animals “are more intelligent, more aware of what is happening to them [and] more sensitive to pain […] than many brain-damaged humans” and urges that we make “a mental switch in respect of our attitudes and practises towards…animals”.

Moreover, if we rely on the definition of personhood being associated with our biology, it excludes the potential idea of posthumanism. Phillippe Ducor argues that “nonhuman intelligence, comparable in character to human intelligence, would challenge the current legal belief that only humans are persons”. For example, if you could download consciousness onto machines in the future, would this be a person? If so, this would completely undermine the humanist definition of personhood. The lack of inclusivity of other species and the limiting of prospects are a few of the reasons why humanism, like positivism, is not a sufficient approach to understanding personhood.

A liberalist definition, on the other hand, may account for future technological advancements and artificial intelligence. To qualify as a person the two keys factors are rationality and legal competence; this assumes a person is intelligent enough to make rational decisions and be aware of the consequences. It’s because of this we are accountable for our actions. According to Richard Tur, to acquire full legal personality it “requires that a person be able to initiate actions in the court, to ‘sue or be sued”. While this rules out the questions about animals, foetuses and children, the concept of rationality can be brought into question. Traditionally, women and slaves were excluded from the terrain of personhood due to being too ‘irrational’; so much so that women couldn’t vote or buy property and in 1958 in the Virginia Supreme Court said, “in the eyes of the law” a slave was “not a person”. Even though the legal system has modernised, this type of categorisation is potentially dangerous as it still excludes minorities. Though it may make sense to think of some individuals as having diminished personhood for their own good, it can become ambiguous when it comes to some disabilities or illnesses such as Dementia. It is hard to determine in these cases at which point it is appropriate to diminish or remove personhood. Furthermore, it is difficult to decide whether or not we can even make these decisions, let alone who would be responsible for them. Similarly, pregnant women are seen as having diminished personhood in the sense that “the rational subject must be fully individuated” and therefore pregnancy “compromises individuation”. These examples demonstrate how the liberalist definition of personhood is not wholly inclusive, highlighting the flaws of this approach.

An additional criticism of liberalism is that it doesn’t consider the socio-political context. Under a liberalist definition, it’s assumed that people take responsibility for their crimes because they wanted to do them. What if someone is forced to steal because they are poor and need to provide for their children?

Despite the weaknesses addressed, liberalism makes a strong contribution to the definition of personhood by including metaphysical elements and because of this, provides a more focused definition of personhood than positivism and humanism. However, it’s lack of inclusivity and apparent carelessness for those it excludes raises more questions than it addresses.

Personhood is an important, ongoing debate as it is an integral part of the legal system and to an extent our everyday lives. Positivism isn’t sufficient in defining personhood as it is shown to be unrealistic and is too far from metaphysics that ‘real people’ get lost in its definition. On the other hand, humanism provides too narrow of a definition as it excludes other species from its scope. In contrast, liberalism finds the balance between the two and gives a more focused and grounded approach. However, when considering all three, none of these approaches individually define personhood sufficiently, suggesting that perhaps an interdisciplinary approach including a variety of positions may be recommended in order to meaningfully understand personhood.

Learning theories “date as far back as 500 BC” (Bates, 2016, p.3), which shows the continued importance of these throughout the years, and how it is essential for teachers and educators to be aware of these for effective teaching. Therefore, the focus of this essay is around the way different learning theories can have an impact on learning. It will explore differences and similarities between factors which can influence learning, which include psychological theories such as behaviourism and humanism (including the application of these), as well as how neuroscience and motivation have an impact.

The theory of behaviourism is centred around having a stimulus and observing the response, as well as the effect that a punishment or reward has on the behaviour. Thorndike is thought to be “the first pure behavioural psychologist” (Bates, 2016, p.28), however his work is not what defined it as the term ‘behaviourism’. One of the most known behaviourists is Pavlov who used dogs to show how an unconditioned stimulus can produce an unconditioned response, then adding a neutral stimulus (which produces no response) can be paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce the unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus was then said to become the conditioned response and the unconditioned response became the conditioned response. This process of learning was named classical conditioning by Pavlov because his dogs had been conditioned to associate two unrelated things together (Bates, 2016).

The behaviourist approach focuses around environmental factors of learning, which is backed up by how Watson stated: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select–doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. – John Watson, 1930 (Pierce, 2014).

John Watson also carried out research into behaviourism, however unlike Pavlov, Watson focused on how a child (Little Albert) could be conditioned to produce a response to a stimulus that was chosen and manipulated by him. This means his work could be considered more generalisable than Pavlov and some other behaviourists due to the fact that his participant was a human compared to using animal studies, however it was also criticised for being unethical. During the experiment Watson’s aim was to investigate whether he could create a phobia of an object, which means that he had to make the boy feel fear and be afraid, causing psychological harm. This ethical issue was planned to be rectified by attempting to “[show] the child the rat far away in the distance while the child felt very secure and slowly building up his tolerance for seeing the rat” (Cohen, 1979, p. 144). Watson was not able to do this because Albert was adopted by a new family in another state, meaning he could still have the fear and phobia of the rats.

Watson has assumed that an individual’s genetic and biological factors have no influence on learning, which is something that many other psychologists would disagree with. This is because, in terms of the nature-nurture debate that is held within psychology, behaviourism focuses too much on the nurture side. This is reminiscent of the humanist approach, which is known as the third force in psychology, and is based around individual human issues such as hope and self-actualization. The basic assumption for humanism is that effective learning takes place when an individual has an interest and relevance to what they are learning. It is very much based around learner-centred teaching: teacher as a facilitator, relevance to sense of self, friendly environment and teaching should be non-threatening and unforced. This type of teaching has been compared to many things, including a coach, a guide and a maestro, however the most accurate is the link between a teacher and a midwife. This is because the midwife gives the mother instructions, advice and support, with the mother taking the responsibility to master the skill (Weimer, 2013). Maslow created the prospect of the hierarchy of needs, which indicates the different factors an individual needs, and said that their response to learning differed depending on which need was the priority (Bates, 2016). The needs that he identified ranged from basic/physical (such as food, warmth, water, shelter) to self-actualisation (reaching your full potential).

