Category: Human Rights

Among many civil conflicts in Africa, Sudan is the one that has witnessed the longest history of civil war (1983-2010). Shaped by millions of unsheltered and starving civilians, this civil war has now been a flashback on the global platform, since Africa is located in the oil-rich region. This paper aims to address the main issues for why despite the end of the formal conflict in Sudan; global human rights actors have remained unable to stop the war-like patterns. Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that Sudan has been the platform of war not only for the human activists, but also for the political entities. Those entities that have been sustained in this region by many of the major local and global actors include the state institutions, UN agencies, and international NGOs.

Civilian Displacement

Pham (2008) suggests The Darfur tragedy characterized by the United Nations as the worlds worst humanitarian crisis is contemporary the best example to demonstrate endless series of internal conflicts (Pham, 2008). Such crisis that demonstrates war-like agenda is the issue of civilian displacement. Analysis should be done in context with human rights sovereignty because brutal civil conflict has continued to internally displace large numbers of citizens, particularly in South. The issue to be addressed points towards the dilemma that has neither let the refugees cross an international border as international protection has not been granted to them, nor have classified to be called them as refugees. This has caused civilians to the risk and has raised the issue of human security. With more than 25 million internally displaced civilians and human rights abuses, it is a matter of international concern to solve the conflict between national sovereignty and protection of the basic human rights (Mayotte, 1994).

Human rights perspective questions about the breakdown of civil administration that led from the spread of famine abuse and disease to the situation where all the village medical centers and rural dispensaries had been abandoned. Certain aspects of these communities have long shown a disregard for human rights, equity considerations, and the environment. In addition, the social order, including the socio-cultural dimension, was in the process of change before displacement (Tigani & Eltigani, 1995, p. 45). One cannot put the onus of such disregard onto the shoulders of UN human rights agencies. A long-running civil war that has only produced a backlash of the humanitarian crisis demands socioeconomic and socio-cultural causes to be analyzed. This civil war has been the reaction of the stereotypes that consider Christian against Muslim, African against Arab, and democrat against fundamentalist (El-Affendi, 2001).

Religious Activism

Another reason for unending war-like circumstances is the constant spread of religious activists. Under stereotypical supervision, Sudanese activists have escorted the proponents of Islamization to mold laws according to religion and politics in context with an important achievement. Nonetheless, the laws only created new complexities and raised new questions, among which the second civil war appeared as an answer in the south (Sidahmed & Sidahmed, 2004, p. 52). At the legal level, UN humanitarian agencies suffered from such an experiment that raised the issues of human rights violations and administration of justice under religiously inspired laws. Thus, at this stage, human rights NGOs experienced the drive under religion and analyzed it not only in the paradigm of legal or societal arenas, but also as implementation of an ideology that was responsible for legitimization discourse. In this regard, NIF (National Islamic Front) has played positive role to the extent that it has put to regard and accepted all attacks on behalf of the domestic as well as international opposition. This has granted Sudans Islamic orientation, some freedom to confront the challenges by the outside world, and has motivated religious activists to demonstrate their hatred openly for the so-called Islamic model being built in Sudan. Of course, the pressure has not been built solely because of the regimes military nature, but for the various human rights abuses Sudan has witnessed all these years.

Political Conflict

All the way from hunger and devastation to diplomatic military assistance as foreign aid, politics has remained and been used as a weapon. This suggests that every international actor apart from the human rights agencies has wanted to have a lions share in war. Therefore, in the name of war, the first half of the 1990s have witnessed adverse humanitarian situations, escorted by a number of efforts put by international humanitarian agencies to put an end to the war. Benefits have been granted to international NGOs in context with humanitarian assets and properties. This was also applied to violent encounters resulting in casualties among refugees and locally employed staff (Riehl, 2001, p. 9). Riehl (2001, p. 9) suggests formal agreements were made keeping in view the principles of relief work and the rules and regulations as necessary to ensure the continuity of the aid flow and its unhampered organization and distribution. With the end of the decade, strategic military adopted diplomatic attitude towards humanitarian agencies and consider the situation as normal to run managerial activities of NGOs. The reason for stating Sudans political condition as normal was the demand for administration fees and revenues. On the other hand, international NGOs were never prepared to pay any charges, as NGO activities were based on building rehabilitation and development activities for the refugees who already lost faith in humanitarian agencies.

Political Harassment over Oil

In addition, the politically harassed Sudan has been accused of supporting terrorism and producing more serious human rights problems to its neighbors. Politically, Sudans condition has remained vulnerable for it has only taken interest in world affairs on a peripheral basis, where it has acted remotely to most countries while participating little in recent international events. For instance when Europe confronted the Cold War, Sudan never opted any strategic policies or values, and remain undeveloped and seemingly poor in resources. However, due to its presence in rich oil regions, it was never overlooked by Western European countries. Similarly the Soviet Union sought to gain influence over the new state, and kept an eye on Sudan as its gateway to Africa (OBallance, 2000, p. 2). Thus, among other political actors who tried to export communism, besides USSR was Belgium, Britain and France who hoped that Sudan would keep its gates firmly shut against the Soviets. On the other hand was the Arab League, who expected too much from this poor country. To stand as the extensive eastern defensive supporter of the Arabic-speaking block against Israel, was a difficult task for Sudan, which somehow she managed to fulfill. This clearly suggests that foreign relations were never been prioritized by the political leaders and the choices and policy decisions they developed were created by their own ideological motivation, which might be the result of historical alliances or power considerations. Whatever be the motivation factor behind such policies, it was clear that such steps were taken as a response to domestic priorities and pressures, which aided the conquest of oil, economic aid, arms supply, and the demands of the regional power holders.

While analyzing Sudans troubled relations with its neighboring countries, Egypt is the foremost. Since the conflict between the two exists historically, both countries accuse each other of terrorists in the name of jehad. However, with the new discovery of oil, Sudan was granted enough means and a stronger motive to assault neighboring countries who used to be enemies in the past (Dupraz, 2002). Dupraz (2002) suggests that since 200,000 barrels of oil is produced each day, this caused the Khartoum government to evacuate the Southerners as part of their diplomatic policy was to clear the ground for oil, in order to give advantage to foreign companies.

After the failure of the ten-year comprehensive strategy to reshape the country in the name of Islamic call, a new plan was implemented. This plan normalized the religious and cultural aspect, but after years of implementation, the Sudanese Strategic Report discovered some unspecified targets formed by the ministry. These targets were vulnerable by the global actors and participants and lacked credibility as they could not be measured or demonstrated means of achieving the targets. The plan lacked specific implementation of goals, comprehensive overviews, and avoided serious issues like the aftermath of the civil war and its implications for the south and north (Sidahmed & Sidahmed, 2004, p. 60). The most significant aspect the report lacked was the specification of oil discovery and means to export oil for the socioeconomic status.

This not only changed Sudans status on the world stage because of its newfound oil wealth, but also encouraged her to join the club of oil exporters by 1999. This was the greatest change Sudan has ever witnessed to overcome its needs for oil products that had affected its foreign relations. With the help of oil export partners, Sudan managed to export oil to Ethiopia, Eritrea and Uganda, which also shifted the regional political condition towards betterment.

Risks

Contemporary greatest risk to the political liberation is the renege conflict of NIF that has already ended up in a reshaped north-south conflict. Not only NIF has been able to stick to the January 2005 peace agreement that resulted in a 20-year war between south and north, but also provoked a prolong series of actions directed against both the southern Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement (SPLM) and its military forces (Reeves, 2008). Although the government has been able to bring back few of the aid agencies that were expelled from Darfur, it is evident that no political party is sincere to work in good faith, if existing humanitarian agreements confront denial of the citizens. Contemporary protection sector is vulnerable to protect the minorities, like lack of complaint centers for women to deal with sexual and gender-based violence. Thus, advancement of rights for women, children, and religious minorities must be increased by dialogue and persuasion (Horowitz & Schnabel, 2004, p. 66).

Human Rights Benchmarks to progress

With the January 2011 referendum, the US government is trying hard to bring peace, particularly in the South. Therefore the benchmarks and pressures to be analyzed by the national and international NGOs include clear statement of intent. This means focussed goals and substantive achievements in Sudan must not be based solely on the process-related accomplishments that include proposing or signing a set of policies or visa issuance. Achievements must be based upon changes that are verifiable in accordance with the changing grounds. These must be by the key elements of the CPA (Comprehensive Peace Agreement) and assess Sudanese society based on allowing civil freedom along with the efforts to unite with the Southern part (2010a). CPA national reforms must be adhered to which suggests no room for civil rights violation and passes a national security law which allows special powers to the security department to arrest and capture citizens without charge (2010a). This way it limits violence and its usage by government security forces against peaceful political demonstrations. However national security law will not be used in any stance as a weapon to threaten civil society, human rights activists, and political actors. Other benchmarks include granting liberty to press and social gatherings.

By creating standards of benchmarks, global NGOs would be encouraged to measure domestic violence so as to enable the Security Council members understand their responsibilities and take action in humanitarian crises. Such benchmarks would serve as a gateway to force states to defend their positions in context with the right intention, instead of using them for their own selfish reasons (Bellamy, 2006).

