Category: Human behavior

A man by the name of Pierre Picaud, was wrongly accused of being a spy by his “friends,” and because of this he was sentenced to jail. While in prison Pierre spent ten years plotting his brutal revenge on his friends turned foe. He inflicted great horrors on each and every person involved in his wrongful accusation, even their innocent children. Alexandre Dumas, author of The Count of Monte Cristo, based his novel on this man, Pierre Picaud, and his life’s mission- revenge. Although there is a preconceived notion that revenge can lead to happiness, in actuality what Edmond learns, is that all revenge ends up leading to, is a self proclaimed justice. Dumas, through the character of Edmond Dantes, is saying that the journey of revenge will lead to the mentality, and the realization that an individual does not hold the gift of providence, only God is the one with the right to reward and punish. Through Edmond’s quest, his character develops to form this realization that only God has providence, because he is enlightened in prison, undergoes a reawakening, and feels immense guilt; evidently making him come to the conclusion that revenge is counterproductive.

Edmonds enlightenment begins, only after he is sentenced to a dark lonely life of imprisonment and torture for an act of treason which he did not commit. Upon his years in prison, Edmond happens to make a knowledgeable friend, Abbe Faria, who is able to deduce immediately that Edmond’s imprisonment is due to his friends betrayal. Faria then says, “I regret now,” said he, “having helped you in your late inquiries, or having given you the information I did.” “Why so?” inquired Dantes. “Because it has instilled a new passion in your heart—that of vengeance.” (Dumas 61). Until Abbe Faria relayed this information over to Dantes, he had been entirely ignorant of the evil done unto him, whole heartedly believing it had just been misfortune that had guided his path. The author, Alexandre Dumas, is pinpointing the exchange between Dantes innocence and enlightenment, showing that the knowledge transferred from Abbe Faria to Dantes, will be used as a power source, fueling his new passion of vengeance. Dantes naiveness and innocence has now been destroyed forever, and as Abbe Faria predicted, Dantes will begin his transformation from an innocent and loving boy, into a man consumed with the thought of vengeance.

Upon being flung off a cliff by the grave diggers, it seems a reverse baptism of sorts takes place instantly as Dantes hits the sea. Soon after being flung off the cliff, Dantes washes up on an Island, and immediately upon finding civilized men, in a conniving manner, Dantes befriends them, hoping that in return they would grant him passage on board their ship. Once Dantes is on board he has a glimpse of his now natural instinct; “Then his eyes lighted up with hatred as he thought of the three men who had caused him so long and wretched a captivity.” (76) This is what fourteen years behind bars had done to Dantes, it changed him from being the clear cut innocent boy, into a man only excited and intrigued by proclaiming his self evident justice, through the uniform of vengeance unto those who have wronged him. Dumas, in order to make this character change evident, changes Dantes name to mask his true appearance, “… awakened in him a world of recollections, as had the name of the Count of Monte Cristo on the previous evening.” (129). The author by modifying Dantes name, mirrors the change in Dantes ethics and morality, which he developed after his “baptism”. He has progressed from Edmond Dantes, the nineteen year old innocent sailor, into the thirty-three year old, rage consumed, Count of Monte Cristo.

Dantes thirst for vengeance has gone too far, as Edward Villefort is the first innocent person who is unintentionally murdered. Though the Count has already destroyed many lives, he has not administered any damage on anyone undeserving of his justice. When the Count of Monte Cristo discovers that Edward has been killed, “[H]e felt he had passed beyond the bounds of vengeance, and that he could no longer say, “God is for and with me.” (438). This calamitous injustice casts Dantes whole mission of vengeance into a cloud of uncertainty. And in a moment of lucidity, the Count realizes, that he is not omniscient nor omnipotent; meaning he is not capable of administering punishment in such a way that someone undeserving is not harmed. Due to this realization, for the rest of the novel, the Count tussles with this doubt, and ultimately comes to the conclusion that only God has the right to act in the name of Providence.

Through the Journey of vengeance, Edmond Dantes comes to the realization that since he is not all knowing, he should not have the power to allot punishments; that right belongs solely to God. Dantes friend, Abbe Faria, was able to be an educator, teaching him the truths of himself. After Edmonds miraculous escape, Edmond took with him that new found knowledge and passion, and transferred its power into a fuel source for his new passion- revenge. From this point onwards, Edmond changes his name to the Count of Monte Cristo, in order to exact his vengeance under a disguise. But when Edward, a truly innocent victim was struck down, the Count, in a moment of clarity realized that he is not worthy to be administering punishment. From Edmond Dantes transforming into the Count of Monte Cristo, it is evident that Alexandre Dumas, was arguing that revenge is counter productive, and can lead to uncertain outcomes. Dumas is arguing that because Edmond is only mortal, and not all knowing, the result of his actions can never be determined, therefore revenge can never fully work to his benefit. Dumas outlines that instead of the endless search for happiness through vengeance, true peace of mind comes when a person lets go of grudges; when he has ultimate mercy.

INTRODUCTION

Ever wondered ‘Why we react in a certain way to a particular stimuli?’ and ‘Why some people are more prone to helping one another and some not?’. A Classic Greek philosopher, Plato states that “Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge”. Selfishness, often associated with negativity, although many a times the question ‘Why do some people turn out to be selfless while some selfish?’ arises. It’s completely acceptable to be described as either, after all its human behavior, which, in essence has a mind of it’s own. I strongly feel that the exposure we are faced with are what molds our behavior, be it negative or positive. Parenting helps in instilling key characteristics and is a building block towards the presence or absence of prosocial behavior, it helps shape a child which internally can make or break their moral and value system, indirectly leading to prosocial behavior. These various statements and questions bring out the curiosity behind Prosocial Behavior and what’s the main trigger and what essentially establishes these types of behaviours.

The starting point for research into Prosocial Behavior was through the investigation of The Bystander Effect. Catherine “Kitty” Genovese (1964) was brutally raped and stabbed to death in front of her apartment in Queens, New York, while thirty-eight people, all from her neighborhood witnessed (from the safety of their apartments), this incident was said to have lasted for about forty minutes, out of these thirty-eight witnesses, none took any action, neither active (trying to stop the attacker) nor passive (calling the police). In addition, in 2001, a group of young right-wing skinheads chased a young Greek man in Munich, Germany. Subsequently, they caught him and brutally beat him. Again, several individuals witnessed this incident however only one man from Turkey took action, which involved him pulling the blood-stained victim aside hence saving the victims life by risking his own. These two cases give rise to questions such as “What factors influence people to provide help or not to provide help?” which ultimately boils down to “What factors impact prosocial behavior?” since prosocial behavior in colloquial terms could be described as ‘helping behavior’.

According to The Handbook of Social Psychology, C. Daniel Batson explains that prosocial behaviors refer to “a broad range of actions intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself – behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing and cooperation.”

The term prosocial behavior originated during the 1970s and was investigated by social scientists as the opposite for the term antisocial behavior. Prosocial behavior has been a challenge to social scientists trying to understand the motifs or reasons behind why people engage in positive behaviors such as helping others, which tend to be beneficial to others and may result in harm for oneself. For example in some cases, people are ready to accept danger or any harm in order to help other people, even though they are completely unknown. Personal benefit such as feeling good about oneself is definitely not the only reason for this behavior being expressed in an individual. Research suggests that there are individual differences in prosocial behavior which are a varied combination of heredity, socialization, and situational factors. Prosocial behavior is known to be performed for numerous reasons, which range from selfish and manipulative reasons, such as helping someone to get something in return, to moral reasons, such as driving an injured person, lying on the road, to the hospital. Prosocial behavior that is not performed for social rewards, such as social approval, but is based on genuine concern for another or moral values, is labelled as ‘Altruism’.

According to Social Psychology literature, whether there is true altruism is still a question. Psychologists argue that there is always a selfish reason underlying altruistic motives. They argue that people actually help because of the psychological merging of the self with another, the desire to elevate or improve one’s own mood or to avoid negative feelings or a negative self-evaluation. People sometimes help others to alleviate their own feelings of distress when dealing with someone else in distress or need. Nonetheless, C. Daniel Batson has provided evidence that people often assist for sympathy, and there is likely at least some selfless motivation for some types of prosocial actions.

One of the most ground-breaking questions still left unanswered is ‘Why people help others?’, particularly if it’s consequence could cost them. Three broad theoretical approaches seek to explain the origins of prosocial behavior: natural explanations (evolutionary and genetic explanations), cultural approaches (sociocultural and social learning explanations), and psychological or individual-level explanations.

Evolutionary psychologists believe that evolutionary expectations make people naturally inclined to help one another. However, they tend to help only those who would help them in passing their own genes, hence this explains why people are more prone to help people related to them rather than strangers. Similarly, people are more likely to help others with similar physical characteristics, because they are more likely to pass along similar genetic characteristics to the next generation, explaining why people are more prone to help their friends, who are like them, rather than strangers.

It can also be argued that it is not genetics or evolution but culture and learning processes that help produce prosocial individuals. Social norms and socialization are used in explaining prosocial behavior in an individual. Within a society, we all feel social pressure, for example, if someone does something for you, you feel obligated to do something for them in return. A simple example we see in our everyday lives is if a friend bought you a treat or lunch, you tend to buy them something in return, or treat them some another time. Another social norm is equality within a society, an example of this could be charity, those who are more than wealthy are indirectly expected to be more charitable hence fixing the inequity between the rich and poor. Social responsibility is one of the main social norms within a society, people feel they are obliged to care for those in need, such as children, the elderly, people with physical disabilities, and other minority groups.

Robert B. Cialdini contends that feelings of empathy produce a merging with the other and experience of that person’s emotional pain, so the person helps others to relieve his or her own emotional pain, whereas C. Daniel Batson describes the desire to help another out of emphatic concern for the other’s well-being as more genuinely altruistic.

There are various studies done throughout the years to develop an understanding on what are the causes of prosocial behavior and what factor has a larger impact. Without doubt gender, age, the biological make-up, cognitive abilities certainly affect the behavior of a person. However theories such as The Social Learning Theory and Psychosocial Development, have shown the importance of parenting style and how it impacts the development of a child and their behavior. It also suggests the strong impact negative parenting or caregiving can result in negative characteristics being developed in the child, which leads to my research question “To what extent does Parenting impact Prosocial Behavior?”

“Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modelling from others” quoted by Albert Bandura. This could suggest why and how parenting plays an important role in how a child is brought up and its effect on their resulting behavior, such prosocial behavior. Essentially if a child is reared in an environment where there is a balance of discipline, love, affection and have a strong emotional and physical support system then the child is more prone to show prosocial behavior. From the moment of an individuals birth, they are always observing the behavioral patterns of their parents or siblings, however primarily their mothers, because of this they take their mothers as their role model and start mimicking their actions and reactions to certain stimuli. Certain examples, are when their mother is seen crying, the baby will tend to reciprocate that same feeling and begins to cry. Another example could be of the baby’s natural eating habits, if a mother tends to dislike a certain type of food, the baby is also more prone to dislike that certain food.

THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

When it comes to talking about the parents role in the behavior of their child, the theory of social learning can come into play, by Albert Bandura (1977). The base of his theory was the process of observational learning. This type of learning among children involves them engaging in observing the behavior of people around them. This is illustrated by the Bobo doll experiment, Bandura (1961). In society in general, children are surrounded by many role models, such as parents, for example. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and as a result imitate. Children pay attention to some of these models and encode their behavior, at a later time when put in a similar scenario they imitate the observed behavior, which was stored in their memory earlier.

THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

According to Erik Erikson (1959) psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. The first stage being Trust vs Mistrust, it is based on the basic virtue of hope. During this stage, the infant is not sure about the world they live in, they have no certainty, the child tends to look towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care and affection. If the care being received is consistent, reliable and predictable, they will develop a sense of trust which will lead them to sustaining and creating new relationships. If insufficient care is provided then the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will have no confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events, and will show heightened insecurities and anxiety. This shows that if adequate care and affection is provided the child will be able to develop healthy social relations and have better social competence, whereas if the child is provided with a lack of affection or minimum care then it would result in anxiety and would develop a lack of trust in people around them and would result in poor social competence.

Based on these two theories, the correlation between parenting and prosocial behavior can be investigated. The importance of a role model to observe and plays a huge role in a child’s early development, especially their behavior and actions. For example, a child is prone to reacting to any stimuli the exact same way they have seen others around them react when presented with that same particular stimuli. Another important factor being explained is that the relationship between the child’s parent or caregiver can impact a child’s social development and how well they can form further relationships. In order to further examine the impact of parenting the parenting style construct theory was proposed by Diana Baumrind (1996).

THE PARENTING STYLE CONSTRUCT THEORY AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Diana Baumrind, a developmental psychologist, delineated various parenting styles which can be classified along two dimensions: responsiveness (warmth) and demandingness (control). She defined parental responsiveness as “the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiescent to children’s special needs and demands” Baumrind, 1996, p.410, cited in Grolnick, 2003, p.6. Parental demandingness she referred to as “the claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family whole by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys” Baumrind, 1996, p.411, cited in Grolnick, 2003. She proposed three different types of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive.

Authoritative parenting style parents tend to score high in both dimensions (warmth and control). This encourages independence in their child while at the same time incorporating necessary limits on their behavior in order to maintain a good balance of discipline. This style allows for open parent-child communication in order to provide constant warmth and support for the child or children, Spera, 2005. This style of parenting also includes the parent attempting to provide valid explanations for certain rules and regulations they set in order to maintain a good balance in discipline.

Authoritarian parents tend to score poorly in the warmth dimension and high in the control dimension. They tend to apply unnecessary limits on their child’s behavior to the point where it becomes restrictive. Such parents expect unquestioned obedience and are intolerant of inappropriate behavior. Harsh, punitive measures are used to ensure compliance with rules and standards, Bush and Peterson (2007). They also have high expectations and high maturity demands for their child, which they communicate through rules and orders hence little verbal exchange is allowed and displays of affection are rather rare, Spera (2005).

Developmentalists have argued that this style can be subdivided into two groups, permissive-indulgent parenting (indulgent parenting) and permissive-indifferent parenting (neglectful parenting) Maccoby and Martin, (1983); cited in Santrock, (1995). The indulgent parent demonstrates high warmth and emotional involvement with their children but make very little demands and place few, if any, limits on their behavior, hence very low control, Santrock (2005). The neglectful parent is the opposite of the authoritative parent, being low on both dimensions of responsiveness (warmth) and demandingness (control). Like those in the indulgent category, they place very few restraints on their children and there is little monitoring of their children’s activities. However, they show very little warmth or affection as they are typically uninvolved in their children’s lives, Santrock (1995).

In addition to the two dimensions (responsiveness and demandingness), there is a third dimension: psychological control. This dimension refers to “control attempts that intrude into the psychological and emotional development of the child” Barber (1996) through use of parenting practices such as inducing guilt, withdrawal of love, or shaming. The psychological control dimension is the main difference between authoritarian and authoritative parenting. As mentioned earlier that both authoritarian and authoritative parents place high demands on their children and expect their child to behave appropriately and obey parental rules. Authoritarian parents, however, also expect their children to accept their judgements, values, and goals without any questions asked. In contrast, authoritative parents are more open to give and take with their children and make greater use of explanations. Hence authoritative parents tend to be low in psychological control when in comparison with the authoritarian parents.

Based on Diana Baumrind’s theory, different variations of research began which led to investigations on prosocial behavior and parenting with the help of supporting theories such Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development. Jan M.A.M. Janssens and Maja Dekovic (2010) examined the relations between child rearing and prosocial behavior. The sample consisted of 125 children (6-11 years of age) and both their parents. Child-rearing behavior was assessed through observations at home and interviews with parents; prosocial moral reasoning by interviews with the children, and prosocial behavior by questionnaires filled in by their teachers and classmates. The results showed that children growing up in a supportive, authoritative, and less restrictive environment behaved more prosocially and reasoned a higher level in regards to prosocial moral issues. This supports the notion that authoritative parenting has a direct positive impact on the presence of prosocial behavior in a child. Through this study it can be inferred that authoritarian parenting impacts the presence of prosocial behavior in a negative way, as this style of parenting includes a large number of restrictions and also provides support really rarely.

During childhood and adolescence, parents tend to be the main role models for their children hence parents play an important role in either fostering or hindering the process of values internalization. Grusec and Kuczynski, (1997); Grolnick, (2003). Grolnick et al., (1997) outlined three dimensions of parenting that seem to facilitate internalization of values, which in turn leads to an increase in prosocial behavior. The three dimensions being: parental involvement, autonomy support and structure. These three dimensions are similar to the dimensions of parenting as mentioned earlier. Baumrind, (1971); Maccoby and Martin, (1983); Steinberg et al., (1992). Since no studies have fully examined the role of these three facilitative parenting dimensions of involvement, structure and autonomy support in internalizing morals in adolescence there is a lack of empirical evidence, which in turn led Hardy et al., (2010) to explore relations between parenting dimensions and internalization of moral values in adolescence. They found that when adolescents observe their parents responding fairly and graciously to prosocial behaviors, they are more likely to be open to adopting the prosocial values their parents are following and in turn imitate the prosocial behavior as Bandura (1977) explained through the Social Learning Theory. To further investigate Grolnick, (2003) and Baumrind, (1971) parenting dimensions and its impact on prosocial behavior in adolescents, McGrath et al., (2003) examined the relationships with parents and peers and prosocial behavior among children aged 6-10 years. The children’s prosocial behavior was positively correlated with parental responsiveness and nurturance and negativity associated with the deprivation of rewards. Prosocial behavior was positively related to the amount of time spent in childcare before kindergarten. Hence results suggest that both parents and peers play a role in socializing prosocial behavior in children.

To further investigate the relations among dimensions of parenting styles, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and prosocial behaviors, longitudinal studies were carried out by Carlo et al., (2010). As established in Developmental Psychology, parents are clearly important in the role they play as fostering prosocial behaviors in adolescents, however longitudinal studies are varied hence the statement can’t be fully established. Carlo et al., (2010) over course of three successive years, examined 372 boys and 358 girls (mean age: 10.84 years) all from middle class community in Spain. Measures of fathers’ and mothers’ warmth and strict control, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, and self- and peer- reported prosocial behaviors. Results showed that parental warmth, sympathy, and prosocial moral reasoning were predictive of prosocial behaviors. To further support that maternal support is extremely important in shaping prosocial behaviors Padilla-Walker and Nelson (2010) found that high maternal attachment (authoritative parenting) was related to prosocial behavior for boys lower on fear, demonstrating that for fearless boys, the quality of the relationship with mothers may be particularly important. Liu, Chen, Zheng, Chen, and Wang, (2009) also found that mothers’ encouragement of connectedness (behaviors supporting emotional closeness and proximity, or the warmth dimension linked to Baumrind’s theory) predicted later helping and sharing for children who displayed high initial connectedness but for children who were low in connectedness.

An important aspect in regards to parenting style and prosocial behavior is parental inductions, which, refers to “the parents ability to provide valid explanations or reasons for requiring the child to either improve or alter their behavior and to also consider the affect it may have on another’s emotional or mental state.” Parental inductions have been positively associated with prosocial behavior in adolescents in Mexican American and European American families, this was found by psychologists Carlo, Knight et al., (2011) and Farrant, Devine, Maybery, and Fletcher, (2012). A child seems to be more compliant and submissive to rules or regulations set by parents when there is a valid explanation behind it. A mutual understanding between the child and parent allows the child to engage in learning and helps them to openly accept the actions or behavior the parent is trying to influence them through the use of rules and explanations for each.

ALTERNATIVE THEORIES FOR PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Socialization research, investigating the relationship between parenting and prosocial behavior, is relatively hard to interpret because a direct cause and effect relationship can’t be established. Hence prosocial behavior can’t solely be impacted by the child’s social environment such as parenting style and the type of interaction between one another. On the other hand, genetic research can provide evidence for the investigation of the effect of genes on prosocial behavior. Hence other factors such as genetic and personality differences, age and culture can play a role in impacting prosocial behavior in a child.