Despite the fact that humanism is considered more ethical due to not using animal studies, it has been suggested that behaviourism is much easier to replicate and incorporate into learning in the classroom. For example, a learner-centred environment of the humanist approach is quite difficult for teachers to consistently follow; all pupils will have different needs within a classroom thus it would take a long time to be able to target and meet all of them individual. In addition, behaviourism can be applied as simply as using sticker charts as rewards within a classroom. This allows them to be rewarded for behaviour, and acts as a reinforcement for desirable behaviour to continue. On the other hand, exact replications of some of the studies within behaviourism such as Skinner’s, would not be possible now due to changes in ethics. The fact that behaviourism emphasises more scientific and objective methods of investigation within the many studies that have been carried out makes it easier to maintain the methods. Behaviourism also incorporates the idea of repetition, which is known to result in more effective learning. This importance of repetition derived from Watson: “The more frequent a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that habit will become.” (as cited in Pritchard, 2013, p.14).

Humanism has developed the focus of behaviour onto the individual and the whole person, rather than looking at the unconscious mind. In terms of psychological study, this would be considered a positive, however when considering the approach in a learning environment, it is more of a criticism. This is due to the fact that within a classroom, group work is actually much more common than individual work, and so using a behaviourist approach is much easier to do with group work than humanism which is all focused on the individuals.

As well as theories, learning can be impacted by various factors within neuroscience, one of these being neuroplasticity of the brain. Neuroplasticity is concerned with how the brain remodels itself based on experiences, where neurons, their networks and their functions change, due to experiencing new actions and involvement in different tasks. Within learning, this change is the development of neural pathways, which can be more effectively formed by learning in an authentic environment. There have been differing opinions and evidence to whether this is completely effective; Alessi (1988) argues that it does not lead to the maximum effectiveness of learners, even when used with maximum fidelity. On the other hand, some argue that it is in fact impossible to design environments that are fully authentic for learning, such as Barab, Squire and Dueber (2000) who stated that authenticity does not stem from “the learner, the task, nor the environment” but instead places it “in the dynamic interactions among these various components” (pp. 38).

An individual who is attempting to learn basketball is going to learn more effectively when practicing in the authentic environment of a basketball court compared to how they can simply learn rules and terminology within a classroom. Learning within this environment will allow the skills to develop more practically, allowing the brain to form the neural pathways that are required to remember this skill. To apply this into a classroom setting, an individual learning a maths equation is going to learn the information more effectively by repeatedly attempting questions involving the equation, than what they would if they were just looking at it.

There is also evidence that the emotion and feeling that an individual has while learning can change how effective it is. It has been said that if an individual has an initial bad feeling about an experience, they are likely to want less of it, compared to if they found pleasure in it then they would be likely to want more of it. (Jensen, 1995) For example, if a child leaves a classroom after a lesson where they were bored, they are less likely to want to go to the lesson again and learn that topic, whereas an individual who enjoyed the lesson is more likely to want to return.

The emotion of the individual, in terms of their feelings not related to the topic in a classroom, such as if they are stressed or worried about something external of education, there learning will also be affected. This is because when feeling threatened, the brain releases cortisol and adrenaline which change the way you think, feel and behave – making it very difficult to concentrate (TheLearningPod, 2010). It is thought that in order to learn effectively, humans need to learn to relax their nervous system because it will increase the brain’s ability to remember new information (Goldstein, 2016).

Motivation is a factor which affects individuals in most aspects of life, especially in regard to learning. According to Bates (2016), to be a successful teacher, one must understand that people will only learn if: they realise they need to, believe they have the potential, and can put it as a priority. Individuals all have different levels of motivation that affects the way they learn, therefore, to be effective, it is important to establish the optimal level of arousal for them. This is called arousal theory and was identified by Yerkes and Dodson; if an individual’s optimal level of arousal is not met, and there is too much, it will result in stress and discomfort. If there is not enough arousal, it will result in boredom. For example, a student with a relatively high arousal optimal level trying to complete a series of maths questions may become bored, because there is not much interactivity. This theory around motivation can also be linked to humanism due to the fact it talks about considering the individuals’ different arousals needs for motivation.

Not only are there different amounts of motivation that individuals need, there are also different types; these have been named as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is where an individual will do a certain activity or thing because they have an interest in it and will get personal gain from it, unlike extrinsic motivation where it can be influenced by external prods, pressures or rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is associated with humanism because they’re both based around the individual meeting their own needs and goals, however it can range with different activities. For example, an individual might have intrinsic motivation for a painting activity because they get joy from it and can see what they have achieved but might not have intrinsic motivation when it comes to writing a story. This is also where extrinsic motivation differs because an individual would not do it for the joy, they might do it to avoid a different outcome. For example, the same student previously mentioned may have extrinsic motivation to write the story because they do not want to get a detention from not doing the work. This type of motivation is more closely linked to behaviourism than humanism because the student would be negatively reinforced. Both types of motivation will have different effects on how an individual learns depending on which type they are associated with more strongly. Due to the curriculum, it is unlikely that there will be large amounts of intrinsic motivation because students have to participate in subjects and do exams in things that they might not always get a sense of satisfaction from.

To conclude, education and the effectiveness of learning is impacted by many different factors and theories. This essay concludes how behaviourism could be considered more realistically effective in assisting learning compared to humanism which has been proved to be more difficult to consistently apply in teaching. It is also obvious to conclude that neuroscience is a major factor in the way that individuals learn, and that in order to teach effectively it is important to consider the factors of the brain that have an impact. Each student’s motivation within a classroom will also affect the learning and teaching. This means that for an all-round effective learning environment there are many different factors which must be taken into consideration.