Conclusion

Despite political and economic difficulties, in a war-torn country, Sudan has been able to take its place along with other actors in the region. This shows that in the process of bringing peace to the country, no religious or social regime has worked, better than real politics. No doubt, Sudan has gone a long way to pay a heavy price for experimenting with its foreign relations and has suffered from its domestic policy. However, the worsening economic situation has made this clear that there is a continued need for oil resources and political maturity to serve the overall national interest of Sudan.

References

Bellamy, J. Alex, 2006. Whither the Responsibility to Protect? Humanitarian Intervention and the 2005 World Summit. Ethics & International Affairs, 20(2), p. 143.

Dupraz Emily, 2002. The Oils of War: Conflict in the Sudan. Harvard International Review, 24(1), p. 10.

El-Affendi Abdelwahab, 2001. Islam and Human Rights: the Lessons from Sudan. The Muslim World, 91(3/4), p. 481.

Horowitz Shale & Schnabel Albrecht, 2004. Human Rights and Societies in Transition: Causes, Consequences, Responses: United Nations University Press: New York.

Mayotte Judy, 1991. Civil War in Sudan: The Paradox of Human Rights and National Sovereignty. Journal of International Affairs, 47(2), p. 497-524.

OBallance Edgar, 2000. Sudan, Civil War and Terrorism 1956-99: Macmillan Press: Houndmills, England.

Pham J. Peter, 2008. Do Not Resuscitate. The National Interest, 94. p. 21.

Reeves Eric, 2008. Failure to Protect: International Response to Darfur Genocide. Harvard International Review, 29(4). p. 84.

Riehl Volker, 2001. Who Is Ruling in South Sudan? The Role of Ngos in Rebuilding Socio-Political Order: Nordic African Institute: Uppsala.

Sidahmed Abdel Salam & Sidahmed Alsir, 2004. Sudan: Routledge: New York.

Tigani El & Eltigani E., 1995. War and Drought in Sudan: Essays on Population Displacement: University Press of Florida: Gainesville, FL.

Slavery can still be found in the world in the form of child labor and long low-paid hours of work. Today, almost 25 million people in the world are victims of forced labor, 71% of them, women and girls, 29%  men and boys (Human trafficking, 2017). Despite the legal prohibition of slavery in all world countries, the number of victims of servitude by the end of the last decade reached the highest level in history. All this would be impossible if the benefits of slave labor were not derived by respectable international companies, who locate their production in the poorest countries of the world. Millions of children are engaged in potentially dangerous work. Most are employed in the textile industry  rapidly changing fashion forces companies to look for cheap labor.

Protecting human rights from business enterprises is quite difficult since it can act outside the borders of the state. The problem is that agreements between corporations and states, the cross-border nature of corporations, and the strict integration of subsidiaries allow enterprises to create an independent actor of international relations. In the twentieth century, human rights evolved into the principle of the protection of individuals outside the national jurisdictions of states. International organizations have become one of the mechanisms of such protection. In response to the problem of human rights violations by businesses, they created U.N. Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.

Many criticize the Guidelines for their advisory nature. Indeed, some large businesses often exhibit isolated human rights cases. Others are limited to legal expertise on human rights risks. Still others  corporations involved in the most high-profile violations  avoid open discussion. International law is coordinating in nature, it is characterized by a restriction of coercion and the lack of a centralized apparatus that ensures compliance with its norms. These factors make it challenging to implement norms, principles, and protect human rights successfully.

Despite efforts by the international community to protect human rights from the negative impact of business structures, one of the main challenges is the need to define the enterprises punishment for human rights violations. However, international legal responsibility could only be applied to a subject of international law. Since such large business entities as transnational corporations are not subjects of international law, they cannot bear such responsibility for violations of international law. If the enterprise takes place in the territory of the state, it will be responsible for the violation of human rights, since the fundamental principles are written by states and for states.

A crucial aspect of the discussion of principles on human rights and business is how they relate to the existing and established human rights system. Perhaps they can become only one of the directions for the development of this system. Depending on the effectiveness, the principles will have to adapt to the new conditions. Society does not stand still and is continuously developing, and, for this reason, there will be new threats to human rights and freedom.

Thus, the U.N. Guiding Principles are a necessary but still insufficiently effective tool to protect human rights from large business structures. The obstacle to justice is the desire of large corporations to get rich thanks to cheap labor. Mechanisms for protecting human rights in business need to be constantly developed and adapted to be effective. People need to strive to change their mentality, which will make it possible to implement all the necessary tools to protect rights without finding escape routes.

References

Human trafficking by the numbers. (2017). Human Rights First. Web.

Introduction

Terrorism is to be considered as an assault on universal human values and it represents activities undertaken against humanity. Terrorist acts pose a violent threat to the civilized communities of all states. Therefore, it is critically important that terrorism must be addressed employing the full range of available legal mechanisms to the extent they are applicable for the purpose. It is usual to devise strategies to counter terrorism by drawing principles and norms from the different branches of international law, as they become applicable to the prevention and punishment of terrorists and their acts. These branches of international law include international human rights law, international humanitarian law, international criminal law on peace and security and divisions of general international law like the law on state responsibility. Based on this concept, the UK has domestically introduced significant anti-terrorism legislation. The prevention of terrorism has been given a higher priority and the new legislation has drawn on new instruments equivalent to the European levels. This paper examines the extent to which the formulation of anti-terrorism strategies conforms with the human rights standards. The comparison will be done with the human rights standards, as they exist in the laws of the United Kingdom and the international human rights instruments which apply to the United Kingdom. Certain human rights under both domestic as well as international laws may get restricted to some extent, to prevent terrorism and make the persons involved in the terrorist actions subject to prosecution under applicable anti-terrorism legislation. Even though this fact has been recognized by both the domestic and international human rights laws, they prescribe that some of the fundamental rights should not be restricted and the restrictions in respect of certain others should be proportionate to the threat of terrorism involved. This implies that it is the responsibility of the states to minimize the restrictions of rights involved in the anti-terrorist law. It is also mandated on the states that they should demonstrate that they have taken the measures only to the extent necessary to prevent the incidence of terrorist acts and to punish the terrorists. This paper argues that the government of the United Kingdom and Parliament has not taken the burden of showing that there are no other ways to deal with terrorism, which would involve less serious restrictions on the rights. This paper further argues that several of the legal measures undertaken by the UK government have been adopted for exceptionally unnecessary reasons. The measures involve significant restrictions on the rights of foreigners residing in the country without any valid reason for imposing such restrictions, in the direction of reducing the terrorist threat. There have been criticisms raised by the courts in the United Kingdom, about the need for adopting such strategies and the courts are skeptical about the ability of the government to sustain the current anti-terrorism strategies given their non-conformity with human rights in some cases.

Domestic and International Terrorism

As a fundamental step towards studying the impact of the anti-terrorism legislation on human rights, it is necessary to explore the distinction between domestic and international terrorism. International law seeks to regulate international terrorism only, even though the laws are made applicable to both domestic and international terrorism. However, it has been found difficult to draw precisely the boundaries between both types of terrorism. In addition, some of the terrorist attacks take the dimensions both domestic and international nature, which makes it difficult to draw the character of such acts. One of the instances is domestic terrorism financed through foreign funds.

Factors affecting International Terrorism

There are two important factors, which contribute to the proliferation of international terrorism. First is the process of globalization, which results in the erosion of powers within their own territory. The process of globalization has the effect of undermining the dominant status of the states as subjects of international law. Because of globalization, international financial institutions and terrorist groups emerge as the dominant actors at the national level. The second factor is the desire of the people to possess multiple identities. There is a tendency among people to hold multiple identities or membership rights in a community. This tendency eliminates the normative way of providing privilege to one identity or membership in preference to another. Advancement in information and communication technology in the form of the internet and email facilitate the holding of multiple identities easily. In view of lack of clarity in the distinction between domestic and international terrorism, and facilitated by the processes of globalization and multiple identities, terrorist acts assume the dimensions of international terrorism in almost all cases and this makes such acts of terrorism to be subjected to international law. Therefore, the strategies of the UK to combat any terrorism whether domestic or international should be analyzed as to its impact on human rights.

Definition of Terrorism under UK Terrorism Legislations

The definition of terrorism as set out in the UK Terrorism Act, 2000 forms the basis for all counter-terrorism laws of the country. The definition under the Act of 2000 includes all acts of serious violence against people or damage to property, which are designed to influence the government of the UK, other governments and international organizations like the United Nations. The purpose of such acts to fall within the definition of terrorism is to intimidate the public or to advance a political, religious or ideological cause. The definition received severe criticism even at the time of passing the Act, as being too wide and vague and does not meet the requirements with respect to the clarity needed for the applications of criminal law. This definition has the shortcoming of (i) widening of offenses under counter-terrorism laws, (ii) resulting in the application of too much discretion on the application of the definition, (iii) leaving space for political bias enabling the prosecution of people active in legitimate social or political movements. Such acts may lead to a violation of human rights.