GENETICS

Researchers have isolated specific genes that may be related to prosocial behavior, which in turn influences individual differences. Evidence compiled by Israel S, Hasenfratz L, Knafo-Noam A. suggests a role for genes in the regulation of the activity of brain molecules which are involved in transferring information such neurotransmitters and hormones such as dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin, and vasopressin. Some research has also linked the presence of prosocial behavior in children to be linked with variations in the OCTR and AVPR1a genes. Lisabeth Fisher DiLalla, Kit K. Elam, Andrew Smolen, (2009) found that differences in the dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) are related to twins’ sharing with one another. However, DRD4 had no direct connection between sharing, though a gene-environment interaction was identified, showing that carriers of a certain variant of DRD4 had connotations with stronger associations between prosocial behavior and their attachment security or the parenting they received. To further investigate the genetic and environmental contributions to prosocial behavior, Hur, Yoon-Mi, and J Philippe Rushton, (2007) examined mothers’ ratings of prosocial behavior in 514 pairs of 2-9 year old South Korean monozygotic and dizygotic twins. It was concluded that genetic and environmental influences on prosocial behavior in young South Koreans are mostly similar to those in western samples.

HISTORICAL ROOTS

In discussion of the historical roots of prosocial behavior, evidence that voluntary actions that benefit others are a foundation of human and animal behavior. In the 1970’s, biologist Edward O. Wilson began studying social behaviors of animals and humans, (Sociobiology). He found that helping, and, even rescuing behaviors are innate in primates, helper bees, ants, wild fogs, and other species. Hence, developmental and social psychologists hold the animal world as proof for prosocial behavior being a preprogrammed biological function of humanity rather than solely nurtured or learned actions.

Often, one of the main reasons behind prosocial behavior are associated with religion. For example, majority of the primary monotheistic traditions, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, teach that helping the needy is a religious obligation. The emphasis on giving and helping, which is present in majority of the religions is one of the reasons why prosocial behavior is considered as a social norm and is imperative in majority of cultures.

A huge interest in prosocial behavior began because of the finding that this positive behavior could be a key to harmonious interpersonal and group relations, especially during the 1960’s. The Civil Rights movement and murder of Genovese captivated the nation’s attention, raised a concern in regards to why people do or do not engage in prosocial behavior, which in turn compelled social psychologists to study the psychological motivations that promote helping and sharing.

CONCLUSION

The style of parenting involved in the roots of prosocial behavior in a child stems from the explanation that a positive influence brings out or encourages prosocial behavior whereas negative influences diminish prosocial moral values gradually. Through active role models and the concepts of learning in humans, prosocial behavior is seen in an individual. However, alternate theories of instilling prosocial behavior argue that parenting alone cannot be directly associated with the presence of prosocial behavior, as parenting can be said to be dependent upon social interactions. Therefore, in order to determine: To what extent does parenting impact prosocial behavior, the social learning theory, psychosocial development theory, the parenting style construct theory were examined.

Various investigations have been directed that incorporates data on parent’s behavior in sports. “Adult involvement can be a discernable determinant of a child’s sport experience; therefore, shaping the positive and negative consequences that result from participation,” according to research by Blom and Drane (2008). For what reason do parents want to yell negative remarks, which youth sport receive the most negative input, and are young men or young women accepting progressively negative criticism amid youth sports? These are the issues this paper will look at to help better comprehend parents behaviors during sporting events.

Why Parents Sideline Talk

Why do parents feel the need to have certain behaviors during youth sporting events? According to (Brummelman et al., 2013), “from the early days of psychology, theorists have noted that parents are sometimes inclined to transfer their own unfulfilled ambitions onto their child.” Different parents have different goals for themselves and for their children. A great deal of parents do try to fulfill their own desires and goals through their children. Also stated by Brummelman et al. (2013), “parents may come to see their children as such symbols for their own success, and desire them to fulfill the ambitions they once held for themselves. Parents may feel that in their children their own unfulfilled ambitions can yet come true”. I understand that most people do not become what they once dreamed to be when they grew up, and out of those people a lot become parents so the inner desire for their children to succeed in sports may have some unfulfilled negative push from the parents. Suggested by (Kidman, McKenzie, & McKenzie, 1999), “parents have different expectations of their children in sport. Some may wish their children to do well because they feel that they missed out on the same opportunities when they were young.”

A second choice with respect to why guardians want to yell remarks amid youth events is, the parent’s apparent mastery and information of the specific game. As per examination by (Holt, Tamminen, Black, Sehn, and Wall, 2008), guardians that apparent to have master learning in a game were felt this enabled them understanding and to give criticism. The adequacy of the mentor becomes possibly the most important factor when negative remarks are made. There are a vast amount of parents that have a great deal of knowledge about whatever sport their children are playing; however, undermining the coach’s knowledge of the game is disrespectful and often makes sporting events a negative scene. According to (Dorsch, Smith, Wilson, & McDonough, 2015), “parents largely wanted their children to learn about sport and have fun; however, parents also reported changing some of their goals over time based on child outcomes and their evolving perceptions of the youth sport context. Often parent goals did not seem to align with verbal sideline behaviors.” Most guardians do not have master learning in any game and on the off chance that they happen to have this information, at that point conveying this message amid a game isn’t the perfect time.

Another choice with respect to why guardians want to yell negative remarks amid youth games is that they are endeavoring to help with a play or to help with a child’s form during a play. Research by Blom and Drane (2008) suggests, “the debate over the classification of instructional comments from spectators exists because augmented feedback is a recommended teaching behavior, but it is argued whether or not an instruction from spectators is actually helpful to athletes during play.” For a competitor to wind up an independent and skilled competitor then they cannot depend on verbal cues from viewing spectators. According to the study by Blom and Drane (2008), “when athletes become dependent on external feedback, they do not learn to use appropriate sensory feedback characteristics, so they have delays in skill development. Spectators and parents who consistently provide performance feedback to athletes may be, in fact, hindering their performance.” Being told by someone that one has done wrong after a play has already occurred is a negative feeling, in most cases the individual knows that they have done wrong so the comment is seen as unnecessary. According to the study by (Holt et al., 2008, p. 674), “comments were usually yelled as the child should have completed the play, or a ‘split-second’ later” and also said, “we assessed these comments as being controlling because they represented attempts to control the children’s on-field behavior”.

Which Sports Receive The Worst Parent’s Behaviors?

Which youth sports are getting the most negative remarks from the guardians? Children choose to play sports for different reasons, to be with their friends, to have fun, or because the sport is fun to them. Blom and Drane (2008) agree, “positive parent support is related to positive sports experiences for children.” “Coach reports were considered to be negative if they were perceived to directly or indirectly thwart the positive development of the child”, according to Ross, Mallett, & Parkes, (2015). That seems like a pretty obvious outcome I think most would agree with; however, parents and coaches are still going against that notion. The worst sport for parents to contribute negatively in seems to be youth baseball. Research by Blom and Drane (2008), recommends that one out of three of the parent’s remarks at an adolescent ball game are negative remarks. The kinds of negative remarks the guardians are making at youth baseball occasions is unnecessary and more aggressive. Although correcting comments, or also called instructional comments, can be seen as helpful; research suggested by Blom and Drane (2008) that “several factors must be taken into consideration when determining if the verbal cues provided by spectators are actually helpful.” Regardless of whether one were to contend that verbal signals from multiple observers somehow or another could be deemed useful, at that point the contention of accepting various prompts from different viewers would be considered ineffective mostly.

Parents Behavior in Boys VS Girls Sports

Do parents act differently at boys and girls sporting events? According to research by (Blom and Drane, 2008), the feedback at which is given in the girl’s events were much greater than that in which was given in the boy’s events. Are the comments being made at a higher rate in girl’s events negative comments or just more comments? Suggested by (Blom and Drane, 2008), “parents had a higher percentage of positive comments for the girls than they did for the boys.” It seems that more comments being made would be negative but not in this situation and also it seems that having more comments would create a problem for the competing athletes.

Conclusion

The investigation recognized and secured the greatness of the negative remarks being made in youth sports today by the guardians of the competitors; be that as it may, further examinations that limited down the negative effects required with guardians making negative remarks should be directed. Choosing a correct coach is the parent’s duty and a correct coach would be someone the parents believe has the educational or playing background success.

References

1. Blom, C. L.& Drane, D. (2008). Parents’ sideline comments: Exploring the reality of a growing issue. Athletic Insight, 10(3), 2-19.
2. Holt, N., Tamminen, A., Black, H., Sehn, J., & Wall R., (2008). Parental behaviors that affect junior tennis development. Psychology of sport and exercise, 11(6) 40-41.

Revenge in romantic relationships typically has negative consequences and is considered immoral, but it can also be considered beneficial. Revenge can cause unexpected and unintentional consequences that can be destructive in a relationship, but it can also be constructive and help regulate a relationship. It can encourage empathy and avoid future offences by showing the consequences of when one partner is vengeful. This study intends to analyze the costs and benefits of revenge in romantic relationships.

The participants were assigned to groups that focused on the good effects of revenge and bad effects of revenge. All the participants in the study were either in a relationship at the time or had been in one in the past. Almost half of them were still with the partner who had provoked them to get revenge, but most were in a different relationship at the time of the study. During the study, one group of participants was asked to remember a time they acted on the urge to get revenge on their partner, while the other group of participants was asked to remember a time when they felt the urge to get revenge on their partner but didn’t act on it.

The study included two phases of interviews. The first phase had the participant tell a story about a time they got revenge on their partner. In the second phase, the participant was asked a series of thorough questions to draw out any details that they may have left out in the initial telling of their story. After these phases, three coders analyzed the interviews and came up with a summary of the costs and benefits that the participants experienced by getting revenge.

The coders asked the participants to consider what may have been bad about getting revenge on their partner. The participants responded saying that getting revenge felt guilty and immoral, that it diminished their reputation, and that it harmed the relationship between them and their partner. They said that getting revenge had unpredictable consequences and never solved the problem at hand. The coders also asked the participants to consider what may have been good about getting revenge on their partner. They gave diverse responses saying that they felt less frustration towards their partner, more power in the relationship, and that they developed better communication skills. They also said that their partner became more empathetic after experiencing what they had felt.

The majority of the participants described both the costs and the benefits of getting revenge on their partner, but overall, they were significantly more likely to expand on why getting revenge is harmful than to expand on why it is beneficial. This leads me to believe that people are more likely to view the act of getting revenge as distasteful and destructive to their relationship and that although they may believe that it will help short-term, they know that it won’t benefit the relationship long-term.