References

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2. Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (Foreword by Mayer, R. E.) (2010). How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
3. Barab, S. A., Squire, K. D., & Dueber, W. (2000). A co-evolutionary model for supporting the emergence of authenticity. Educational technology research and development, 48(2), 37-62.
4. Bates, B. (2016). Learning theories simplified: … and how to apply them to teaching. SAGE Publications LTD.
5. Cohen, D. (1979). J. B. Watson the founder of behaviourism: a biography. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
6. Goldstein, E. (2016, September 15). Relax your brain – you’ll learn more and be happier! [Web log post]. Retrieved from https://blogs.psychcentral.com/mindfulness/2016/09/relax-your-brain-youll-learn-more-and-be-happier/
7. Halo Neuroscience. (2019, February 8). The neuroscience of learning [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=_nWMP68DqHE
8. Jensen, E. (1995). The learning brain. San Diego, CA: The Brain Store.
9. Leisman, G., & Merrick, J. (2016). Neuroplasticity in learning and rehabilitation. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1226098&site=ehost-live
10. Pierce, K. A. (2014, February 4). Behaviourism: give me anyone, and I can make them into anything. Retrieved from https://sites.psu.edu/intropsychsp14n3/2014/02/04/behaviorism-give-me-anyone-and-i-can-make-them-into-anything/
11. Pritchard, A. (2013). Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (3rd ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
12. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
13. Salami, A. (2011). Neuroplasticity in the auditory brainstem: from physiology to the drug therapy. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=367206&site=ehost-live
14. TheLearningPod. (2010, April 16). The learning brain [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgLYkV689s4&feature=youtu.be
15. Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

The Post humanism is theory which focus on transgressing and erasing the hierarchical boundaries between the humans, animals , technology, machinery or organic or non organic (Vanska, 2018).This post humanism has found its way in today’s fashion world, and has led to massive transformations. But there are some fashion scholars and analysts who believes that post humanist fashion is not having socially stable or problem free relationship with the society and on the other hand, some leading fashion brands such as Gucci has argued that it is a Post human era and post humanism in fashion connects with the society and can communicate very important messages to the world. In this regard, the underlying report is aimed at incorporating various supportive and contradictory perspectives as well as analysis of visual material to reach a conclusive opinion.

The post humanism challenges the classical humanist anthropocentrism and its hierarchies and criticize that human is not the crown of creation. In simple words post humanism return the humans on midst of natural world or other species and argued that human nature is not center of this world (Vanska, 2018). This notion of post humanism has been innovatively utilized by modern day fashion brands but these attempts have been criticized by many fashion scholars. Here the argument of Edelkroot (2015) can be incorporated who has argued that post human fashion has never exhibited a socially stable or culturally adaptive or problem free relationship with the societal values (Edelkoort, 2015). This argument can be strengthened by some other studies that have argued that post humanism in fashion is destroying the compliance with social values and cultures and it is turning into the vulgar commerce where brands are focusing on branding themselves instead of well made clothes (Barnard, 2007; Lipovetsky, 1994).

In contrast to these fashion scholars who have argued against the post humanism in fashion, there are many fashion practitioners who have argued that post human fashion is related to the new societal values and is capable of making contribution to the growth of society and cultures by conveying useful messages. Here, example of Gucci can be taken into consideration. Gucci has gained substantial global attention by its most unique fashion show in the post human history. (Marriott, 2018)

Alessandro Michele has shared in an interview that Gucci has attempted to incorporate post humanism in fashion and has negated the identity politics and the concept that people have to fit within their predefined cultures. This brand and its representatives have negated the arguments of the previously discussed studies by Edelkoort, Barnard and Lipovetsky by arguing that post human fashion is all about making people accept their selves is a way to communicate with this society that it is important to look after ones’ head and thoughts as model is holding his head full of thoughts in his hand (Andrews, 2018). But according to some critics above mentioned image of a boy holding head in his hand is also conveying a sense of society of genderless people and all gender roles annihilated which is not consistent with any of the culture or society and it is clearly vulgar commerce has argued by writer Lipovetsky’s study (Andrews, 2018).

On the other hand, arguments of the Alessandro Michele can be backed by the scolars who have favored the post human fashion such as Vänskä (2014) who has argued that post humanism is a new and capturing approach to convey the useful messages to the world (Vänskä, 2014). But despite the explanation and justification of the brand and other writers, it is evident that Post humanism in fashion still lacks any alliance or problem free relationship with the culture and society.

The development of humanism has had arguably the greatest contributor to modern urban city development. Humanism established itself over a two-hundred-year period as a response to several monumental moments in human history, post modernity. Humanism can be sub-divided into the Humanist, Enlightenment and Capitalist phase respectively. These three phases developed separately yet interact incessantly. However, these phases do not necessarily work in tandem in a successful manner. It is important to understand and acknowledge transition periods and geomorphic particulars when discussing pre-modern societies. There developed a need for urban planning to adapt to human requirements as a result of the lack of mechanised forms or urban technologies, the absence of “design” or individuals with the relative ability to create functional plans and a sharp increase of in-ward migration to urban areas. However, “when it comes to generalising about the evaluation of urban planning in cities, it is important to consider the differences in the ideology, historical background and financial resources available to each individual city” (Parkinson and Bianchini, 1993).

King François I implemented the first ‘modern’ urban planning of a city in November 1539, in Paris. In doing this, he ordered the sweeping of streets in front of house and the prohibition of emptying refuse onto streets. It was planned that every day Parisians “would take away the barrel containing all the households refuse and excrement and replace it with the previous day’s bin, well washed” (Allen and Corbin, 1987). Following this, the construction of cesspools in all houses was proposed. As a result of the privatization of waste, strict designated areas were developed to cater for the high levels of excrement. The aim of this was to eradicate the odours in public spaces. Despite not being contextualized nor legalized, these ‘rules’ were of major significance as they act as the first evidence of hygiene consideration in modern cities.