Surveillance

One of the important elements in the counter-terrorism strategy of the UK government is the power to institute surveillance of the suspected individuals by the intelligence and security services. While it may be necessary to use surveillance as a preferred strategy over the other forms of interference with human rights, there is the need to put the authority of surveillance under strict oversight from the human rights perspective. However, in the UK the oversight of surveillance is the weakest of its form. The authority to approve interceptions lies with the Home Secretary and the authority of access to traffic data is given to senior police officers, and not with any judges in both cases. There are no statistics available on the number of surveillance or interception of traffic data. This implies that there is no record of any instances, where there is a violation of human rights in the form of surveillance or interception of traffic data as the authority for ordering either is not within the jurisdiction of any legal authority.

Control Orders and Preventive Detention

The government authorities have been trying to find measures for restricting the freedom of individuals who in their opinion are greater security risks but who cannot either be prosecuted or deported in the case of foreign nationals. The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act, 2001 introduced a provision for indefinite detention of foreign terrorist suspects without trial, which was condemned by the House of Lords in December 2004, as incompatible with the European Convention was only short-lived. The subsequent attempt to give the police the powers for holding suspects up to 90 days without charge can be seen as the root attempt to introduce targeted preventive detention. Following the judgment, control orders in the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2005 were introduced to ensure the detention of the suspects. These control orders are so restrictive that they have deprived the liberty of suspects, nationals and non-nationals in the same way, which amounts to hitting at the human rights of such individuals. Curfews of up to 18 hours on the detainees restrict their association with groups and individuals, and restrictions on the movement and access to goods and services are some of the consequences of the passing of the control orders. In addition, there were restrictions on the finances and acts, which affect the families of the suspects also. There was a quashing of the control orders on six detainees by Mr. Justice Sullivan. The judge, in this case, remarked such measures amount to draconian restrictions on the liberties of the detainees, which fell short of just house arrest of the people involved. These people had been deprived of their liberty, which is in contravention of the provisions of Article 5 of the European Convention.

Control Orders and the use of Immigration Powers

Under the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2005 there were 18 control orders issued in total. Out of these 9 orders remained in force at the end of the year, and 9 individuals got their control orders revoked. These are the foreign nationals detained under Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act. However, after the control orders were revoked in respect of these people, they were continued to be detained under Section 3 of the Immigration Act, 1971. All of these people were served with the notice of deportation on 11^th August 2005 specifying the intention to deport them. It is to be noted that individuals can be detained under the Immigration Act, 1971, only in circumstances of pending deportation. It is the stand of the government that the deportation could not be executed pending entering into memoranda of understanding with the respective governments not to execute, torture or subject the suspects in their countries to inhuman treatments when they are returned to their countries. Though agreements have been entered with some of the countries, still there are agreements pending with other countries. However, no value can be attributed to such agreements with a country, which has already violated international agreements on the treatment of prisoners.

Arrests and Pre-trial Detention

Under Section 41 of the 2000 Act, the police have been provided with the authority to arrest someone who is suspected to be a terrorist. However, the definition of terrorism and the related offenses as laid down in the Act are so vague; it virtually gives the police wide power of arrest. Lord Lloyd found the provisions as incompatible with Article 5 of the European Convention and he thought that arrests should be made only on the basis of commission of specific crimes be such acts are imminent or actual. Lord Lloyd and Lord Carlile following him have insisted that lower-level acts, which are preparatory to terrorism, should be brought under criminal offenses. Accordingly, the Terrorism Act, 2006 brought a new provision, which brought arrests under the criminal justice system. However, the definition of offense has been given a wider connotation that there is the likelihood of creating dangers of abuse. The time that needs to bring the charged suspects to the court makes the arrest virtually preventive detention.

Stop and Search Powers

Section 44 of Terrorism Act 2000 has given powers to the police to stop and search any individual whom, they reasonably suspect to be a terrorist. The stop and search can be undertaken to look for any possible evidence. Under the same section, the police are given the power to designate any place where they can stop and search without a need for reasonable suspicion. There is no consistency in using these powers. These powers have been not very helpful in catching terrorists. According to the Association of Chief Police Officers, the purpose of exercising the power of stop and search is to disrupt terrorist reconnaissance of potential targets. This statement suggests that these acts are not intelligence-led to catch perpetrators of terrorist attacks, but is an instrument used bluntly and haphazardly used disproportionately against individuals from minority communities. Even though, there are no records available to show the number of stops and searches by religion, the available figures on race indicate that the stop and searches made by the police and other public officials provide enough evidence to prove that these officials have been involved in ethnic profiling. Ethnic profiling implies the use of racial, ethnic or religious stereotypes to make law enforcement decisions to stop and search or check the documents and other such acts. According to the Home office statistics, during the year 2004-05, the black people who were subjected to stop and search under the Terrorism Act, 2000 were 2.5 times more than the whites who were stopped. Asian people were 2.2 times more likely and other people were 3.8 times more likely than the white people who were subjected to stop and searches under the Act. The obvious conclusion here is that it is those people who appear to be Muslims are more likely to be stopped and searched.

Use of Lethal Force

Immediately after the failed bomb attempts in July 2005, the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) drew up a new shoot-to-kill policy without reference to the ministers or Home Office. This policy was drafted to deal with the suicide bombers who might be a potential danger to the ordinary citizens at the point of their arrest unless such terrorists are not incapacitated at once. Using this power, the London police shot and killed a Brazilian electrician suspecting him to be a potential terrorist. This power given to the police was considered an imminent danger to the Muslims in Britain by the Muslim Scholar Professor Haleh Afshar. Such acts using lethal force raise serious concerns about the unwillingness of the authorities to investigate fatal incidents involving the police or security forces. It also raises concerns on the accountability of the police, which is already at low ebb in respect of fatal shooting incidents. There are also wide criticisms on the actions of the police in the withholding of information during the conduct of any inquiry and the reluctance on the part of the police to bring the standards for the use of lethal force up to the level of international standards. During the last decade, no police officers have been convicted in respect of 31 such fatal shootings that occurred. This was due to the pressure exerted by the police officers on the authorities not to further any investigations in such cases.

Introduction

The primary organization I would work for is Ericksson under their development program for greater internet access. One of the defining features of the internet is the sheer amount of information available on virtually every single possible subject that the human imagination can come up with. For most students one of the first resources they turn to is the internet with its wealth of easily accessible information. The media text Networked Society: Connectivity as a Human Right: Facebook + Internet focuses on the collaborative aspect of the internet in which people are able to add their own ideas, assumptions and create their own content for public viewing.

This inevitably created a flood of user created content that surpasses current media trends in television making online collaboration and writing the norm rather than a rarity. Based on the views of the media text, such a situation would be ideal since access to the internet by the remaining 2/3rds of the population would result in an unprecedented level of creativity which would help to elevate such societies to the next level so to speak (Athique 2014, p. 5).

What must be taken into consideration is the fact that standard journal articles, literary tomes or various books involving topics of incredible depth are often not available in various developing countries such as Cameroon, Kenya or various Central African states. It can be argued that through the internet, access to the wealth of information that has been generated so far would enable such countries to develop in a better direction resulting in a far more equal global society instead of the present state of affairs where information and the capacity to utilise it are isolated to countries that have broad internet connectivity (Athique 2014, p. 6).

Cultures Reflected in the Text

The primary culture that is reflected in the media text is the current culture of open access to information via the internet. What must be understood is that access to the internet as we know it has evolved from merely being a convenient method of communication and getting information, to it becoming an integral aspect towards developing international collaborative practices as well as enhancing local knowledge through online resources.

Tools such as social media, online academic article databases as well as search engines have transformed the way in which society at the present functions and, as a result, has become so integral to what is presently considered as the human condition (i.e. a person having full human rights) that unimpeded access to the internet is now considered as a fundamental human right under the United Nations.

How has the Current Technology Culture Informed the Creation of the Media Text?

The use of technology is so ubiquitous to present day society that its usage is attributable to nearly 70% of an average persons day with the remaining percentage going towards eating, sleeping and miscellaneous other activities. Technology has in effect changed the landscape of human actions; it has enabled better methods of communication, more convenient forms of transportation, better methods of collaboration and finally a far easier lifestyle for most people (Güzeller & Akin 2011, p. 351).

Based on this, it can be said that due to the introduction of modern technology to the human lifestyle, changes have occurred in both the behavioural and cognitive responses of various populations. It is through such a perspective that the media text was created wherein the concept that some areas and people have almost no access to a fundamental aspect of modern day technology (i.e. the internet) is almost inconceivable and, as such, the media text presents the notion that access to the internet which is commonplace in most modern countries should similarly be placed in the communities of developing countries so that they can also have access to the same benefits (Güzeller & Akin 2011, p.352).

One aspect that should be taken into consideration though is that the use of technology creates cognitive and behavioural changes which in effect changes the way people perceive and interact behaviourally and socially due to the amount of time devoted to technology related activities. For instance, people that have no access to the internet behave differently to those that are constantly immersed in it (Sassen 2012, p. 455). People that have been constantly connected to the internet and use it as a means of social interaction through social media sites thus consider the act of non-interaction between friends (i.e. online friends) as being completely normal while people from areas without constant access to social media would find such actions to be strange.