This study extends my knowledge into psychology because it describes how a person’s emotions can override what they think is right and wrong. One of the few limitations of this study is that it only considers the effects of mild acts of revenge and does not consider the effects of more severe acts of revenge. Therefore, more studies should be done to compare the severities of revenge and how they affect relationships differently.

If you know anything about brain training, then you will understand that it is a concept that is part of human existence. This concept can be expressed in one’s ability to retain information, focus on something, remember information, and so on. However, the rate at which a person’s brain functions may be different from another, which has been proven by science to be a result of influence and biological makeup.

In this post, we would be taking a look at the difference between intelligent and smart; two concepts that connote the rate at which a person reacts to a matter. Despite having similar meanings, these two are distinctly different as we are about to show you.

DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is simply defined as one’s innate ability to acquire knowledge. For a better understanding of this term, let us take a look at the keywords in the definition. First is “innate”, which means “inborn or natural”.

From the definition, this term states that a person’s level of cleverness is determined by their biological makeup; genetics, to be specific. It can be inherited from one or both parents; mostly the mother. According to science, a category of genes known as the “conditioned genes” is responsible for a child’s level of assimilation, and would mostly work if a child inherits it from the mother.

Another noteworthy keyword in the definition is the terms “acquire”, which means “to obtain or get”. This term, according to the definition, can be interpreted as thus; no matter how super clever a person is, it is impossible to prove it if the person is not subjected to acquisition of knowledge. It is in the process of acquiring knowledge that one can tell how clever a person is judging by the person’s rate of assimilation.

One thing you can take away from the smart vs intelligent comparison is that the latter is not much of a practical term. It can only be expressed through a person’s actual ability to understand and information in comparison to others.

DEFINITION OF SMART

Smart is defined as a person’s ability to apply prior knowledge in making decisions. The first obvious difference between smart and intelligent is that the latter is an innate ability a person is born with, while the former is an ability that can be acquired. From the definition, you can see that it describes a person’s ability to applied acquired knowledge. This means that these two work hand in hand. Without knowledge, there would be nothing to act on.

From another point of view, this term can also be defined as an attitude that can be adopted, either from school, books, movies, experiences, and so on. Here is a fun observation we made from comparing these terms: “an intelligent person may not be smart, but a smart person is intelligent”.

Note that this term involves a certain level of practicality. it is a process that involves acquiring knowledge and applying the applied knowledge in different situations are required.

MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE VS SMART

At this point, we hope you understand how both these terms are different from one another judging by their definitions. In this section, we would throw more light on their specific differences with regards to the method of acquisition, qualification, and nature.

MODE OF COMPARISON INTELLIGENCE SMART

Definition One’s innate ability to acquire knowledge A person’s ability to apply prior knowledge in making decisions

• Refers to Intellect of a person Intellect, certain reactions, and appearance of a person
• Method of acquisition Inherited from the parent by genetic transfer Acquired by external influence like books, experience, movies, and so on
• Quantification Measured by IQ tests Not measurable
• Nature Not practical Mostly practical

CONCLUSION

Finally, we would conclude by saying this about the intelligence vs smart comparison; the former may be appreciated by people, but it does not bring any benefits per se. Every knowledge assimilated cannot be of help to anyone, except it is practically expressed in certain situations, in which case, the person is said to be smart. You may want to know that the former can be in different forms like mathematical, linguistics, music, spatial, interpersonal, and so on.

Introduction

The transpersonal theory suggests that there are developmental stages beyond the adult ego. It focuses on the spiritual and moral development of human connections beyond the physical realm. All the while identifying self-actualization between humans and the spiritual components of the universe, transpersonal theory also connects human values with spiritual experience (Barker, 2014). The theory itself does not promote any specific belief system; instead, it views spiritual connectedness as a major part of human experiences across different cultures (Kasprow & Scotton, 1999).

Origins of Transpersonal Theory

“While the field did not formally begin until the 1960s, it has its roots in early work by phycologist including William James and Carl Jung” (Cherry, 2018, para. 2). The term transpersonal therapy was introduced in the 1960s by Abraham Maslow and Viktor Frankl (Cherry, 2018). “This field utilizes psychological methods and theories to examine spiritual subject matter” (Cherry, 2018, para. 1).

William James was a psychologist and philosopher. He studied at Havard Medical School where he later became a psychology professor. Carl Jung was a Swiss psychologist and psychoanalyst. He performed assessments on patients at the Burghölzli Asylum of the University of Zürich in the 1900s, which kicked off his career as a psychoanalyst. “Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist perhaps best known as one of the founders of humanistic psychology and for his famous hierarchy of needs” (Cherry, 2019, para. 1). He earned all three of his degrees in psychology from the University of Wisconsin by 1934 (Cherry, 2019). “Viktor Frankl is the founder of logotherapy” (Cunic, 2019, para. 1). Frankl obtained his medical degree from the University of Vienna Medical School, and he was the director of the Neurological Department of the Rothschild Hospital.

“In addition to using psychology to better understand spiritual experiences, transpersonal psychology also strives to provide a deeper and richer understanding of individuals and to help them achieve their greatest potential” (Cherry, 2019). “The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology began publication in 1969 and in 1971 the Association for Transpersonal Psychology was established” (Cherry, 2019). Robert Frager founded the Institution of Transpersonal Psychology in Palo Alto, in 1975. These psychologists studied, and researched transpersonal therapy closely.

Transpersonal Theory

The transpersonal theory focuses on spirituality, high potential, transcendence, and other states of consciousness (Cherry, 2019). It proposes that there are developmental stages beyond the adult ego, which involve connectedness with the spiritual phenomena. The transpersonal theory postulates that individuals possess the capacity to heal themselves through spiritual growth (Vaughan, 1979). Clients are able to access one’s higher level of consciousness, including the soul (Barker, 2014). “It also provides a deeper understanding of individuals to help them achieve their greatest potential” (Cherry, 2019, para. 2). The theory suggests that the “awakening” of an individual includes self-identification and integration, dis-identification with the humanistic ego, and transcendence identification a higher knowledge of self (Vaughan, 1979).

“The emphasis on individual development in transpersonal psychology is to ensure the effective cultivation of intuitive ways of knowing that complements a person’s unique psychological and spiritual being” (“Transpersonal psychology,” n.d., para 11). Some of the commonly used methods of the transpersonal approach are journal writing, yoga therapy, meditation, regression therapy, and symbolic artwork. These methods are used in a way that clients are able to apply them beyond therapeutic sessions.

Transpersonal Theory in Social Work

Transpersonal theory covers what is sometimes missed in social work practice to ensure the client’s willpower to stay on track, and that is the spiritual aspect of changing one’s lifestyle. Although the theory wasn’t originally introduced by social workers, it inhabits many values and ethical principles of the profession itself. In relation to the dignity and worth of a person, the transpersonal theory helps social workers gain the cultural competence of clients and use their beliefs to help them overcome obstacles. It aids in the understanding and tolerance of diversity as well.

The theory recognizes spiritual and religious diversity, addresses the spiritual dimension of human behavior, and approaches empowerment through practice (“Transpersonal Theory”, 2017). Transpersonal theory focuses on the spiritual domain of a client, allowing the practitioners to develop awareness of diverse cultural and social experiences. Using logotherapy, expressive arts techniques, hypnotherapy, and journaling, the theory enhances self-awareness, personal purpose, and self-understanding.

Works Cited

• Transpersonal Social Work: A Theory for the 1990s. (1993). Social Work. doi: 10.1093/sw/38.5.527

Transpersonal psychology and theory pertain to the spiritual dimension of human nature and higher states of consciousness. This approach is relevant for the social work practice to combat the social problems in the 1990s. It is the only theory that incorporates the spiritual element of human behavior as healthy and representing human potential. Other theories do not recognize higher levels of consciousness, and so their use may prohibit the optimal development of the spiritual dimension. The practice challenges facing social workers in the postmodern age call not only for the development of a more complex and inclusive understanding of what it means to be fully human. Transpersonal theory allows and assists substantial wholeness in human consciousness.

• Au-Deane S. Cowley & David Derezotes (1994) Transpersonal Psychology and Social Work Education, Journal of Social Work Education, 30:1, 32- 41, DOI: 10.1080/10437797.1994.10672211

Social workers in the 1990s are facing a postmodern world, with unique practice challenges in both the micro and macro levels of practice. Many of the challenges for social work practitioners today are related to the spiritual dimension or what has been labeled “spiritual malaise,” including values deficits, moral apathy, existential despair, and spiritual emergencies. Transpersonal psychology is the only one of the four force theories that includes the spiritual dimension. Social work education must incorporate comprehension of the transpersonal theory to understand the spiritual dimension of human behavior.

References

1. Barker, R. L. (2014). The social work dictionary. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
2. Cherry, K. (2019, June 29). Abraham Maslow Is the Founder of Humanistic Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908- 1970-2795524.
3. Cherry, K. (2018, May 18). The Practice of Transpersonal Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-transpersonal-psychology-2795971.
4. Cuncic, A. (2019, June 4). An Overview of Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy. Retrieved September 27, 2019, from https://www.verywellmind.com/an-overview-of-victor-frankl-s- logotherapy-4159308.
5. Kasprow, M. C., & Scotton, B. W. (1999). A review of transpersonal theory and its application to the practice of psychotherapy. Retrieved September 25, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3330526/
6. Transpersonal psychology. (2014, June 24). Retrieved September 27, 2019, from https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/transpersonal- psychology. html#howdoestranspersonalpsychologywork.
7. Transpersonal Theory. (2017, March 15). Retrieved September 30, 2019, from https://padlet.com/khjota/transpersonal.
8. Vaughan, F. (1979). Transpersonal psychotherapy: Context, content and process. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 11(2), 101-110
9. Vaughan, F. (1979). Transpersonal psychotherapy: Context, content and process. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 11(2), 101-110
10. Vaughan, F. (1979). Transpersonal psychotherapy: Context, content, and process. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 11(2), 101-110.