Ensuing the ground breaking work developed by his predecessor, King Henry IV issued the “Eclict of Nantes” which allowed French people to practice the religion in which the wish to declare. This was significant, as it unified the nation while simultaneously making France an exceptionally attractive place to live. This could potentially be seen as the invention of urban planning as it changed the idea of a city to a possible entity which could be planned and designed around the needs of the people in which live therein, or the ‘declaration of human agency’. The final significant stride towards humanism, was seen during the development of the Pont Neuf in 1578. This was the first bridge to serve as a mono-functional space’ while also being the foremost bridge designed in Paris without housing units. The significance of this bridge is that it was the initial building in France to be financed through public taxation as a result, thus developed the notion of public citizens paying for public buildings. Despite this being the norm currently and seeming like obvious construct, this paved the way for the development of cities, roads and buildings worldwide. Furthermore, from the Pont Neuf, the French hierarchy introduced a commissioner for public works in 1595 in addition to the founding of the “Ecoles des Ponts st chausses” in 1747, which is the first civil engineering school on record signifying that with knowledge comes power.

The development of open spaces such as gardens and squares became increasingly valued commodities in urban areas. Buildings in Paris were criticised for their inability to optimize sunlight in addition to their foul smells. Local authorities wanted to make use of open spaces and gardens to utilise sunlight in the region while simultaneously introducing cleaner air and designated spaces in which locals could experience natural environments despite being resident in a large metropolitan area. These public gardens were distributed throughout the city to ensure Parisians were given opportunity to inhale clean air regularly. However, the discovery of bacteria eliminated the imperative to create uninform facades, architects attempted to perfect hygienic modern street designs which cumulated in Le Corbusier’s radically anti-urban solution, a so called ‘city within a park’ (Etlin, 1996). A Royal Declaration of 1783 established regulations which promised to provide fresh and renewed air to the lower floors of buildings and to the people in the street itself (Etlin, 1996).

Humanism subsequently developed into an ethical stance that emphasizes the value of human beings and “will be the first notion of ‘modern planning’ to leave a lasting trace” (Toulmin ,1990).

As Literature is a part of man’s social and aesthetic experience, it always shows concern for humanism in its multiple forms. Different writers express humanistic thoughts in their works on the basis of their understanding and experience. Their understanding of humanism finds expression in their writings in different forms. The term humanism found various modifications and transformations since the time of its inception. Different socio-cultural, political and philosophical developments have affected this change.

Today, when much is talked about globalization and liberalization, it is very much necessary to understand different cultures, ideologies, traditions and trends all over the world. After the two World Wars in 20th century, the world became aware of the devastations, cruelty and its effects on the human beings. Man started realizing his mistakes and the urgent need of correcting the world. By making use of his intellect, man is enjoying comforts, and luxuries created by the scientific advancements on the one hand, and on the other hand, the same scientific advancements are taking the whole world towards its horrifying end. Human being needed to be treated as human beings. Such type of need has always been there from the ancient times, but it was seriously felt on the background of the two World Wars in 20th century.

Due to the industrial revolution, the human life has undergone tremendous changes. Luxuries and comforts created by the machine age affected man on the larger scale. Modern advancements made the world smaller for man. Similarly men also become small, selfish and self-centered. Literature being the mirror of the society reflected this entire changing panorama. Human concern became the focus in the writing of 20th century.

The present paper is an attempt to explore the nature of humanistic concerns in the select post-war novels. The relationship between literature and philosophy cannot be denied. Basically philosophy is meant for better understanding of the human life and literature also has the same end. Most of the novelists try to glorify man as the crown of creation. It seems that they believe, “Only Religion is the Religion of man in which the infinite is defined in humanity” (Tagore, 1963: 83). They believe that if the Divine is real, it must be human. Humanity, for them, is a necessary factor in perfecting the divine truth. Their concept of religion and God is also based on broad humanism.

Humanism is a way of viewing things by relating them to man’s concerns. It centers round man and asserts that the capacities, the character and the qualities of man have to be given fullest expression. Humanism means love of man. It means bringing co-ordination and harmony in human life. It is the fight between the human nature and animal nature that is between ideals and facts. Humanism emphasizes always the dignity of man. . A man’s ideals, values and behavior are determined by his sense of humanism. Without certain element of humanism, neither personal relationships nor cultural growth is possible. Thus, humanism is the most important factor in the formation and cultural development of community.

In the West, the loss of faith has led to a predominance of materialism in human affairs. This trend is spreading fast. The advanced civilizations are looking towards something that will give peace. In such a situation humane consideration are not only relevant, but also necessary. Societies always remain divided on racial, communal and linguistic lines. Internationalization of politics, human rights, and the promotion of human values as the panacea for social maladies has radically changed the thinking of the newly literate masses. So, the novelists after Two World wars have expressed their vision to bring about harmony in a society uphold the values of non-violence and seek to build up social balance in their novels. On the background of World War II, humanism is reflected in literature.

So we will take a review of the humanism expressed in select post war English novels. Lessing and Wilson come from Britain, Buck comes from America (and even represents China), Alan Paton comes from South Africa, Khushawant Singh comes from India. Thus the selection of the novels represents the global canvas. The novels also represent the major cultures of the world. The writers selected here enjoy the world recognition. The carefully selected novels A Passage to India, Pavilion of Women, Cry, the Beloved Country, Hemlock and After, The Golden Notebook and Train to Pakistan are the representative novels of the respective authors.

Angus Wilson has presented ample liberal humanist values in his Hemlock and After through his hero Bernard Sands, a successful writer and self-declared anarchic humanist. Bernard Sands is the artistic humanist temperament. Bernard Sands is one of those who hates the forces of power, whether capitalism or State tyranny and finds their solution in man’s own natural goodness. His characters are happy in making their relationships with other human beings in a humanistic way. They are always willing to accept some sort of pleasure principle in life. The comprehensive study of the novel reveals him essentially as a humanist – an agnostic humanist as he thinks that man is the essential centre of the world as we understand it. In the novel he is satirical about his many characters but ultimately he is on the side of liberalism. In Hemlock and After he has shown an accurate understanding of English society and a sympathetic sense of the problems of the modern humanist. Although, in Hemlock and After Wilson uses all his intelligence to find new ways of satisfying conduct for the humanist, he often suggests that true humanism is dying, its representativeness growing old and being replaced by a younger generation, whose values he deplores.