This difference in behaviour is of importance since it showcases how different cultures would perceive the value of the internet. For people that have no idea what social networking is, the internet would primarily be a source of information with access focusing primarily on sites geared towards information (Weiss 2013, p. 5). Thus, a broad spectrum application of internet connectivity (i.e. all households having internet) while feasible and necessary in an interconnected Western society, is not really needed in areas where the internet would be geared primarily for research and collaboration (i.e. rural villages).

Thus, when examining the focus of the media text when it comes to providing internet connectivity, it does so through the lens of a culture that focuses on interconnection when in reality, research, collaboration and the application of knowledge gained from the internet would be of greater use and interest for the people in the developing countries that were featured in the media text. While it is understandable that the creators of the media text would focus on the concept of interconnections through the use of social networking platforms, the fact remains that social networking as we know it today is heavily dependent on the technology inherent in smart phones and the wireless infrastructures that have been put in place by phone companies.

The limited amount of disposable income people in developing regions have combined with the inherent cost of buying and maintaining smart phones makes it infeasible for internet connectivity to be introduced in such regions on a large scale (Ames 2006, p.18). There is also the fact that people in such areas cannot afford laptops and personal computers and have little in the way of knowing how to actually use them in the first place. Taking all these factors into consideration, it can be seen that the media text is heavily influenced by the present day culture of interconnectivity wherein it is considered commonplace to be constantly connected to the internet through an assortment of devices (Ward and Wasserman 2010, p. 7).

The problem though with this cultural perspective is that it is simply not applicable in the instance being portrayed in the media text. What is viable is for internet connectivity to be placed in schools so that students and teachers can research, develop ideas and apply them to an assortment of practices (Miners 2013, p. 6). While this was shown in the media text, the fact that it broadened the connectivity to encompass more of the population is simply infeasible given the factors that were mentioned earlier.

How has the Current Online Culture Informed the Creation of the Media Text?

The present day perspective of the online culture is that the internet has provided people with a platform in which to collaborate, experiment and, as a result, create effective social change through various collaborative works. This particular cultural perspective focuses on the fact that the internet acts as an open platform for contribution where user driven content and collaboration drives social and cultural development. Collaborative efforts such as Wikipedia, Wikis and social networking sites such as blogs, twitter and online message boards all contribute to utilising the surplus time of individuals towards creating an ever increasing amount of user driven content that contributes towards societal development (Limbu 2014, p. 63).

While not all content is productive, such as the internet meme lolcats, the fact remains that people are actually doing something rather than remaining static, this signals a progressive change towards dynamic social interaction. Online projects such as Wikipedia, Project Guttenburg, Ushahidi and various other online drivers of collaboration help to improve the accessibility of information and promotes drivers of interactivity resulting in greater amounts of user driven content. It must be noted that one of the indicators of progressive social and cultural change is dynamic contribution with the internet being the latest and best instrument to bring about such changes to human society (Aqil & Ahmad 2011, p. 2).

The only problem facing the contributions made on the internet to act as triggers to create change in society is the inherent access of people to the internet. This is one of the reasons why the present day internet culture has advocated for unimpeded internet connectivity that is not subject to government scrutiny (Wang & Su 2007, p. 7). When examining the factors behind online internet culture, it can be seen that it heavily influences the media text since it showcases what can be brought about through online collaboration and communication of people from different parts of the world. This shows that the internet is an important platform for societal change and, as such, should be introduced into areas that lack it (Bukachi & Pakenham-Walsh 2007, p. 1634). By doing so, this would bring about much needed changes both from an economic and cultural standpoint resulting in a far better society within that area as compared to what existed beforehand.

Forms of Media Literacy Required for Media Text to be meaningful to its intended/potential audience

For the media text to be meaningful to its intended audience, it really boils down to an individuals knowledge regarding internet accessibility, how the internet has influenced and changed modern day society and how having access to it could impact developing societies around the world. Given the fact that a majority of the population of the planet does not have the resources (due to poverty) or the means (geographic isolation) of acquiring networked media access, this would limit the potential benefit the technology would have for the human race as a whole (Goggin 2011, p. 157).

For instance, while internet usage around the world has shown that the number of internet users has an annual growth rate of more than 5 million (which adds to the 1.2 billion estimated internet users around the world), the fact remains that current traditional broadcast media usage encompasses more than 70 percent of the total population of the planet (roughly 4 billion people) (James 2010, p. 373). Traditional broadcast media in this case comes in the form of television and radio signals. The reason having an understanding of this is important is due to the fact that traditional media is more or less static. It does not have the same level of engagement and collaboration that the internet has and it does not allow people to search for particular types of information (Enns & Huff 1999, p. 7).

Thus, by understanding the presence of these forms of media and the complete lack of an internet connection in some areas, this type of media literacy would enable people to understand the importance of the internet in helping to transform these societies. Various studies indicate that maybe in 10 or 20 years time, as internet technology improves and online access speeds enable the same seamless degree of consumption seen in TVs and radios today, then it would be possible for more areas to have access. However, the main point of the media text is that this will not be possible unless there is a sufficient level of concerted effort in bringing this about. This is the primary message that the media text is attempting to convey to its intended audience and it is the focal point of entire article.

Another media literacy perspective that is necessary for the media text to be meaningful to its intended audience is the fact that social media is considered to be an essential tool in the modern day society given the need for people to feel connected in a manner that conforms to the current social predilection towards connectivity via social media sites. Social media has penetrated modern day culture to such an extent that people cannot help but want to communicate via social networks and receive news via their Facebook or Twitter feeds.

This level of communication goes beyond mere email and actually allows people to feel that they are part of a greater whole that they can collaborate with which has resulted in better attitudes towards collaborative efforts. This is an important perspective to take into consideration since it showcases how social media, when incorporated into social environments, can result in greater levels of communication and collaboration. This is particularly important in developing countries where the sharing of ideas, experiences and news is essential towards creating a better social environment.

The media perspective in this instance takes into consideration the inherent benefits that social media has had on populations within the western world and compares it to the lack of social networking within areas without internet access (McClean 2012, p. 6). Through such a perspective, the viewer begins to realise that social media in such areas would help people when it comes to warnings regarding dangerous situations (i.e. the spread of Ebola), new opportunities taking place (i.e. a career fair) or simply collaborating and communicating across long distances in order to achieve a particular end (ex: a joint business venture).

Ethical Perspective Required for Media Text to be meaningful to its intended/potential audience

The sheer proliferation of social media platforms such as blogs, wikis and online forums has created an unprecedented opportunity for people to take advantage of this new social trend in order to promote particular ideas to people via online social platforms. Nearly 22% of all online activity within the U.S. alone is spent on social networking websites and, as such, is indicative of the sheer reach that social media platforms could potentially provide to people and organisations should they utilise such tool.

Taking this into consideration, one ethical perspective necessary to understand the media text is one that focuses on ethos and how companies that have advocated for greater internet access have positioned themselves in relation to their message of greater levels of internet connectivity for areas that have none. The concept of ethos can be described as a form of guiding beliefs that are an inherent part of a community or nations character. It is used as guide that influences a persons behaviour to such an extent that by examining the ethos behind a culture you can determine how they will react based on a given situation.

When looking at the message being portrayed by the companies, it is apparently being done from a position wherein they seen the benefits that internet access could have for a local populace and know that if enough effort is implemented, a considerable level of positive change can be implemented. This particular ethical perspective focuses on the concept of CSR Corporate Social Responsibility wherein firms realise the need to positive contribute towards the society that they are a part of since this not only enhances their reputation but results in a better situation for potential future consumers. It is based on this perspective that one of the potential audiences of the media text are corporations wherein the creators are attempting to convince them to contribute towards the cause of expanding internet access to such areas and do it under the guise of CSR.

Conclusion

It is important to note that the growth potential of any country is inherently connected to the skill sets possessed by the local population. As evidenced by the case of the Philippines which is known for the quality of its local and overseas workers, having a well educated and skilled population can do wonders for any company that chooses to invest within the country. It is based on this that the program of expanding internet connectivity to encompass more of the present day population is likely to create a better skilled and more educated work force that would be able to address a wide variety of potential industries that may come about within their respective countries.

What must be understood is that aside from a means of getting information, the internet can also be used as a tool for societal change as seen in the case of the Arab spring protests that were largely attributed towards communication between the different groups through social media. An overly corrupt government casts a considerable degree of doubt on the countrys growth potential due to the creation of a competitive environment that focuses on who can give the bigger bribe rather than who could create the largest amount of benefit for the country.

Through the use of social media and the internet, people within towns and cities that used to be at the mercy of corrupt governments could work together in overthrowing or replacing them. This would go a long way towards improving the local business environment in such a way that their investment within the country can be considered relatively safe and would result in considerable gains over the long term. Overall, the message provided by the media text is that the internet can be used as a tool for change; all that is needed is the necessary will to share it with the rest of the world.

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Before European explorers colonized what is known today as the United States, there was an estimated 10 million-plus population of Native Americans. Later on, in the 1900s, there were only around 300,000 Native Americans living in the United States. Many events over the past 5 centuries treated the Native Americans cruelly and slashed their populations to an all-time low. The most popular confrontation is the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Another not very known event that took place that was a strong indication of a violation of human rights is Phips Bounty Proclamation. All of these occurrences treated Native Americans as if they are not humans, as if they are invasive animals that weren’t allowed to live where they want and have the freedom to believe in whatever they wanted to believe in.