As many words really do sound or appear similarly, they often create a lot of confusion for people while speaking or writing. Many people are either confused or sometimes do not even know there are significant differences between such words. Avenge vs. revenge is found among such pairs of words with almost the same sound and similar spellings but really do have distinctive differences in context and meaning. And in order to use these two words fittingly and accurately, it is necessary to study them. This guide is prepared to show you the difference between revenge and avenge so you don’t have to doubt or get confused about them and their usage subsequently.

Definition of Avenge

Avenge is the act of punishing a person for the wrong they have done with the motive of making justice. Avenge portrays an action and therefore can only be used as a verb in a sentence. Unlike revenge, it is less personal and more concerned about obtaining justice for such a situation. It suggests harming or punishing a particular person when another is looking to vindicate someone else other than for them. Let us see some examples;

• The man was avenged after the wicked man sentenced
• “We are not interested in avenging her death,” her family said.
• Don’t worry. I will avenge all who are responsible for this unlawful act
• The police avenged his son’s death

Importantly, avenge pays more attention to obtaining retribution or justice rather than retaliation, and it is sometimes done on behalf of others.

Definition of Revenge

Revenge is a verb, and it refers to the act of harming someone in retaliation for the bad deeds, which was formally done by them. It simply refers to the harm or act of vengeance for the wrongs and bad deeds of someone. The aim or intent for revenge at most time is not channeled for justice but majorly for personal reasons or for the sake of vengeance. Let us see some examples of how it is being used;

• We are ready to revenge (verb) our failures in our past games.
• Revenge is not as easy and fast as you think; we need to study the case first.
• After she summarized the story, the lady was so overwhelmed get revenge (noun).
• We are ready to revenge (verb) the death of our father.

Revenge always arose from a feeling of resentment, anger, or hatred about the wrong of others, and it is the personal form of vengeance. A good illustration of that is from the first example above, the team were not dangerously attacked or hurt by others, but they felt humiliated, and then they developed a strong will to revenge. Loosing in such games is neither unlawful nor sinful, but their loss became a drive for anger.

Conclusion

Using revenge vs. avenge accurately in speech or writings require careful observation of the situation in order to choose the right word for the sentence. Sometimes, it is quite difficult to instantaneously detect the best fit among the two for a sentence. However, a quick grammatical trick to detect or distinguish them is to know that revenge can be used as a noun and a verb while avenge can only function as a verb. Finally, revenge is more desperate and strong-willed to return deeds and punishment than avenge. However, these two could mean a fight for what had been done wrongly, and with the differences above you can distinctively use them.

Introduction: Schizophrenia and Its Complexities

Schizophrenia is a disorder that causes the patient to experience psychosis, which is a loss of contact with reality. The amount of people who suffer from schizophrenia is estimate to be around 21 million in the world, with 3.6 million being from the US (Comer, 2018. para. 422). It is important to note that a big portion of people with schizophrenia attempt suicide and have higher risks of experiencing fatal illnesses. This leads to a decrease in the life expectancy for people with schizophrenia by ten to twenty years (Comer, 2018. para. 422). For someone to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, he or she needs to show two or more symptoms continuously for one month. The symptoms for this disorder include: hallucinations, disorganized speech, delusions, negative symptoms and bizarre behavior. The symptoms mentioned are called positive symptoms given that they are added to the behavior of the patient. Negative symptoms are defined as the absence of normal behavior such as social withdrawal, poverty of speech and avolition. After the first month of exhibiting the symptoms, the individual must show functional impairment for an additional five months, meaning that the symptoms must be present for at least six months. The DSM 5 states that two one of these symptoms need to be present, but one of those symptoms need to be either hallucinations, disorganized speech or delusions.

Etiological Perspectives: Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Views

There are a different number of etiologies that try to explain schizophrenia. The biological perspective argues that schizophrenia can be caused due to genetic factor such as family links. Schizophrenia is more common among family members, where “some people inherit a biological predisposition to schizophrenia and develop this disorder later when they face extreme stress, usually during late adolescence or early adulthood” (Comer, 2018. para. 432). Researchers also found that the average age of onset for schizophrenia is around twenty three for males and twenty eight for women. The biology view also supports the Dopamine Hypothesis. The Dopamine Hypothesis states that there are neurons in the brain that fire dopamine too often, causing the symptoms of schizophrenia. The biological perspective has been the view with the most research support. On the other hand, the psychological perspective argues that family plays a role in schizophrenia. Parents who do not pay the attention necessary to their kids or give them confusing or contradictory messages can lead to schizophrenia. These types of parents are called schizophrenogenic (schizophrenia-causing) parents. This was later found to be a myth since “the majority of people with schizophrenia do not appear to have mothers who fit the schizophrenogenic description” (Comer, 2018. para. 438). Another psychological etiology is the cognitive behavioral perspective. Cognitive-behavioral theorists believe that schizophrenia can be caused due to operant condition in which the individual is rewarded with attention or other type of reinforcement for responding to irrelevant cues instead of socially accepted cues, causing them to have bizarre responses. Additionally, individuals with schizophrenia tend to feel unreal sensations and when the individual asks about these types of sensations, most people will deny them since they never occurred. This causes the individual to believe that everyone else is lying, giving rise to a “ rational path of madness” in which they start to develop their own theories of what is happening. Lastly, the sociocultural view argues that schizophrenia can be caused due to multicultural factors, social labelling and family dysfunction. Multicultural factors takes in consideration the socioeconomic status, genetic and environmental differences. For social labeling, self-fulfilling prophecy can be taken into account. For family dysfunction, hostile treatment and criticism by family members can lead to schizophrenia.

Treatment Approaches: Medication and Therapy

Each perspective has their own treatment to deal with schizophrenia. For the biological perspective, the treatment they use are second-generation antipsychotic drugs. These antipsychotic drugs can be divided into typical and atypical antipsychotics. Typical antipsychotics will block D-2 dopamine receptors. The blocking of these receptors can lead to side effects on other regions of the brain such as involuntary movements and muscle tremors. For the atypical antipsychotics, the treatment is very similar but it decreases the amount of dopamine receptors and increase serotonin and norepinephrine receptors. Atypical antipsychotics helps in decreasing the side effects that typical antipsychotics cause. On the other hand, the psychological perspective tends to ignore these different cues and focuses on normal cues to reinforce normal behavior. Therapists also help patients in change the way they react to their hallucinations. For the sociocultural perspective, treatment can be family therapy in which the therapy addresses issues in the family, provides education about schizophrenia and creates realistic expectation about the patient. Another treatment that can be used is social therapy, which address social and personal conflicts of the patient.

“Shutter Island”: A Cinematic Exploration of Schizophrenia

The movie “Shutter Island” directed by Martin Scorsese, portrays a young man called Andrew Laeddis (Leonardo DiCaprio), a white male around thirty six years old from Hull, Massachusetts, who suffers from schizophrenia. He is a middle-class man, who’s occupation is a US marshal. He married a woman who suffers with bipolar disorder and had three children with her. Andrew served in the army during World War II, which ended up being a traumatic experience for him. One day, his wife decides to drown their three children in a lake near the house and Andrew eventually ends up killing his wife as a result. Due to the death of his wife and kids, Andrew starts hallucinating and believes someone else killed his family. He is later sent to an asylum for the mentally insane.

As mentioned, one of the symptoms of schizophrenia is hallucinations. This is portrayed accurately in the movie since Andrew would experience these hallucinations and no one else would experience these sensations. Andrew believes that everyone else is lying and starts developing this conspiracy in which he is being drugged by the staff of the hospital. Moreover, the age of onset for patients with schizophrenia is around twenty three for men. This is somewhat accurate for the portrayal of Andrew given that he is around thirty years old and has been in the mental institution for around two years. The movie also had accurate portrayals on how his family situation can influence his behavior. One of the etiologies for the sociocultural perspective is family stress, in which conflict and communication difficulties can create a disturbance in the family. These factors can range from unemployment to even death in the family. Andrew experienced this sort of stress since he had to deal with the death of his wife and kids. Another accurate portrayal from the movie is that Andrew may have been experiencing social labelling since he was referred to as the “most dangerous patient in the hospital” leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Andrew was given so much attention by the doctors and guards, that they even decided to follow Andrew’s conspiracy as method for treating his mental illness, which could lead to operant conditioning and causing Andrew to experience his schizophrenia even more.

Fact vs. Fiction: Analyzing the Accuracy of “Shutter Island”

Even though Shutter Island made accurate portrayals of schizophrenia, the movie also offered inaccurate representations of such mental illness. First of all, at the end of the movie they psychiatrist explains that the last resort for treating Andrew’s illness is a lobotomy. A lobotomy is a psychosurgery that involves cutting down different connections in the prefrontal lobe by using an ice pick and insert it through the eye with a hammer; the ice pick divides the frontal lobe and the thalamus. Since the movie takes place in 1951, the lobotomy was one of the treatments for mental illnesses. However, the movie makes it seem as if the lobotomy’s function is to erase the patient’s memory. This can be derived by Andrew’s quote “Which would be worse: to live as a monster or to die as a good man?”. This quote means that if Andrew accepts the lobotomy, he will forget what he did and be a “good man” but if he refuses the lobotomy, he will live with the knowledge his wife and kids’ deaths and therefore, live as a “monster”. Even though the use of a lobotomy is somewhat accurate in the film, the side effects are much different “While a small percentage of people supposedly got better or stayed the same, for many people, lobotomy had negative effects on a patient’s personality, initiative, inhibitions, empathy and ability to function on their own. The main long-term side effect was mental dullness. People could no longer live independently and lost their personalities” (Lewis, T. 2014). Another inaccurate representation in the film is that the movie did not focus on the other symptoms of schizophrenia. Andrew did show delusions and hallucinations but other symptoms such as social withdrawal, poverty of speech and abnormal motor activity were not present in the film. This stands as a misrepresentation of schizophrenia which makes it seems as if the only symptoms are delusions and hallucinations, but it is far more than that. Another inaccurate representation in the movie is that schizophrenic patients need to be in an asylum for the mentally insane. Throughout the movie, we see different patients interacting with Andrew and they’re all portrayed as if they can’t live a normal functional life. Also, the fact that this mental institution is located on an island, appears to be as if people with mental disorders need to be separated from society and have no contact with the real world. This is proven to be false given that people with this mental disorder are able to live a productive and normal life.