Pearl S. Buck’s Pavilion of Women’ analyses the novel in the light of religious humanism. Her humanism is a fusion of classical wisdom and Christian faith. Buck’s faith keeps Madam Wu in touch with God and prevents her from succumbing to her lower nature. Pavilion of Women focuses upon Madam Wu, aspiring to the higher realm of divinity, staying free from the bestial level by imposing ethical control upon her wild impulses. She recognizes her position she occupies in the scheme of nature after her encounter with Brother Andre, a Christian priest. Buck believes that successful relationships are built by respecting others and by paying proper attention to the people around. She also believes that one should pursue his/her ‘Way of religion’ for the welfare of mankind. Pearl Buck’s idea of religion is all-inclusive and human. It defines her humanist convictions. She believes that love is the force that transforms and improves men. Love and humanity makes man to forget himself.

According to Pearl Buck want of sympathy, love; understanding and consideration are the basic tenets of humanism. The novel reveals Pearl Buck a great votary of human uplift and emancipation. She loved and served man because she accepted the reality of a true super Spirit. As a humanist, she cherishes man’s ideals and aspirations because man is the replica of the Divine Spirit. In the novel Divinity itself acquires a new meaning. If the Divine is real, it must be human. Humanism is a necessary factor in perfecting the Divine truth.

Alan Paton’s Cry, the Beloved Country’ is the best example of Philosophical humanism. As a humanist Alan Paton emphasizes the dignity of man and his perfectibility, human dignity, individual freedom and social justice. The novel shows that welfare of man is his central concern. The novel made Paton a leading philosophical humanist in South Africa on corrective institutions. Paton tried to promote brotherhood through his own version of humanism. In the novel he talks of the “sense of duty” and his commitment to a sense of social responsibility and a pursuit of those oppressed by society. Through Jarvis and Kumalo, the novelist brings out to the fore of the human value, inherent in a very sad and serious human situation. Mr. Jarvis and Kumalo are the children of the light, surrounded by personal and national tragedy. They never fail to inspire us with their courage and service to humanity. In their fight with adverse fate, they bleed, but their heads are unbowed. Through these characters Paton suggests that there are good man to rebuild society in terms of justice, equality and generosity. It clearly shows that Paton is one of those novelists who stand with the unfortunates. His example of individual conscience, Rev. Stephen Kumalo, has become a character that we mentally lift from the novel and incorporate into our own lives as a reference point of humanism.

Now let us see Khushwant Singh’s Train to Pakistan in the context of humanism. In the novel Khushwant Singh goes deeper and deeper in ethical humanism. It shows how human love, compassion and brotherhood can assuage the wounds caused by man’s hatred for his fellow men in times of great divides. Khushwant Singh’s Train to Pakistan is one of the finest humanistic novels to emerge out of the trauma of partition. It examines with clinical intensity the harsh facts of inhuman bestialities of life and shows how human love can transcend all man-made barriers and boundaries to confront and overcome such catastrophe. Khushwant Singh attacks the narrow concept of religion and upholds the values of human life such as love, affection and brotherhood. Singh emphasizes human dignity, individual freedom, social justice and cultural values. This defines his humanistic bent of mind. Khushwant Singh’s Train to Pakistan is an epoch-making novel which describes not only the terror and tumult at the time of partition of the country, but also lays stress on the values dear to human beings. These values come into focus in Jugga’s final act of sacrifice. .Jugga’s struggle and ultimate death to save the train is truly noble act of humanism. In doing so Jugga’s authentic or real self grasps the transcendent reality. This gives a decisive meaning to his life and destiny.

According to Radhakamal Mukerjee, transcendence … pins man’s faith to cosmic goodness, love and reverence. Jugga’s act of self-sacrifice and humanism is his own choice and not imposed by anyone. His enlightened self-interest can be said to have his inspiration for moral human behaviour. Jugga’s struggle and ultimate death to save the train is truly noble act of humanism.

The study of The Golden Notebook reveals that the relationship between a humanist and a novelist is very close. As a modern humanist she believes in naturalistic philosophy. She rejects all supernaturalism. She relies primarily upon reason. In The Golden Notebook Lessing’s ‘free women’, Anna and Molly decide for themselves ‘their human needs’ and ‘design their lifestyles’ in accordance with their wishes. They are “free women”, they both “live the same kind of life- not getting married” (5). They are “a completely new type of women” (Ibid), and refuse the traditions as Anna says, “they still define us in terms of relationship with men” (Ibid). They are able to live “free” of men and marriage. The Golden Notebook reflects upon the innate goodness of human beings. The great ethical problem of Lessing’s humanism is how to get rid of the boredom, tedium and meaninglessness of life and the consequent tension and anxiety in modern advanced cultures. In The Golden Notebook Lessing suggests certain strategies for the betterment of the individuals and the universe with humanistic outlook.

To conclude, the study reveals that each civilization has developed a humanism characterized by the human person, values and social milieu. Each has nourished a characteristic historical pattern of truths, values and myths, embodying the human person’s and society’s integration with mankind and cosmos as a whole. All the writers of the present study believe that true humanism rests on the moral and spiritual communion of man with fellow-man. Their humanism seeks to rehabilitate man through basing his moral decisions and standards on the foundations of love and reverence rather than those of reciprocity, prudence and equity. They believe that true reverence for life and cosmos is the unfading, perennial flower of humanism.

References

1. Buck, Pearl, S. Pavilion of Women. New York. 1946.
2. Forster, E. M. A Passage to India England: Penguin Group. 1924.
3. Paton, Alan. Cry, The Beloved Country New York : Macmillan. 1948.
4. Lessing, Doris. The Golden Notebook. London: Flamingo, 1993.
5. Singh, Khushwant. Train to Pakistan. New Delhi: Times Books Internatonal.1981.
6. Wilson, Angus. Hemlock and After. London: Faber and Faber. 1979. Bandiste, D. D. Humanist Thought in Contemporary India. Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation. 1999.
7. Davis, Tony. Humanism. London: Routledge.1997.
8. Deshpande, H. V. Literature and Literary Criticism: Indian and Western Perspectives. Jaypur : Shruti Publications. 2006.
9. Faulkner, Peter. Humanism in English Novel. London: Pemberton. 1975.
10. Tagore, Rabindranath. The Religion of Man. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1963.