Around 1675 and 1763 french and Englishmen would viciously attack Indian villages including the native American settlement known as Wiscasset. An incident known as the Wiscasset incident took place where one man was killed and two others were injured. Only three men were arrested out of the six that took place in this event and only one person was charged with assault. This event resulted in tons of violations of peace treaties. More events occurred after this incident and eventually, Massachusetts declared war against a Settlement named Penobscot. This is where Spencer Phips (Governor of Massachusetts) Created a proclamation that violated basic rights and treated the native Americans as terrible criminals that needed to be eradicated no matter the gender or age. 50 pounds for males 12 and over to be taken to Boston and 40 pounds for their scalps. Females and kids under the age of 12 were taken as prisoners for 25 pounds and 20 for their scalps (Exploration of Contempora pg. 3-5). This proclamation is significant because it’s a beacon of decolonizing and against human rights such as Article 3 (Right to life), Article 9 (Random Arrest), Article 11 (No one shall be guilty until proven), and many more (Universal declaration of HR pg. 1-5).

In 1814 Andrew Jackson used the U.S military to take over and control the Creek nation land (an extremely populated Native American tribe). He succeeded and took 22 million acres. He then carried on and invaded “Spanish Florida” to punish Seminoles for having fugitive slaves. As a whole decade pass, Jackson would leave the Native Americans no choice but to negotiate most of their land away to hopefully keep some of their lands. Most Native Americans didn’t move though and the supreme court made a decision where Native Americans were allowed to live on US soil but not claim any of it. Tribes wanted to protect the last of the land Native Americans owned. Native Americans went through the U.S government to keep their rights. This was due to the fact that whites would steal more and more of their land. They were denied to claim their land by the Supreme Court. They didn’t give up as they tried again in 1831 basing it on Georgia law and not US policy. The court finally decided to approve the Cherokee’s request to self-govern. This stirred up problems as Georgia and President Jackson didn’t agree and refused to enforce their rights. President Jackson then created an act called the “Indian Removal Act” under this treaty Native Americans would have to give up their land. This treaty at first was meant to be peaceful but the Native Americans rightfully resisted for their land. Jackson thought of this act as a beneficial way to fix the harassment problems of the whites towards the Natives but even some Americans thought otherwise. They even tried to protest the treaty but ended up failing. Seminoles were brainwashed into signing and for 28 years the US tried relocating the Cherokee nations. During this process, 3 wars erupted and thousands of lives were lost. Millions of dollars were wasted. By 1837 only 2000 migrated, the beginning of the Trail of tears approached where 400 Cherokee people died and by 1838 46,000 Natives were relocated west to white settlements and slavery(Indian Removal Paragraph 1-16). This was a horrific event that affected all parties and still affects all parties to this day. This event also was against human rights such as Article 1 (free and equal rights), Article 17 (right to own property), Article 12 (random breaches of privacy), Article 25 (right to a standard of living), and many more (Universal declaration of HR pg. 1-7).

After both of these horrific events, changes were made to countries to make sure events that are similar to these events don’t occur again. They use Phip’s proclamation as a way to connect homelands and ancestors. It’s also a big example of the events that take place when decolonization is happening. It also honors the people violated by this proclamation. Like other violent treaties, it can have a variety of messages to make it beneficial to our world (Exploration of the Contempora pg 8-9). One of the biggest and most confusing lawsuits was settled on December 8, where 3.4 billion dollars was settled to native Americans. This was a big step in resolving all of the conflicts during the 17, 18, and 19 centuries mostly including the removal act of 1830. This gave $1000 to each member and the rest scattered throughout the amount of property owned, etc. The removal act is also taught through the education system to state the effects removing races from their rightfully owned land has on all parties.

From all of these events, I believe that creating groups to fight for social change would be extremely hard, especially when it’s against an extremely powerful government. But as shown in both examples with enough numbers, persistence, and most important passion to fight for what you need it can definitely make a change and not only benefit that social group but also develop all of humanity and improve the quality of life for all.

The Phips Proclamation and Removal Act of 1830 was a definite violation of human rights. And the Native Americans fought and are still fighting to this day. And because of it, The population of Native Americans was 300,000 and now in 2010, the population is 5.1 million due to all these rights being reverted and turned into a way of connecting. This shows how powerful groups of people can come together. This shows that Human rights can be fought for and make the world a better place.

The rise of and expansion of Empires has been closely related to Universal human rights as clearly depicted in the judicial cases that took place in the 1870s within the British Empire in Hong Kong and the Gold Coast now Ghana. In each case the Judge, had a daunting task of establishing human rights violation in the form of slavery in the British colonial empires. In the process of doing so, the important connections between establishing empires and limitations of liberal imperialist ideologies and violation of Universal human rights are clearly showcased. Note when Justice Smale ruled in favor of Kwok-a-sing in the case of the Chinese coolies arguing that Kwok was justified in murdering the captain and crewmembers in a struggle to free himself from bondage.

The Judge found sufficient evidence of human rights issues in the case and therefore was bend on deciding in favor of a collie who even though may have chosen to be slaved off or may have been pirate himself as he confesses during the case that he was involved in other incidents in the high sea. The Judge as an Abolitionist himself was keen to send a clear message that his historic decision was to be seen as a clear manifestation of using the Judicial system to end human rights violation in the high seas. Although his decision also fortified the influence of the British Empire to the utmost corners of the globe and his landmark decision indirectly asserted British authority in the name of defending human rights and the nineteenth-century British liberalism within the context of empire.

Therefore, in the case of the British Court in Hong Kong, the rights being defended by the abolitionist Judge, Smale did not just ensure freedom for Chinese emigrants but also justified the British empire, thus further worsening Chinese bondage. In the same way, British abolitionists criminalized slavery in the British Empire and cautiously turned African slaves captured on the sea into indentured laborers who ended up supporting a system of regulated contract employment. As seen in the case of Abina’s possible prosecution of Quamina Eddoo, because the Gold Coast was a British Colony affected by the criminalization law of slavery.

However, in the case of Abina, the Judge was too careful to find Quamina guilty in order to protect the integrity and interests in the British Protectorate. After the abolition of the slave trade, their economic interests and their civilization mission in further parts of the globe dovetailed nicely with their imperial projects to expand their empire. As the author notes, ‘‘the civilizational mission that would bring liberal freedom to the barbarous parts of the globe was not just a veil to hide capitalist exploitation but was in fact a foundational principle upon which empire was built’’.

The moral justification of the British Empire was firmly entrenched in the abolition of the Atlantic Slave trade in the nineteenth century as a way of ending human rights violations but also to open up and disguise other trading avenues in places like Africa and Asia. Note when Quamina’s lawyer asked Abina, ‘‘You were not aware that all slaves in the protectorate have been declared free and what then led you to come here and complain of being a slave? ’Also, Edmund, one of the staunchest critics of British Empire argued that establishing a monopoly of power for the East India Company required them to act for the benefit of their subjects. As Britain was both at the forefront of the anti-coolie trade as in the case of the Chinese coolies bound for Callao but on the other hand was also endeavoring to establish an indentured labor system in their other colonies like in the case of Abina in the Gold Coast.

The British judge in Abina’s case saw her as more of an indentured and forced laborer whose situation did not qualify as slavery in his eyes while as for the Kwok’s case the abolitionist Judge saw him as more of a human bondage whose fundamental human rights and freedom have been violated under British and International Law. Note when the Judge Smale emphatically declared that the coolie trade is the slave trade and called for a reform of the Slave Trade Abolition Acts to encompass coolies. His Justification was the view that the Chinese were victims of a cruel and corrupt labor brokers and therefore saw the mutiny of Nouvelle Penelope as part of the evils of slavery even if it meant he had to overlook evidence of Chinese complicity with their recruitment and even evidence that Kwok himself may have been a serial pirate who looted several ships. The coolie and forced labor were a new form of slavery in disguise.

That is why Judge Smale used Kwok’s case to send out a message across the British Empire that slavery in all forms needed to be abolished. The case of the Chinese coolies was just a microcosm of indentured labor which constituted a bondage that violated universal human rights and Smale saw it as microcosm to the real happenings across the British empire which he wanted to point out in his Judgment with the Kwok’s case. While in the case of Abina in the Gold Coast, there was a well organized and regulated system of forced labor in a non-British coolie system which was endemic with universal human rights abuse even if it meant simultaneously justifying the expansion and solidification of the British imperial power. Which is why the Judge in Abina’s case ruled in favor of Quamina because he is seen as a symbolic character representing the British liberalism and imperialism through the indirect rule system in which they notably used locals to exploit subjects in their protectorates. So even though the Judge had enough evidence to proof that was a slave girl because the evidence proofs that she was sold and married off which points to the fact that only slaves are sold, but the judge said the evidence was still weak to consider it slavery. Note when James Davies informs Abina of the Judge’s decision, ‘‘I asked him to at least try Yaw for illegally selling you as a slave, but he said the evidence was too weak and refused to do it’’. Note also in Abina’s testimony when she emphatically said ‘’I know we were slaves’’.