Conclusion: The Multifaceted Nature of Schizophrenia

The movie “Shutter Island” portrayed the disorder authentically in some aspects, but it was also inaccurate with others. The movie depicted very well how people with schizophrenia can’t distinguish the real sensations from those that are not. Contrarily, the movie portrayed very poorly the effects of a lobotomy, considering information given is from a patient’s quote. I think a person with this disorder could relate with the character but it is obvious that the movie shows the incorrect stigma that people with schizophrenia had traumatic experiences. The movie also omitted other symptoms from schizophrenia, leading to misinformation about the mental illness to the viewer. Furthermore, I believe the movie did a good job in portraying how a schizophrenic patient experiences these delusions and hallucinations that even the viewer can’t tell what is real and what’s not until the end of the movie. I would give “Shutter Island” a B when it comes to portraying schizophrenia.

References

1. Comer, R. & Comer, J. (2018). Abnormal Psychology (10th Ed). New York: Worth Publishers.
2. Lewis, T. (2014, August 29). Lobotomy: Definition, Procedure & History. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/42199-lobotomy-definition.html
3. The New DSM-5: Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mentalhelp.net/schizophrenia/the-new-dsm-5/

The study found that musical preference is something that might change with time or mood, while musical taste is a long term trait. This source brings up the interesting comparison between music and personality with the Big Five personality characteristics; instead of making five main categories of music based on music, they are based on personality traits.

“The factor analysis revealed the presence of five major factors named as – Intense and Electronic; Devotional and Cultural; Emotional and Melodious; Spiritual and Reflective; and Contemporary and Rhythmic, underlying the 23 genres. Results showed that except for contemporary and rhythmic dimensions of music preference, all other music preference styles were related to one or the other personality dimensions.” (Upadhyay, Shukla, and Chakraborty 2017)

Instead of categorizing all musical genres into major genres based on the music, this study analyzed them and was able to categorize genres based on personality influences. They found that almost all genres were able to be connected to at least one of the personality dimensions described.

Peer pressure is a very common topic in research and discussion, and even music cannot escape the allure of good friends telling you to follow them. In their research and article, Miranda and Claes narrow down their study from all music genres to a set of four different rap genres, and they aim to determine the different effects of these genres on a group of 348 adolescents. It cites a different study that found that a preference for rap was related to antisocial behavior, lower academic achievement, and delinquency, but also states that this choice of music could also be a result instead of a cause (Miranda & Claes, 2004). Again, it could go either way depending on how it is looked at, but most of the time it is easiest to see how music preference is a result, not a cause, of personality and behavior differences.

It also brings up the influence that peer groups have, that they usually have similar music preferences, and that peer groups are the most important factor affecting adolescent behavior. People might also choose music to attempt to fit in or as a way of connecting with others in their situations. One study explores the common stereotypes surrounding many musical genres, and it seeks to determine if these stereotypes can be projected onto the individual who listens to that music. In one study, a recording was played, and the subjects had to answer various questions about the person making the music, even though their faces were never shown. People typically associated country music with rural, White areas, while they associated hip-hop with minority groups (Lastinger 2011). Stereotypes in music are very common, as many artists come up with ideas for song based on where they came from or based on people related to them. This results in many songs that are easy for certain groups of people to connect with, and for those who connect with violent songs, this could mean validation for more violent behavior. When they listen to their favorite songs and hear about all the things that the artist writes about, which includes drugs, violence, or something similar, they might be more motivated to repeat those actions. Many sources have so far lead to the conclusion that for the most part, it is music that is influenced by personality, but in this case, the view is the opposite. It has yet to be established clearly how choice of music actually has an effect on behavior, and it is best to first show how people can be influenced by music.

In their article, Sweeny and Wyber focus on the effects of music on shoppers and customers in different stores, but they also go into detail on the effects that certain aspects of music may have on a person’s behavior. The study investigated some core parts of music including tempo and genre, and it attempted to take into account the variance in different preferences for music that people have. It was conducted in a store where the variables changed were tempo (below 70 or above 126 BPM) and genre (top 40 or classical). This article argues that previous studies failed to account for musical preference, making it a unique and possibly more accurate study (Sweeny and Wyber, 2002). It found that significantly more people remained in the store for longer, bought more, and generally though the store was worth more money and time with classical music playing in the background. They spent less money and time inside if pop music was playing. Although it may seem fairly unrelated, this study demonstrates that people can be affected by music behaviorally, a crucial first part to the argument that it can lead to aggressiveness. None of the test subjects knew what the test was about, so they subconsciously decided to remain inside or leave, responding to the music without even thinking about it.

Pettijohn, Williams, and Carter focus on the different preferences for music that college students had during different times of the year and what that could mean. Their article cites other research finding that music is very important in the daily lives of many people, being found almost everywhere throughout the day. This is important in determining how much of an impact music might have, as finding it in more places likely will increase its influence. For adolescents and teenagers especially, music is everywhere. Teens will spend more time listening to music than anything else, even school, because it is easy nowadays to listen in many settings. Because of this, music will have the greatest effect on teens. The article also references how multiple stereotypes about music preferences have been confirmed by studies, such as how rock fans typically consume a lot of alcohol and drugs (Pettijohn, Williams, and Carter, 2010). This is an example of the influence of music affecting those who listen to it often. There are likely many rock fans who did not take part in the previously described activities, but did after a concert or gathering involving their favorite music. Large crowds at these sorts of events are the easiest way to influence others, especially adolescents in a crowd of their friends.

Another one of the primary influencers of music taste, besides friends, is family. An article by Bogt, Delsing, van Zalk, Christenson, and Meeus aims to find links between the preferences of parents and their children in music genres, including pop, rock, highbrow, and dance. Its study found that education was one link to one’s music taste, along with parental influence. Music preferences of parents could be used in many but not all cases to predict adolescent music preferences. For example, if the parents had an affinity for highbrow music, then their children likely would as well, but if the parents preferred rock music, only daughters seemed to be influences by this preference. Some of these connections are almost random, but in general, children are influenced some amount by the preferences of their parents. Family is one of the only groups that adolescents will spend more time with than friends, so it is easy for music taste to transfer. Family has the biggest initial impact in music choice, as children do not get much music experience outside of what their parents allow.

Finally, the link between certain genres of music and aggressive behavior can be established. An article by Bogt, Tom, Keijsers, and Meeus investigates the link between the preferred genre of music of adolescents and subsequent delinquency. Its study looked at different genres of music including different types of rock, some types of African American music, electronic music, conventional pop, and highbrow music. The results showed that those who preferred rock, African American, or electronic music were more likely to show elevated minor delinquency, while those who preferred pop and highbrow music showed no delinquency. It states, “Early music preferences emerged as more powerful indicators of later delinquency rather than early delinquency, indicating that music choice is a strong marker of later problem behavior” (Bogt, Tom, Keijsers, and Meeus, 2013). The effect of earlier music preferences rather than later ones places a greater importance on family, as they are more likely to be able to control what their child listens to and is exposed to. The specific results of the study are as follows:

“The results showed that early fans of different types of rock (eg, rock, heavy metal, gothic, punk), African American music (rhythm and blues, hip-hop), and electronic dance music (trance, techno/hardhouse) showed elevated minor delinquency concurrently and longitudinally. Preferring conventional pop (chart pop) or highbrow music (classic music, jazz), in contrast, was not related to or was negatively related to minor delinquency.” (Bogt, Tom, Keisers, and Meeus, 2013)

Many of these results are predictable based on the genres of music specified, but some, such as conventional pop, are somewhat surprising, as pop can have very similar themes and content. It is true that delinquency in young people likely stems from other sources as well and leads to certain music tastes. However, certain aspects and behaviors can be attributed to music at least somewhat.

In general, music can be used to predict to genre and style of music that someone prefers listening to. However, beyond that, it also can work the other way around and have effects on the personality of the person listening to it. Violent, antisocial themes and lyrics depicted in the favorite songs of teenagers or adolescents might lead them to replicate those actions. The reason why adolescents gravitate towards this type of music is not just one reason. Family has the biggest initial impact in music preference, as children are not exposed to much music outside of what their parents put on. However, adolescents and teenagers are strongly affected by peer pressure, so a few people listening to a song can influence a whole school to do the same. Adolescents’ gravitation towards this music is not something new; heavy metal was the popular genre for rebellion before the 2000s, and afterwards, rap gained more and more popularity. The influence of music is undeniable, even on the behaviors and personalities of people that listen to it.

References

1. Ballard, M. E., Dodson, A. R., & Bazzini, D. G. (1999). Genre of music and lyrical content: Expectation effects. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160(4), 476-487. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/228451488?accountid=193936
2. Bryson, B. (1996). ‘Anything but heavy metal’: Symbolic exclusion and musical dislikes. American Sociological Review, 61(5), 884. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/218835740?accountid=193936
3. Clark, S. S., & Giacomantonio, S. G. (2013). Music preferences and empathy: Toward predicting prosocial behavior. Psychomusicology, 23(3), 177-186. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1552835029?accountid=193936
4. Delsing, M. J. M. H., Bogt, T. F. M. t., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2008). Adolescents’ music preferences and personality characteristics. European Journal of Personality, 22(2), 109. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.665
5. Dobrota, S., & Ercegovac, I. R. (2015). The relationship between music preferences of different mode and tempo and personality traits – implications for music pedagogy. Music Education Research, 17(2), 234. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1673474887?accountid=193936
6. Ginocchio, J. F. (2008). Fifth-grade listeners’ music style preferences: A ranking of contemporary popular music styles and comparison to leblanc, 1979. Contributions to Music Education, 35, 9-21. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/222277803?accountid=193936
7. Hunter, P. G. (2011). The malleability of music preferences: Effects of individual differences and the listening context (Order No. NR77826). Available from ProQuest Central Student. (927931462). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/927931462?accountid=193936
8. Kopacz, M. (2005). Personality and music preferences: The influence of personality traits on preferences regarding musical elements. Journal of Music Therapy, 42(3), 216-39. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/223566060?accountid=193936
9. Lastinger, Daniel L, V, MM,M.T.-B.C., N.I.C.U.-M.T. (2011). The effect of background music on the perception of personality and demographics. Journal of Music Therapy, 48(2), 208-25. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/873589141?accountid=193936
10. Miranda, D., & Claes, M. (2004). Rap music genres and deviant behaviors in french-canadian adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(2), 113-113+. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013423.34021.45
11. Pettijohn,Terry F.,,II, Williams, G. M., & Carter, T. C. (2010). Music for the seasons: Seasonal music preferences in college students. Current Psychology, 29(4), 328-345. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12144-010-9092-8
12. Rentfrow, P. J., Goldberg, L. R., & Levitin, D. J. (2011). The structure of musical preferences: A five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1139. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/876080252?accountid=193936
13. Schwartz, K. D., & Fouts, G. T. (2003). Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(3), 205-213. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022547520656
14. Bogt, T.,F.M., Delsing, M. J. M. H., van Zalk, M., Christenson, P. G., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2011). Intergenerational continuity of taste: Parental and adolescent music preferences. Social Forces, 90(1), 297-319. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/90.1.297
15. Bogt, Tom FM, PhD, Keijsers, L., PhD., & Meeus, W. H. J., PhD. (2013). Early adolescent music preferences and minor delinquency. Pediatrics, 131(2) Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1283848128?accountid=193936
16. Upadhyay, D. K., Shukla, R., & Chakraborty, A. (2017). Factor structure of music preference scale and its relation to personality. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 43(1), 104-113. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1874354277?accountid=193936