The Renaissance was the era, where it undergoes a change in human perception. The change was identified from a new philosophy, which involved the rise of humanism, individualism, and secularism. As philosopher focused on humanism, they concentrated on the idea where humans were significant to the world. The human right was one of the important topics which occurred in the Renaissance as it was the time when people started to change their thoughts on humanism. The human right has always been an issue from the beginning. Many influencers and philosophers have fought for or fought against it. It might not be really the case. It affected many aspects of human right; which over time became a big deal which includes religion, education, and civil rights. (An indication of your eventual conclusion)

Humanism has played a major role in education, during the Renaissance. It allowed many individuals to be a part of a dramatic change in education. There were many limitations involved when it came to education for society. Renaissance movement was an important movement which took place in Italy during the fourteenth century. Renaissance Humanism can be defined for the movement for literary and scholarly. Before Humanism came into movement there were scholars who studied classical antiquity in Ancient Greek and Rome. The researcher had considered studying culture had surpassed the contribution to renaissance, which led to the invention to the printing press created by Gutenberg.

The movement to Humanism was very significant as the movement was known as intellectual. The movement created a combination of philosophy, sciences, art, religion and political thoughts. It also created the establishment of secondary education. It was divided into two knows for Italian and northern humanism. In Northern Humanism, education was very limited to the population in society. School during that century gave education priority to the boys and not the girls. Society had viewed boys has the future student for university and individual from the upper class. This explains the gender inequality which occurs during the Renaissance. Girls were not given the chance to show what they can do. They expected the women to stay home, clean, learn to cook and take care of the children. It was not until World War I, which changed the system allowing both boys and girl to be educated. It also created an environment which allowed women to work and help around in the community. The education system did not change Understanding humanism and Humanities after the Renaissance to be a crisis, which can be known for dark ages from early middle ages period. Looking into the present today, there is no such thing as gender inequity as the world is changing as time goes by. Women are allowed to work, be educated, and have a professional occupation. Both men and women are given the right without gender bias.

Civil Rights allows an individual to practice their beliefs and creates an environment where an individual allowed to express his deliberation. During the Twentieth Century humanity was attacked in many ways. Many philosophers fought for the right for civilization in society. The influence of the Enlightenment, allowed many citizens to protest against the development, which created the French Revolution. In the year of 1789, the national assembly was passed creating the “Declaration of the rights of Man and the citizen.” It played a majority role in humanism as it created a list of right for the citizen, such as Freedom of speech, Freedom of assembly and separation. Its development into the renaissance it revolves more into the modern age. Before the Declaration of the rights of Man and the citizen was generated, they had to follow specific rules, such as what they can speak, vote, and or participate in specific activities. Martin Luther King Jr. also made a movement in social justice, liberation and civil right. M.L. King Jr. fought for the equal right for the black as the white. He states “Christians should be taught that one who gives to the poor or lends to the needy, does a better action than if he purchases an indulgence,” this statement has a strong explanation where he mentions if everyone was treated right, it would have made them a bigger person.

Philosopher Marquis de Condorcet and Kersaint, who also tried helping the society friends of black. Both of their goals were to restore the political right to the blacks and eliminate slavery. Philosopher Kersaint discusses the national assembly, where the first right indicates “Men are born and remain free and equal in right. Social Distinction may be based only on common utility.” This statement speaks a lot with just a few words. It signifies every individual has the right to participate in society, no matter his color or religion. It took a while before civil rights were given to the citizen, they had been through a lot and suffered. After civil right came in place not only it helped the citizen, it allowed them to express their political thoughts. The situation the society has to have for civil rights was horrifying and significant as it provided a background knowledge to us today explaining what they had to do. Today, we have freedom of speech, freedom of expression, Right to Public Assembly, and many more. Even though we have all these rights, many citizens will say we do not have full freedom to speak as we still have to be careful about what we can say and what can we not say. We are in a world where we don’t discriminate by color or religion, we are not able to speak for every individual as we are different people. Human rights have changed dramatically from Renaissance to present, but there is still a lot to go.

Renaissance was the Era where it played a major role in religion. It created barriers for many citizens, depending on their beliefs. Religion has been impacted mainly when it comes to humanism. During the renaissance religion had significantly changed, some of the citizens had stayed Catholic, while some became protested. While, if you refer back to the early modern age, the Catholic church remains as a dominant leader. During this time, they controlled the citizen lives on what their belief is and what they can and cannot practice. During the Renaissance, Martin Luther King Jr. came up with 95 theses where he explains the reformation and shut down the Catholic church. “God never remits guilt to anyone without, at the same time, making him humbly submissive to the priest, His representative.” This statement explains how God will always show you the correct path, even if you have done wrong. The belief in God should be strong, to see the right way shown by him. Humanism played a role in creating a reformation for religious debates and issues. Religion has also made an impact with the ladder of intellect as if would describe each process of the step. The highest level would indicate you are the high leader, which represent god and the lowest level, indicating hell (devil). In the present today, we have human right which allows to practice our belief without having any issue or being stopped by any individual. Every citizen respects one another culture and belief, showing how much humanism affected us from the past to the present.

Humanism has been a big aspect to renaissance, which created the human right to be effective during the past and present. Education, Civil Rights, and Religion were the main points when it came to human rights. Education has been one of the main aspects of the human right as there were many barriers for many individuals. Many citizens did not get the opportunity to be educated as some school get gender biased. Likewise, Civil right also came in a play where citizen did not get the right to practice their belief or be allowed to express their political thoughts. Religion was another issue, which was rise as not many were able to practice their belief and many issues occurred. Many philosophers focused on the issue and fought for or against to make it possible.