So, judging from the similitudes of the two Judicial cases one can conclude that there were sufficient evidences beyond reasonable doubt that human rights abuses were involved related to one way or the other to the liberal policies of the British Empire. Although both cases had elements of human right issues and dehumanization of subjects in the British oversea colonies, the Judges had used their position and authority to assert their power in different ways. For instance, Chief Justice Smale was highly committed to the liberation of the coolies and acted upon it by calling for a drastic reform to the Slave Trade Abolition to incorporate the coolies. Notes when he wrote in his Nouvelle Penelope Judgement, ‘‘Is it possible that a being as man can according to law, become a slave, even by his own consent, I say it is impossible in law’’. He therefore considered it as outright incidents of slavery which warranted prohibition rather than regulation. Note again when he said ‘‘the utter failure of all previous legislation to regulate coolie emigration appears to me to conclusively show that prohibition and not regulation is the remedy, and the only remedy’. As evidence of this, Smale on two occasions refused Kwok-a-sing’s extradition due to his belief that the French crew of Nouvelle Penelope forced the Chinese coolies onto the vessel against their will and therefore viewed it as morally right to not try or extradite Kwok for crimes of murder and privacy. He further supported his claim by his testimony of several Chinese suicides on the ship as enough evidence that were being held against their will. Therefore, his judgement had a sweeping effect on the coolie trade as a whole especially labor contracts where one side was not free to consent voluntarily to the terms of an agreement. He argued that just as any person deprived of his property would have the right to regain it, so too were the Chinese who had been deprived of their liberties and freedom through what he describes as enslavement.

While Judge Melton was more about the enforcing and protection of the British Liberal interest in the Protectorates even if it meant slavery in subtle forms, note his conversation with James Davies when the case of Abina was first brought before him in his chambers, ‘‘But you put me in a bad position. On the one hand, her majesty has outlawed slavery and especially the importation of slaves from Asante. On the other hand, we don’t want to stir things up, we can’t afford to have slave owners becoming angry with us’’. Even though Judge Melton clearly admits that slavery had been abolished in the British Empire but still contradicts that they can’t be angry with slave owners in the colony. From this, it was clear that the British protectorates and crown colonies had been used indirectly to form a basis for the foundation of their empire following the abolition of the slave trade to make it a subtler form of universal human rights issue in the eyes of other competing nations in the slave trade and the international community at large.

However, it is also very important to note that both cases although different in circumstances, both could be seen to be asserting the same British authority in their overseas supposed territory or Protectorate thereby using it as an avenue to build their empire in one way or the other. For instance, what right did British courts have to evade laws and assert their political control in Asia by refusing to extradite Kwok-a-sing to China on two occasions. This case gave credence to the affirmation of the British Legal imperialism in one of her overseas controlled territories as part of the British empire. In a similar vein, the Abina case also showcased that the British were bend on maintaining peace and stability in her colonies disguised in the name of protecting fundamental human rights to protect the Britain empire as there were many natural rights abuses prevalent in her controlled territories. Note Judge Melton’s conversation with the lawyers in his chambers, ‘Her majesty’s government is interested in maintaining peace and stability of this colony, and we cannot afford the kind of upheaval that we would cause by going around liberating slaves’’. He continued by asserting that they must enforce the rules of civilization in the colonies. The notion that the British defended Universal human rights in her controlled territories across Asia (Kwok-a-sing case) while the same system was mute in violation of human rights abuses in Africa (the Abina case) was built on the premise to authorize liberal ideologies around the British empire.

Similarly, In Hong Kong the British advocate of human rights was also a way of protecting their interest of the British Empire. When Justice Smale saw Chinese coolies as fully abled men who deserved rights, it could be interpreted that he considered them to be humans who should enjoy their freedom like any other in the British empire. Hypothetically, the case could have been differently handled had it occurred elsewhere outside the British empire. They did not want to undermine their authority over the colonies.

It was as if he used the case to send a message that Britain was more interested in curbing universal human rights in order to assert more power and imperialism over its colonies across the British empire. As Michael Kempe argued that ‘Great Britain used the universal right of punishing pirates to legitimize the claim of the British Admiralty to universal jurisdiction’.

Introduction

Although war starts due to negative administrative assertion such as affirmations by administration catalyze its emergence. Good example of affirmation include the indications that war in Iraq stated because Iraq was in violation of some U.N. Security Councils Resolutions, such as being in possession of weapons of mass destruction.

Fight for peace is also another issue that fuels war since some governments feel the need for ensuring favourable conditions and unsuccessful endeavours to promote dialogue for peaceful solutions succumb to war threats and eventually action.

Governments react pro-actively and make the most of all in its power to protect its citizens by fighting enemies. However, power of commands to declare war without solid reasons and proof is not justifiable. In most cases, war causes negative effects on human lives by depriving them the most essential needs and respect for civilization. This research paper is critical analysis of war. The paper mainly reflects on some of the negative effects of war on humanity and human rights.

How Families of Solders in War are Affected

The main reason why war is not justified is due to effects on human rights for instance many coalition soldiers lost their lives in the Iraq war (Rai and Chomsky, 141). According to Iraq coalition casualty count (1), up to date more than 4,300 U.S. and 4,693 coalition solders have died because of the Iraq war.

The death of all these great compatriots is due to haste of administrators to go to war. This has deprived many families their special members whom were responsible for basic provisions including love. Other than fatalities, many casualties who were competent family providers now depending on others in different ways doe to physical, mental and psychological injuries.

Such conditions increase pressure on health provisions due to lack of specialized facilities or medical resources in most care centres. The effects not only affect the coalition governments in war, but also members of the attacked countries for instance, Iraq people recorded the greatest number of fatalities and casualties during the Iraq war (Keegan, 31).

Cost of War

After wars, there is high dependence on large-scale humanitarian and reconstruction assistances and primarily, high compromise on human rights, which requires delivery of humanitarian support and prepositioning of crucial human needs (Sifry and Cerf, 27).

Humanitarian crisis during war is very high. Before the wars, various organizations and agencies are able to provide aid through the oil for food programme, but on war engagements halts the undertakings thus causing loss of human life such as poverty or malnutrition related deaths.

People have right to basic needs such as food but war-torn areas causes massive suffering associable to lack of food especially among women and children. In line with Sifry and Cerf (27), war disrupts these non-governmental organizations plans for humanitarian assistance due to the uncertainty during and after the war.

Poverty is one of the main effects associable to human crisis. Basic needs such as medicines, shelter, hygiene facilities and food therefore remain a concession during war. There are fears over shortage on humanitarian assistance even among the affected. Casualty reports confirm the fears, as the numbers of victims are overwhelming (Iraq coalition casualty count, 1).

Effects on Education and Healthcare

War often forces women and children to vacate their home and settle in displacement camps due to safety. This remains a permanent scar to the society since children are not able to attend schools. Regardless of some humanitarian assistance from neighbouring countries, there is often refusal to assist and allow refugees to enter and settle in their countries.

Children are therefore not able to attend school and access easy health services. For instance during the Iraq war, there were massive movement of people mainly from Baghdad and other major cities before and after the war began but towards the end of the war, the movement started reducing due to restrictions (Chancellor Schroeder, 3). The government is responsible for the health facilities and education programmes for displacement and refugee camps.

War causes poor or lack of governance; this means that the affected country’s administration is not able to cater for the indispensable needs in the camps. Innocent children end up suffering from something they rarely understand and furthermore war causes psychological suffering of the naive minds.

Effects on Humanity

Various wars since time in history have caused massive impact on various crucial infrastructures, hindering transportation of basic needs and services. During such confrontation, unruly mobs continue to make it difficult for the movement of humanitarian aid. Some of humanitarian needs that have proven to be a main challenge are water, installation of sewerage systems and fuel shortages.

Delivery of health service has also been a major challenge for instance shortage of supplies, staff and in some cases attacks on conveys or assisting organizations. Lack of resources and existence of compromised infrastructures also hinders provision of health services. In most of the affected areas, reports indicate that peacekeeping armies provide health services to civilians (Chancellor Schroeder, 3).

Compromised security

Compromise on security is also a big challenge during and after the wars. Some of the humanitarian organizations put up bases in war zones areas to facilitate relief operations, but they are worried of security since protection by the involved parties may compromise the security of its staff.

The insecurity is a total pervade to the human working environment. This causes low working morale, difficulties of finding trained or retrained workers and disrupted training or supervision. Compromised security also affects the reconstruction and relief activities especially during or after the war for instance, access to the war-torn areas, compromising the cost of service delivery due to lowered security of relief personnel and weak coordination and communication among relief agents.

Compromised human rights

Denial of various human rights has been evident in majority of the countries or areas involved in wars. First, people in the affected zones have problems of accessing health services due to insecurity; financial segregation owing to high costs for services form the available facilities that are in most cases private hospitals or dispensaries.

Geographical differences also prohibit access. The health care activities are compromised and eventually as evident in war-hit areas, the care shift from the normal form of primary or preventive to specialized curative form of care.