Introduction

Schizophrenia has existed for hundreds of years but was more recognised as its own mental disease in 1887 by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin who called it ‘dementia praecox’, meaning dementia in early life, this was changed to schizophrenia in 1910 by Swiss psychiatrist Paul Eugen Bleuler, where in Greek ‘schizo’ means split and ‘phren’ means mind. (Burton, 2012)

The disease is a progressive neurodevelopment disorder which affects 1% of the world’s population, of those affected 80% has a hereditary form (Vrijenhoek, et al., 2008), the remaining sufferers have environmental schizophrenia; not all people who have a hereditary form suffer symptoms and environmental stimulus can cause symptoms to appear in both hereditary and environmental schizophrenia.

This graded unit will focus on the causes of hereditary schizophrenia, looking at the human genome and brain and how alterations to specific areas can cause the disease, with a brief look at the areas that may have an effect on the dopaminergic and glutamatergic regions, and how these can have an effect on the symptoms of the disease.

There is conflicting data as to which chromosomes are responsible for schizophrenia; several different chromosomes have been associated with the disease, the most researched is chromosome 22, deletions on this chromosome appear frequently in genome analysis in sufferers. Chromosomes 6 and 10 have also been associated with schizophrenia.

SNPs have been analysed for their association with the disease, although in general SNPs associated with disease are non-coding (Law, et al., 2016) they could possibly have an effect on gene splicing and expression which could in turn effect protein function and distribution (Law, et al., 2016).

Just as important as SNPs in the human genome are CNVs located on chromosomes, these are inherited from parents and the more disease associated CNVs an individual has the more severe the disease is likely to be. The same techniques used to identify SNPs are used for CNVs, the copy number calculations are estimated as de novo CNVs are also included as these cannot be identified and separated during the process; alterations to CNVs can disrupt genes and functional sequences in the chromosomal segment where they are located.

The symptoms of schizophrenia may not appear until adolescence or early adulthood, the onset can depend on previous trauma or substance abuse as well as the mutations inherited. Many factors have been associated with the cause of the symptoms, including prenatal care and viral infection; depending on environmental factors, such as upbringing and abuse coupled with the inheritance of mutations, the severity of the symptoms can change drastically between sufferers.

Inheritance of schizophrenia

The causes of schizophrenia has been researched for decades, with the progression of research techniques available it has been possible to establish that schizophrenia is a hereditary disease and the origin of the disease can be located in the sufferer’s brain and DNA.

[image: ]Structural differences in the brain of people suffering schizophrenia have been recognised with the use of MRI and CT scans, the results identified a reduced cortical thickness and a reduction in grey matter, as well as enlarged ventricles and decreased neurites and dendritic spines. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior temporal gyrus and hippocampus all had a reduction in the size of their pyramidal cells and displayed fewer dendritic spines and processes (Sontheimer, 2015). It has been suggested that changes in the brain structure begin prenatally, thisBlog, B., 2016. The Psychosis of Schizophrenia.

While studying the brain the chemical F-Dopa was used and with the use of CT and PET scans pre-synaptic concentrations of dopamine were observed, an issue with the dopaminergic neurons was recognised, this produced reduced synaptic activity and dendritic connectivity between neurons (Sontheimer, 2015). The reduction in dopaminergic neurons results in negative symptoms suffered including lack of energy and anhedonia (Sontheimer, 2015), the use of drugs such as amphetamines enhances dopamine production which can cause the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions. Most antipsychotic drugs inhibit the D2 receptor to control symptoms, but this can have adverse effects and cause Parkinson’s disease like symptoms. Another drug which causes schizophrenia symptoms when abused is phencyclidine which inhibits NMDA receptors producing symptoms of psychosis (Bear, et al., 2007) this is an environmental cause of schizophrenia which can affect anyone.

The glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses are also affected in schizophrenia sufferers; these are measured suing CT scans. A reduction in glutamic acid decarboxylase affects the synthesis of GABA and decreased sub-units of alph-1 in GABA cause a 50% decrease in GABAergic synapses (Sontheimer, 2015). The glutamatergic input has an effect in the dendritic spines and the number of synapses is directly affected by genetic mutations, changes in the spines include reduction in size through childhood and adolescence and genetic mutations can alter how these degenerate.

The glutamatergic and GABAergic synapse deficiencies can be linked to a deletion of around 3 million base pairs on chromosome 22, which on a whole has 51 million base pairs; making up almost 2% of a person’s DNA and the second smallest chromosome. A deletion on chromosome 22q11.2 containing 30 to 40 genes and has many medical implications with one of these being schizophrenia (Medicine, 2019).

Two genes, specifically, that were identified as being deleted from chromosome 22 are microRNA’s, more precisely DGC8, consisting of on average 25 nucleotides it produces non coding RNA for mRNA’s needed to regulate protein expression and regulate dendrite and spine development; and miR185 which regulates the endoplasmic reticulum and the modulation of calcium for synaptic plasticity, it also effects dendrite branches by destabilizing the actin cytoskeleton, this gene is also responsible for the regulation of dendritic and spine development (Sontheimer, 2015), this would explain why decreased neurites and dendritic spines have been identified in areas of the brain, specifically the dendritic spines in those who have had negative environmental factors during early stages of development and have cognitive impairments (Bear, et al., 2007).

During studies identification of four genes the code for proteins have been deleted which have an effect on symptoms of schizophrenia, these genes are; DISC1, which encodes for scaffold proteins used in neurite outgrowth and cortical development (Database, n.d.); COMT, which catalyses transfer of neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine as well as others (Database, n.d.); NRG1, this is responsible to membrane glycoproteins which aid in cell to cell signalling, the proteins also create isoforms by promotor usage and splicing creating a variety named type I to VI (Database, n.d.); and ERBB4 which is one of four tyrosine kinase receptors and has cell surface receptors for NRG1, as well as other genes (Database, n.d.). The latter two are responsible for orderly development in the cortex and expressing GABAergic interneurons which cause the reduced grey matter in the brain (Sontheimer, 2015).

There are several studies relating to the chromosomes affected in schizophrenia, although all of these studies have conflicting data as to the main chromosome or chromosomes affected and the results are only suggestive. Chromosome 22 is one of many linked to the disease, but many others have shown a significance which could result in symptoms relating to schizophrenia among other [image: ]diseases. Most studies have followed the same methods over a variety of ethnicities and some have been successful while others have produced poor results.

One such study was a genome wide autosomal screen carried out on 71 families, 305 individuals, in Munich, Germany and the results of the study highlight the mutations found on McDonald-McGinn, D. M. et al., 2015. Nature Reviews: Disease Primers.

The analysis of chromosomes in the first study had focussed on sib-pair analysis and transmission disequilibrium, of the 71 families analysed there were 86 independent sib-pairs. The results vary depending on LOD scores and model free methods (S G Schwab, 2000). For the sib-pair analysis nuclear families were used, where 2 siblings are affected but the parents don’t have the disease; both parents and at least one child has the disease; and first and second degree relatives have the disease. The results of the analysis showed 462 polymorphic markers (S G Schwab, 2000). The second study compared established neurodevelopment disorder CNV risk loci to healthy controls as well as schizophrenia sufferers and other mental illnesses, the results of the second study found that 58 of the neurodevelopment disorders had risk CNV’s at 23 of the 63 risk loci in the comparison to the healthy controls (Wolfe, et al., 2019).

For the results to be linked genetically and to prove that the disease is inherited the family and medical history was required for each individual in both studies, each person was reviewed by a psychiatrist who was completely independent from the study and had no knowledge of the person or their relationship to any other people being reviewed. The use of research diagnostic criteria gave an estimated diagnosis of each individual in the first study. Of those involved in the first study 138 were affected by schizophrenia predominantly, while other mental illnesses were recorded for the remaining individuals, such as depression or bipolar disorder (S G Schwab, 2000).

During the first study, while looking for the markers present on the chromosomes responsible, the distance was also recorded. It was noted that the distances were much larger in sufferers than non-sufferers, possibly due to genetic mutations passed from previous generations. The average distance between markers is typically 10cM, however in the study the distance between markers on chromosome 6q5.2 was 22cM and on chromosome 22q13.3 there was 20cM recorded, while the remaining markers all had between 1 and 3cM (S G Schwab, 2000). The study found mutations on ten different chromosomes; however, chromosome 6 showed high LOD scores and significant distances between markers and chromosomes 10 showed high LOD scores on specific markers and excess transmission from allele II, these findings are similar to those found in bipolar sufferers too (S G Schwab, 2000).