Works Cited

1. Taylor, Tanya. “Hunt – The French Revolution & Human Rights (chronology & sources.” AP/HUMA 1170M – The Modern Age: Shapers and Definers (Winter 2017-2018), York University, April 3, 2019, https://moodle.yorku.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/3671220/mod_resource/content/1/1170%20Hunt%20
2. KRISTELLER, P. (1978). HUMANISM. Minerva, 16(4), 586-595. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41820353
3. Schweiker, W. (2004). THE ETHICS OF RESPONSIBILITY AND THE QUESTION OF HUMANISM. Literature and Theology, 18(3), 251-270. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23926050
4. Taylor, Tanya. “Luther – ’95 Theses’File.” AP/HUMA 1170M – The Modern Age: Shapers and Definers (Winter 2017-2018), York University, April 3, 2019, https://moodle.yorku.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/3700567/mod_resource/content/1/Luther%20-%2095%20Theses.pdf
5. Taylor, Tanya. “Kant – What is Enlightenment?.” AP/HUMA 1170M – The Modern Age: Shapers and Definers (Winter 2017-2018), York University, April 3, 2019, https://moodle.yorku.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/3671211/mod_resource/content/1/1170%20Kant%20-%20What%20is%20Enlightenment%3F.pdf
6. Taylor, Tanya. “LECTURE SLIDES – An Introduction to the Renaissance or Early Modern Period.” AP/HUMA 1170M – The Modern Age: Shapers and Definers (Winter 2017-2018), York University, 3rd April 2019, https://moodle.yorku.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/3766229/mod_resource/content/1/HUMA%201170%20-%20Introduction%20to%20The%20Renaissance.pdf

Introduction.

Zambian humanism, a socialist ideology, was developed by Kenneth Kaunda, an independent Zambia`s first president. It was made the national philosophy and ideology of Zambia in April 1967. The ideology was composed of a combination of many elements which did not always fit together into an organic whole. Among them include African traditions, socialism, radical Christianity, existential humanism, and Kaunda`s personal convictions (Kaunda,1966). Kaunda`s motivation for proposing this ideology appears to have been the desire to break free from the colonial past and to create a national identity centered on values that he considered true to the African heritage and to his Christian background. Zambian humanism, as an ideology applied to all spheres of public life during Kaunda`s reign as president. Kaunda intended it to provide the moral basis for all human activity in the country, political, economic, and social. In a sense, the ideology was meant to be the social cement that held together and inspired the nation. The ideology failed in economic terms. As a country, Zambia experienced several economic difficulties beginning from the mid-1970s which humanism failed to adequately address. By the mid-1980s the country was worse off economically than it had been at the time of independence. The causes of this economic downturn are complex and debatable. This dissertation critically examines Kaunda`s ideology. This paper will examine on the successes and failures of Kenneth Kaunda’s ideology of humanism in Zambia.

Definition of key terms

Humanism is the national philosophy of Zambia. It is the basis of all the policies and programs of the Party and Government. All the development effort in Zambia is based on Humanism It is a way that emphasizes the importance of man as the center of all activity.

Ideology- is a system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy (Webster dictionary).

The success of humanism in Zambia.

This ideology was eventually declared Zambian national ideology and philosophy in 1967. The choice of this ideology was based on the fact that Africa had always contained much indigenous socialism which the colonialists had tried to destroy, and so Zambian humanism was an attempt to rescue pre-colonial values and traditions and to use these as the basis on which to build the modern state. Like every other humanism, it set out to create a society that places the human person at the center of all activity, social, economic, and political. Describing Zambian Humanism, Kaunda (2007) wrote, Zambian Humanism came from our own appreciation and understanding of our society. Zambian Humanism believes in God the Supreme Being. It believes that loving God with all our souls, all our hearts, and all our minds and strength, will make us appreciate the human being created in God`s image. If we love our neighbors as we love ourselves, we will not exploit them but work together with them for the common good.

Zambian Humanism provided the moral basis for all human activity in the country whether it be political, economic or social. The philosophy is the social cement that holds together and inspires the young and varied nation that is Zambia (Mwanlimu,2009). Zambian Humanism was not like that shirt or that dress or that dress that we wear for special occasions. To understand what Humanism is about, we must first understand the political background against which it was declared as Zambia’s national philosophy. The forces which brought the people of Zambia together to fight for independence were a direct result of years of colonial oppression–a system of government that denied Zambians all rights and privileges of man.

Humanism established the development of the humanist society, Kaunda (1972) condemned laziness and called on conscientious workers to consider the interests of other fellow workers and members of society in general and the harm done to them through irresponsible behavior such as laziness, drunkenness at work, or illegal strikes which can bring development to a grinding halt. This day, therefore, provides the workers with an important opportunity to ponder over the real significance of work in our lives, the very high place which work occupies in the life of our Nation. No man, no nation can exist without work. All growth depends on the activity on work. Even animals have to work to obtain food. In our environment, there can be no development, no progress, physical or intellectual, without effort. Effort means work. So work is not a curse; indeed, among human beings, it is the most cardinal of the means to manhood and a key factor in the development of our civilization. The defense of our liberty, freedom, and independence means work. The furtherance of the aims of freedom and independence, the realization of our economic, social, and cultural goals, demands hard work. The greatest asset of any nation is the spirit of its people, its working force; and the greatest danger than can menace any nation is the breakdown of that spirit the will to work, the will to succeed and the courage and determination to work relentlessly towards greater victories.

lkeda,(2005) stated that humanism promoted gender equality among women. The gendered nature of sexual citizenship becomes immediately clear in the section on love and sex. The section first addressed the topic of the position of women, recognizing the rights of women and stating that one of the tasks of the moral revolution is to eliminate cruelty to women. The suggestion here is that women are full citizens. The apparent concern about gender inequality is, however, directly undermined in the next paragraph. Here it is argued that when it comes to soliciting for love, a woman shall at all times wait until she is loved or approached by a man to engage her in a decent love affair ( Bureau 2000). This argument is made with reference to the Zambian traditional customs and indeed the African customs in general (ibid) which would not allow women to take initiative in love-making. The patriarchal view of love-making that is reflected here and supported with a reference to so-called Zambian and African traditions fits in one of the strategies distinguished by Ndjio of the decentralization and racialization of African sexuality through which sexuality in postcolonial African contexts has been made a site where the myth about African cultural unity is enacted (Ndjio 2013).