This is a compromise on life since most of the available systems lack strong specialist to undertake curative care. War therefore adversely affects and compromises human health and life. There is reduction of the rural or community-based care, disrupted health surveillance and compromised public health programmes.

Poor or destruction of infrastructure compromises on humanity for instance destruction of health resources like clinics, referral systems, equipments and vehicles. Additional, war affects the communication logistics. Thirdly, there is lack of food, drugs and equipments maintenance procedures. Conclusively, some of the adversely yet essential human health-sustenance infrastructures include sanitation, food security, water and power.

Conclusion

Restoration of peace and order appears to be a major priority before and after war. This is important especially when humanitarian needs are in consideration. Ability to overcome the main barriers to restoration of understanding, growth and provision of human needs mainly depend on infrastructure. Generally, war compromises infrastructure, which is the main support for humanity and human rights. Reconstruction of these crucial resources such pipelines, gas stations, hospitals, airports and other important needs to be carried out smoothly. There is need to enforce security since effects of insecurity shifts focus turns towards reconstruction.

Works Cited

Chancellor Schroeder. Remarks on anti-war Stance as Saddam Crumbles. Mexico City: Agence France-Presse. 2003. Print

Iraq coalition casualty count. Operation Iraqi freedom. 2009. Web.

Keegan, John. The Iraq War: UK: Vintage Series publishers. 2005. Print

Rai, Milan. & Chomsky, Noam. War plan Iraq: ten reasons against war on Iraq. New York, NY: Verso Publishers. 2002. Print.

Sifry, Micah. & Cerf, Christopher. Iraq War Reader: History, Documents. New York, NY: OpinionsSimon & Schuster publishers. 2007. Print.

Artificial intelligence is applied on an everyday basis and infiltrating into the majority of the spheres of life. Such obvious activities as purchasing products in a supermarket, visiting a museum, or driving to particular locations predominantly imply resourcing to modern technologies. Artificial intelligence, including such directions as computer-assisted instruction and deep learning, appears to be neutral only at first sight. Whether observed more detailed and carefully, it may significantly influence the interests of humanity considerably in particular cases (Laukyte et al., 2019). In the majority of spheres of life, mathematical calculations are extremely beneficial. However, on the condition that artificial intelligence plays a too considerable role in a life of a person, which involves revealing repetitive behavioral algorithms, this occasion may redound upon the users. Therefore, it may lead to the limitation of human rights (Cataleta, 2020). This way, the purpose of this paper is to outline whether further development and spreading of artificial intelligence are threatening human rights.

The statements that modern technologies tend to improve and relieve some tasks in the routine are common. In fact, this aspect appears to be true-to-life, and our artificial intelligence is an integral part of the lifestyle. Moreover, almost every person is convinced that he or she is safe while surfing the Internet, but the reality is the opposite. The contradiction between the advantages of AI and the limitation of human rights manifests in the field of personal privacy to a larger extent. This right is the basic need of each person, which is essential for safe and decent living standards. However, in the digital space, as well as when an individual uses applications and social networks, a considerable amount of personal data is collected (Livingston & Risse, 2019). It can be applied for creating an account without the knowledge of the user and predicting people’s behavior.

Some algorithms may suppress the freedom of expressing opinions and gathering in a group. It is apparent Facebook and YouTube use the mechanisms of filtering for extremist content with rabble-rousing (Laukyte et al., 2019). The incentive to limit the spreading of such materials and the opacity of content moderation causes concerns. Another issue, which leads to apprehensions, regards the automatic filtration of the user-generated content at the moment of its downloading due to possible intellectual property rights violations (Laukyte et al., 2019). In some cases, automatic technologies address the rights the freedom of expression of opinion and privacy protection. Bots, targeted advertisements, and spam are promoted in terms of applying algorithms to determine the content of the particular user (Livingston & Risse, 2019; Liu & Zaweiska, 2017). The conflict between modern technologies and human rights reveals in the field of face identification. Being an extremely effective method for searching for a preliminary trial of possible terrorists, it may become the means of controlling people (Liu & Zaweiska, 2017). These days, the state is free to monitor the citizenry, invade private life, and limit the freedom to gather, and transport.

In summary, the fact that artificial intelligence may endanger some human fights is becoming more evident. There is a high likelihood that the data of internet users may be interfered with, collected, filtered, and applied for completing particular requirements and tasks. This way, artificial intelligence violates such an important human right, such as the right to privacy. In addition, the state government is free to use these possibilities for their intentions, which is totally dishonest and immoral. More and more specialists are starting to express the opinion that there is a wise plan of creating a comprehensive system for collecting information about each human being. For this reason, the further development of modern technologies causes some caution among the population and encounters some reluctance.

References

Cataleta, M. (2020). Humane Artificial Intelligence: The Fragility of Human Rights Facing AI. East-West Center.

Laukyte, M., Cívico, J., Lazarski, C., Davis, J., Sungurov, A., Skrzypczak, J.,… Curiel, K. (2019). Trustworthy artificial intelligence and human rights. In Sungurov, A., Liesa C., Del Carmen Barranco Avilès M., Calazadilla M., & De La Fuente O. (Eds.), Current issues on Human Rights (pp. 69-80). Dykinson, S.L.

Livingston, S. & Risse, M. (2019). The Future Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Humans and Human Rights. Ethics & International Affairs,33(2), 141-158. Web.

Liu, H., & Zaweiska K. (2017). A new human rights regime to address robotics and artificial intelligence. Research Gate. Web.

Introduction

Sports have become the world’s best entertainment sector that attracts people worldwide to compete, interact, and exchange skills. However, there are gaps in sports that need to be addressed to make the sporting arena safe for sportspersons. Information on human right violation in sports in the US has been obtained from credible literature works by different authors. Results from those literature sources show that gender inequality, racial stereotyping, and underrepresentation of people with disabilities are the main factors contributing to human rights violations in the US. Findings reveal that even though gender, race, and disability bases have been researched, a research gap exists in investigating other issues, such as harassment and deaths in the US and other countries. This research implies that human rights still hold in every field without impartiality. Human rights are inherent and universal, and every human is entitled to enjoy them without interruption. The US’s sports ministry needs a quick reaction to the matter of human right violation against its sportspersons to promote the achievement of full potential from everyone.

How are Human Rights Violated in Sports in the US?

The world of sports has impacted myriad overviews of different matters that exist and impact various groups at societal, national, and international levels today. Sports have been a medium that promotes global interaction and unity between varied cultures. Many people have exploited their sports talents, which help them earn a living. However, there still exist discrepancies in sports in different countries despite efforts put by organizations that govern sportspersons. While sports are expected to promote respect and dignity in respecting aspects of human rights, it has become ironic because countries have begun using sports to violate human rights. Despite the advancement in human rights in the most significant part of society, sports in various parts of the globe continue to cultivate actions of human rights violation. Human rights are violated in sports in the United States (US) through racism, inequalities, gender identity, and the underrepresentation of people with disabilities.

Background Information and Outline

Human rights are the universal and fundamental rights and freedoms inherent to an individual from birth. In the first three paragraphs, this paper illustrates how human rights are violated in sports in the US. The subsequent section will discuss how violation of human rights in sports hinder their progress. The conclusion is the last part with limitations, recommendations, and implications for research in sports. The US is today profiled as the leading country with the highest rate of discrimination and racial stereotyping. This aspect of discrimination has expanded into other sectors, specifically sports. Violation of human rights in sports has become common in the US today. A long history of human right violation through racism has culminated in humane standards required to be geared towards sports. Less attention has been put towards ensuring equal and fair opportunities in sports are open to all people, irrespective of race, gender, and disabilities.

Racism, injustices, and inequalities in sports have become prevalent actions that violate human rights in the US. Johnson and Minuci (2020) state that black players in leagues such as the NBA are subject to wage discrimination and free agent signings. However, research on racial inequality and underrepresentation in sports in the US by Destin and Dyer (2021) has highlighted that black players can triumph if given equal chances to participate in different sports. For instance, African-Americans such as Althea Gibson, Arthur Ashe, and the Williams Sisters have left legacies in Tennis sport amidst racial drawbacks in the US. Black sportspersons have realized outstanding sports achievements in the US, which led to the country’s prestige (Destin & Dyer, 2021). Thus, involved stakeholder management in the US sports industry should encourage just, fair, and equal inclusion of all sportspersons because it is against human rights to stereotype other people racially (Destin & Dyer, 2021). Racial inequality and injustices in sports in the US should be eliminated because it violates the dignity of human rights (Destin & Dyer, 2021). Racial underrepresentation hinders progress as it denies people of color equal chances of participation in sports.

Human rights violations in the US’s sports industry are also expressed through underrepresentation and unequal chances for people with disabilities to participate in sports. According to research by Rojas-Trrijos (2021), people with disabilities are underrepresented in common sports such as football and basketball in the US. People with disabilities are democratically mandated to be given chances to participate in different events because they can be productive differently (MacPherson & Kerr, 2021). However, this objective has hit a blunt edge as people with disabilities have received less attention in the US sports industry in recent decades (Roja-Trijjos, 2021). Inequality and underrepresentation have eliminated the inclusion and empowerment of people with disabilities as influential voices in different sports areas. Findings by MacPherson and Kerr (2021) reveal that positive records and contributions have been set by people with disabilities in US sports history. Despite their inability to participate in sports, they have productively promoted achievement in parasports (MacPherson & Kerr, 2021). Thus, the US sports industry should ensure more inclusion of people with disabilities in sports to help them achieve their dreams.

Gender inequality and identity violation are experienced in sports in the US. This factor is manifested through the underrepresentation of women in particular sports and unequal pay in the US (Gaston, Blundell, & Fletcher, 2020). According to Roja-Trijjos (2021), women are underrepresented in leadership positions to manage elite leagues and athletics in the US. However, those who promote these unethical acts forget that there are histories of women and girls with better histories in different sports than men. Men have always been getting more opportunities and chances to participate in sports such as soccer, basketball, tennis, and baseball with greater pay and higher representation than women (Ambikile, Leshabari, & Ohnishi, 2022). Furthermore, unequal pay has remained a milestone problem that women face in favor of men in sports in the US (Johnson & Minuci, 2020). Women have complained of being paid and compensated differently than men in games. Men have tended to receive higher pay than their female counterparts. Sportspersons should receive equal payment and compensation to promote equality in US sports.

Discussion

Human right violation in sports in the US is prevalently experienced in different circumstances such as racial stereotyping, gender mainstreaming, and underrepresentation of people with disabilities. Sports bring cohesiveness, interaction, and unity to individuals from different cultures globally (Borge, 2021). More so, the international charter for human rights protects every human being against underrepresentation based on race, gender, and disability. Unfortunately, research on underrepresented parties in sports by Rojas-Torrijos (2021) reveals that the underrepresentation of black sportspersons in elite leagues in the US still exists. Black people have registered great achievements for the US recently, but they are today underrepresented in different sports (van Sterkenburg, de Heer, & Mashigo, 2021). These violations against blacks become a drawback for individuals to enjoy and exploit their potential in sports (Destin & Dyer, 2021). People with disabilities are also denied particular chances and equal representation that make them more productive in the US sports industry. Gender inequality and identity have denied women’s participation and equal pay in different games (Johnson & Minuci, 2020). To promote equality, the Ministry of Sports in the US must interrogate sports inequalities to women, such as unequal pay to men.

Suggestions for Further Research

Human right violation in sports is a problem that affects the US and other countries. Researchers in the future should focus on other aspects of human right violation in sports, such as harassment and deaths that occur to sportsmen and women. There are more issues that sportsmen and women face than violations of their human rights. These issues tend to be pressing to their needs for attention. Thus, researchers should not only consider the violation of human rights but consider other issues such as conditions of training centers, sponsorship, and sports management. Research on human rights issues in sports should also be extended globally to other countries where sportspersons, directly and indirectly, suffer a violation of their human rights. These researches will uncover major issues never narrated by individuals who participate in sports.

Limitations

The information used in this paper is obtained from secondary printed sources and works of literature. These sources might be subject to bias by the writer since they can be edited to fit the writer’s and editor’s minds. The research was also limited to only three issues gender, racial discrimination, and cases of persons with disabilities. Other methods, such as personal interviews, would be more appropriate for this research. A personal interview reveals an exact emotional feeling of an interviewee through body expressions. More so, the data obtained is appealing compared to data obtained from the literature. Questionnaires were not used to gather information from the different sports centers. Thus, this research is based on secondary data that can easily be exaggerated to satisfy the writer’s mind, making the data inaccurate. Further, there might be more issues that violate human rights in sports but in different countries that are worse than what literature works give.

Conclusion

Gender inequality, racial discrimination, and underrepresentation of people with disabilities are the primary key factors that have drawn the attention of many people globally. These issues govern today’s society because they have been adopted in the constitutions of every country worldwide. More emphasis and focus on investigating discrimination against race, gender, and people with disabilities in the US shows a good change in other countries. Many sportsmen and women have been underrepresented and discriminated against from participating in sports in the US due to their race, which hinders the progress of disadvantaged groups. Gender identity and inequality have promoted the underrepresentation of women’s participation in sports propagated with unequal pay in favor of men. Human right violation in sports in the US has been propagated through racial discrimination and injustices, gender identity underrepresentation and inequality, and underrepresentation of people with disabilities.

References

Ambikile, J. S., Leshabari, S., & Ohnishi, M. (2022). Curricular limitations and recommendations for training health care providers to respond to intimate partner violence: an integrative literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(4), 1262-1269.

Borge, S. (2021). What is sport? Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 15(3), 308-330.

Destin, Y., & Dyer, E. (2021). The legacies of tennis champions Althea Gibson, Arthur Ashe, and the Williams Sisters show the persistence of America’s race obstacles.Race and Social Problems, 13(3), 195-204. Web.

Gaston, L., Blundell, M., & Fletcher, T. (2020). Gender diversity in sport leadership: An investigation of United States of America national governing bodies of sport. Managing Sport and Leisure, 25(6), 402-417.

Johnson, C., & Minuci, E. (2020). Wage discrimination in the NBA: Evidence using free agent signings. Southern Economic Journal, 87(2), 517-539.

MacPherson, E., & Kerr, G. (2021). Sport fans’ responses on social media to professional athletes’ norm violations. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19(1), 102-119.

Rojas-Torrijos, J. L., & Ramon, X. (2021). Exploring agenda diversity in European public service media sports desks: A comparative study of underrepresented disciplines, sportswomen and disabled athletes’ coverage on Twitter. Journalism Studies, 22(2), 225-242.

van Sterkenburg, J., de Heer, M., & Mashigo, P. (2021). Sports media professionals reflect on racial stereotypes and ethnic diversity in the organization.Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 26(5), 31-46. Web.

Introduction

Violence against women is a global issue that has captured the attention of many nations in the world hence being put on international agenda. It can be defined as any act concerned with gender based violence that leads into sexual, physical and psychological injury to women (Hague, Kelly & Mullender, 2001). It includes acts such as rape, trafficking in women, partner abuse, female genital mutilation and dowry violence among others.

Many women organizations have sprout up in the last ten decades objectively to fight for the women rights. For instance, in the international conference held in 1993 based on human rights it was recognized that human rights cater for all gender either male or female meaning that women rights forms part of human rights. This implies that violation of women rights can be regarded as abusing human rights.

According to UN General Assembly of 1993, it was discovered that violence against women is a product of gender inequality which to some extend is true. Due to rampant increase on violence against women, the World Health Organization in 1996 implemented policies and strategies aimed at preventing violence against women and children (Hague, Kelly & Mullender, 2001).

Discussion

According to the research topic violence against women, the only appropriate approach or method to be used in researching on violence against women is a survey whereby the researcher is supposed to go to the field and sample a population to be interviewed.

As already known that in survey a researcher may use either quantitative approach or qualitative approach but the most viable between the two is a qualitative approach because it provides more depth description of the study rather than quantitative that involves the use of numeric values.

Based on the study, survey on violence against women using Quantitative approach can be considered appropriate since it involves case studies and interviews that are said to provide enough information for the study (Renzetti, Edleson & Bergen, 2010).

Violence against women could only be studied by carrying out a survey on the population of women that is at risk. This will include taking your target population to be women who have been married at a particular point in their lives and those who are currently married.

The researcher then should embark on interviewing them by posing questions related to violation of women’s rights. For instance, the researcher intends to know the number of women sexually harassed by their partners or psychologically harmed by husbands through threats among others (Bickerstaff, 2010).

The only important thing to change when conducting a survey on violence against women is the manner in which the questions are administered to the respondent or the target population. A researcher should create a rapport with the respondent so that he or she can extract the require information from them meaning that the manner into which the interview is conducted matters a lot to the study outcomes.

Leading questions should be avoided because they can lead to poor quality of data collection during the study (United Nations, Joint international Law program & Division for the Advancement of women, 2006).

Using survey as an appropriate method on researching violence against women, the researcher is more likely to obtain over-reported or under reported information from the respondents because the whole process would involve self-reported information.

Some of women may be unwilling to deliver the required information while other may exaggerate the process thus leading to biasness in the data collected or gathered. In addition some respondent may give false information just to satisfy the researcher which actually is wrong because it will temper with the findings of the study (Bickerstaff, 2010).

Conclusion

Violence against women is a global issue because it violates women rights that are considered as components of human rights. In conjunction to this the international conference has debated on violence against women through formation of worldwide women organizations to fight for women’s rights in the world.

It has been noted that most of gender based violence originates from gender inequalities meaning that if the international conference enforce gender equity law, incidence of violence against women would cease or decline.

References

Bickerstaff, L. (2010). Violence against women: Public health and human rights. London: The Rosen Publishing Group.

Hague, G., Kelly, L. & Mullender, A. (2001). Challenging violence against women: The Canadian experience. California, CA: The Policy Press.

Renzetti, C., Edleson, J.L., & Bergen, R.K. (2010). Source book on violence against women. Washington, D.C: SAGE.

United Nations, Joint international Law program & Division for the Advancement of women. (2006). Ending violence against women: From words to action, Volume 795. New York, NY: United Nations Publications.