These criticisms notwithstanding, Kaunda represents a figure among the people of Zambia that cannot be forgotten too soon; although not totally because of his contribution as a philosopher but as one courageous leader who actively participated in the independence struggle and first president of their great nation.

David (1996) suggests the success of humanism in Zambia provided the workers with an important opportunity to ponder over the real significance of work in our lives, the very high place which work occupies in the life of our Nation. No man, no nation can exist without work. All growth depends on the activity on work. Even animals have to work to obtain food. In our environment, there can be no development, no progress, physical or intellectual, without effort. Effort means work. So work is not a curse; indeed, among human beings, it is the most cardinal of the means to manhood and a key factor in the development of our civilization. The defense of our liberty, freedom, and independence means work. The furtherance of the aims of freedom and independence, the realization of our economic, social, and cultural goals, demands hard work. The greatest asset of any nation is the spirit of its people, its working force; and the greatest danger than can menace any nation is the breakdown of that spirit the will to work, the will to succeed and the courage and determination to work relentlessly towards greater victories.

The ideology of humanism was successful in the educational system in Zambia. Because of this, the Zambian government had to invest heavily in education at all levels. Kaunda instituted a policy where all children, irrespective of their parent’s ability to pay, were given free exercise books, pens, and pencils. The parents’ main responsibility was to buy uniforms, pay a token ‘school fee’ and ensure that the children attended school. This approach meant that the best pupils were promoted to achieve their best results, all the way from primary school to university level. Not every child could go to secondary school, for example, but those who did were well educated (lkeda, 2005).

The failure of humanism in Zambia

Humanism failed at the level of implementation, especially in economic terms, the ideology as such played a significant role in the history of post-independence Zambia which should not be overlooked. To appreciate fully why Zambian humanism was introduced and adopted as the national ideology it is necessary to recall the social, economic, and political background against which this was done. The experience of colonialism suffered by Kaunda and his contemporaries and the challenge of building a modern nation-state that had experienced the negative effects of colonialism are two key factors that should not be overlooked in understanding Zambian humanism (Kaunda,1972). Zambian humanism, this thesis argues, is a postcolonial discourse whose aim was to break with the colonial past and to create an African identity. It was not a unique experiment as can be seen in fields such as philosophy and theology of the era. Nyerere`s Ujamaa socialism is closely related, yet not identical to Zambian humanism. What Kaunda and his contemporaries set out to do in proposing a different worldview from the dominant Western worldview must be interpreted theologically to see how and if it accords with Classical Theology`s understanding of the Christian God`s interaction with human beings. Their intention was not only the deconstruction and rejection of the colonial and therefore dominant Western discourse, but also an attempt to construct an African discourse capable of giving meaning to African existence and society. Such an ambitious undertaking certainly calls for theological consideration.

Kaunda`s national ideology and subsequent national culture were hindered by binary terms that failed to represent Zambia`s complex identity. By polarizing his citizens and political ideals into categories such as Zambian and British, black and white, and western and non-western, Kaunda over-simplified Zambia`s complex culture. He emphasized the traditional, communal, and arguably pre-colonial demographics of society while ignoring the modern, post-colonial complexities that accounted for Zambia`s very existence (Hall, 1969). Ironically, it was those who identified with the traditional ideals (primarily rural peasants) whose livelihood often suffered at the whim of those who embraced more modern identities. Kaunda`s inability to achieve an egalitarian society in Zambia exacerbated the political, economic, and social stakes conflated with these binary constructs, and the ambiguous, ill-fitted homogenous culture he attempted to construct fell apart at the seams.

According to Mwangala (2009), the humanism of Zambia failed in economic terms. As a country, Zambia experienced several economic difficulties beginning from the mid-1970s which humanism failed to adequately address. By the mid-1980s the country was worse off economically than it had been at the time of independence. The reasons are very obvious: Kaunda`s humanism, which was a form of socialism, was strongly opposed to capitalism as an economic system. It assessed negatively the profit motivation of capitalism. According to Kaunda`s humanism, capitalism encourages the exploitation of human beings. In line with the new socialism, a number of private industries were nationalized, and the government became the main distributor of the wealth generated by the manufacturing industries. Secondly, Kaunda argued that he could not bear to see his people suffering, and so he was willing to forego sound economic policies simply because they caused suffering. For example, in the mid-1980s Kaunda refused to follow the IMF Structural Adjustment Programme which advocated the removal of food subsidies because of the hardships this would have created for the poor.

Guest (2004) noted humanism ideology failed in the educational system and became poor because the government lost a lot of money in the education system. Because of this, Zambia had to invest heavily in education at all levels. Kaunda instituted a policy where all children, irrespective of their parent’s ability to pay, were given free exercise books, pens, and pencils. The parents’ main responsibility was to buy uniforms, pay a token ‘school fee’ and ensure that the children attended school. This approach meant that the best pupils were promoted to achieve their best results, all the way from primary school to university level. Not every child could go to secondary school, for example, but those who did were well educated. This made the education system in Zambia to become poor during humanism.

humanism ideology failed because economic bankruptcy, political bias, religious discrimination, abject poverty and moral decadence, and even illiteracy were and are still very much visible in Zambia. What about the massacre of the members of the Lumpa Church? It was a complete negation of his nonviolence theory. The violence of the time as a result of his increasing intolerance of opposition, the eventual banning of all parties except his own UNIP, and his clinging to power until he was forced out of office in 1991 seem to confirm Frantz`s observation that many of those who were colonized envied the power enjoyed by the colonial masters and thus wanted to be like them (Mwanlimu,2009).

Conclusion

To what extent did Zambian humanism work? It looked so beautiful and promising, but its implementation proved very difficult. This could be attributed to the fact that Zambia is the first known country that has officially adopted humanism as the national philosophy and has actively attempted to implement it. Thus during translation from theory to praxis, there was no place to look on to. As an ideology, it was never strongly rooted among the Zambians. The government officials paid mere lip service without deep and genuine conviction that Zambian Humanism was useful in the nation-building effort.

Reference

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