Irregularities on areas of DNA called SNPs have also been associated with schizophrenia. 90% of sequence variants are due to single base differences, and large chromosomal re-arrangements are detected by array comparative genomic hybridization which analyse the fluorescence signal intensities of clones (Wang, et al., 2008). SNPs are found in coding and regulatory regions affecting functional differences but most SNPs don’t affect gene function (Collins, et al., 1998); however disease associated SNPs are located in non-coding regions (Law, et al., 2016). There are several techniques used to locate SNP and NP markers, Illumina which measures two signal intensities of each SNP which produces the Log R ratio (LRR) and B allele frequency (BAF). The signal intensities then undergo a normalization procedure which determines the X and Y values, this then produces the normalised signal intensity for A and B alleles (Wang, et al., 2008), another technique used is Affymetrix SNP arrays which have genome wide 5.0 and 6.0 arrays and contains equal numbers of SNP and NP markers, similar to the Illumina procedure the LRR and BAF are analysed as well as allele specific intensities for three genotypes (Wang, et al., 2008). SNP mutations can naturally occur in the body, these are usually included in the probability, and this is why while analysing DNA for mutations it is best to use DNA from a known sufferer to identifying gene sequences responsible and comparing with control DNA from individuals who do not have the disease.

Some studies have concentrated on specific SNPs associated with schizophrenia, one study identified two specific SNPs associated with schizophrenia, these are SNP8NRG221132 and SNP8NRG243177, and these have an effect on binding sites for three transcription factors, myelin transcription factor-1, serum response factor and high mobility group box protein-1 (Law, et al., 2016). Another is NRG1, locating risk haplotypes focussed on the study of the 5’ upstream region, here is where an effect on mRNA abundance of NRG1 type I – IV can be located, this was analysed in the hippocampus post mortem (Law, et al., 2016). Sufferers of schizophrenia had an increase in NRG1 type I of 34% and another SNP with a risk haplotype had a block on 22kb, this SNP caused issues with mRNA expression in type IV, this was present in both sufferers and known schizophrenic controls used (Law, et al., 2016).

There have been several links between schizophrenia and NRG1 one of which involves the deletion on chromosome 22; this contributes to the reduced grey matter in the brain (Sontheimer, 2015). NRG1 has pleotropic roles in neurodevelopment and plasticity, consisting on 1.2 Mb is has many structurally and functionally distinct isoforms (Law, et al., 2016). Studies focus on the core haplotype or overlapping markers in the 5’ regions, however the impact of these abnormalities is unclear as these are non-coding regions. One possibility is that the mutations alter expression which affects protein distribution and function. There is evidence that increasing NRG1 type I can affect the mRNA in the prefrontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia, altered gene splicing and expression has also been observed particularly as a polymorphic variation in brain diseases (Law, et al., 2016).

Analysis in genome studies is most often based on family history and DNA and knowing the copy numbers responsible makes locating them easier, by using quantitive PCR the total copy numbers from family DNA can be calculated (Wang, et al., 2008). During studies there are two levels of dependency to consider the first being Markov chain dependency which identifies the probabilities of hidden copy numbers and the second is mendelian inheritance where genes show segregation of two alleles in gametes during meiosis (Wang, et al., 2008).

CNVs are also located on chromosomes and are just as important as SNPs in genomic diversity, 40 CNVs have been linked to disease with the most popular CNVs being TNRs (Clancy, 2008). CNVs have been identified as inherited from parents and the greater the number of inherited CNVs relating to disease the more severe symptoms can be (Clancy, 2008). CNVs are part of the diploid genome and are chromosome specific, they can exist in any two of the homologous chromosomes and so can be deleted or duplicated in one or the other (Wang, et al., 2008). Studies on CNVs have identified expansion and contraction of gene sequences, although expansion is less likely, except in TNRs which expand with age (Clancy, 2008). With the use of family DNA it is possible to locate CNVs associated with schizophrenia, Affymetrix and Illumina techniques are used to locate these as with SNPs. The total copy numbers can be detected by using PCR to duplicate DNA for better analysis. The copy number in the diploid genome can only be estimated as de novo CNVs, which are not inherited, are also included in calculations and so complicate the analysis (Wang, et al., 2008).

The chromosomal segment occupied by CNVs contains 1kb of functional sequences, where a deletion or duplication exists; this can disrupt the gene and delete alleles (Wang, et al., 2008).CNVs account for anywhere between 6% and 19% of chromosomes and can be found all over the human genome, any mutation to CNVs can change the physical arrangements in chromosomes (Clancy, 2008). Signal intensities in the human genome are analysed in large arrangements using array comparative genomic hybridization and whole genome oligonucleotide arrays, these methods do not require the use of SNPs for analysis (Wang, et al., 2008).

Environmental triggers of schizophrenia

Many areas of the human genome can be mutated to have adverse effects on the body, some mutations can exist without being known, and symptoms can develop as an individual ages or can be onset by environmental factors. Trauma through childhood and adolescence, known as the prodromal phase, as well as substance abuse can contribute to symptoms of schizophrenia and a psychotic attack where violent behaviour is displayed (Sontheimer, 2015). Children with schizophrenia can express symptoms of a different nature such as development delays and cognitive problems (Howes, et al., 2004). Social stresses can cause symptoms of schizophrenia especially in adolescence and early adulthood where there are multiple risk factors (Howes, et al., 2004). Mutations which are inherited are not uncommon to every person but when there is a mixture of mutations and environmental factors involved this can cause symptoms of psychosis.

While analysing the brain in some sufferers there was a decrease in the left hippocampal volume and increased ventricular volume, this was more prominent in people who had suffered obstetric complications such as being small for gestational age. Other affecters of the brain analysed were maternal substance abuse and prenatal infection (Howes, et al., 2004). Studies have been carried out on infants born in winter months as it is believed that this could have an effect on development due to prenatal viral infections, compared to infants born in summer months where mothers were less likely to have viral issues (Sontheimer, 2015). Social stresses can also impact symptoms as these can cause an increase in dopamine which can induce symptoms of psychosis, childhood trauma and ethnicity have also been associated with symptoms of schizophrenia. Studies have found that people who are raised in urban areas in minority populations are at a higher risk of developing schizophrenia; this can be due to social isolation, compared to people raised in rural areas where the risks are much lower (Howes, et al., 2004).

Substance abuse has a serious effect on the symptoms of schizophrenia, particularly cannabis, amphetamines and cocaine; these can all increase the risk of psychosis (Howes, et al., 2004). PCP can induce psychosis, whether they have genetic mutations linked to schizophrenia or not. Cannabis is the most common cause of symptoms, most users self-medicate with the drug and when abused in adolescence increases the risk of psychosis by four times. Amphetamines are dopamine releasing drugs that can lead to severe symptoms of psychosis and sufferers who are sensitive to dopamine are more likely to incur issues with the regulation of dopamine (Howes, et al., 2004).

Comparing a sufferer of schizophrenia to an unaffected person while using amphetamines resulted in psychosis in the schizophrenia sufferer only, depending on the amount of drug abused the severity and length of the psychosis changed; if the drug was used more frequently for longer periods then the psychosis was more permanent than those who only used on an irregular basis. The more vulnerable a person is to schizophrenia due to inheritance of mutated genes then more vulnerable they are to develop psychosis through misuse of drugs (Howes, et al., 2004).

Childhood traumas such as sexual, physical or emotional abuse increase the risks of developing schizophrenia, with 11% of sexual abuse victims and 26% of physical abuse victims more likely to have a psychotic disorder. The trauma affects the children as they progress through life and can lead to depression, personality disorders and PTSD (Morgan & Fisher, 2007), all of which place the person at an even higher risk of developing a psychosis. Children who suffered sexual abuse were more likely to develop depression and border line personality disorder as an adult and those who suffered physical abuse were more likely to have an antisocial personality disorder. People, who had suffered sexual abuse at any age, not only childhood, were fifteen more times likely to have a psychiatric disorder like schizophrenia (Morgan & Fisher, 2007). Hallucinations were observed in people who had suffered varied childhood trauma and the age of the victim, duration, nature and severity of abuse all affected the outcome of psychosis and severity of symptoms (Morgan & Fisher, 2007). All studies carried out on childhood trauma have been conflicting, some studies have been more thorough while others have not, many have not included extensive questioning to those who have suffered the abuse to compare results to other cases similar, however there does appear to be a link between childhood trauma and developing schizophrenia as well as other psychiatric disorders, with or without inheritance of mutated genes.

Summary

Hereditary schizophrenia is a very complex neurodevelopmental disease, starting during the very early stages of foetal development, it may not be possible to prevent, only treat symptoms. Mutations in the human genome are passed through generations, while some form on their own, a mixture of mutations on specific chromosomes, SNPs or CNVs can cause disease and can make a person high risk to symptoms. With schizophrenia those mutations exist all through the human genome and the brain, through development and exposure to environmental factors schizophrenia symptoms appear with severity dependant on all factors of the disease.

Studying this topic has led to the conclusion that a specific gene may be responsible for more than one issue relating to schizophrenia, that gene is NRG1. Through research for this graded unit this gene has appeared in several studies and putting all that information together it appears that the gene may be responsible for several factors in the disease. When analysing SNPs it was found that NRG1 was responsible for an abundance of mRNA in type I to V, where an increase in type I was identified in sufferers as well as type IV which affects mRNA expression. When analysing research on chromosome 22 deletions NRG1, again, was associated with the disease, in its contribution to reducing grey matter in the brain. With the genes ability to create isoforms for promotor usage and splicing DNA, there could be a connection between this protein and foetal development.

Chromosome 22 is highly associated with schizophrenia, during research it was found in both studies concerning affected chromosomes, although other chromosomes were detected in both studies, neither were concordant. Chromosome 22 appears to be the main focus of study in association to the disease. With the deletion of two genes on the chromosome the dendritic spines in the brain are affected, this is seen in brain scan along with other abnormalities in sufferers of the disease. It has been suggested that this could be caused by viral infection during foetal development possibly passed maternally. The development of dendritic spines has also been associated with a dysfunction in the glutamatergic and dopaminergic synapses, these cause a degradation of the neurites, dendritic spines and the enlargement of ventricles. The reductions of dendritic spines reduced the synaptic activity and connections between dendritic neurons causing negative symptoms.

Following mendelian inheritance with the segregation in gametes during meiosis, the mutation from one or both parents is passed onto the foetus. Through development these mutations shape the brain and the possibility of effects occur due to exposure to viruses.

Throughout childhood development delays and cognitive problems present themselves as the first symptoms, however not all children with these symptoms will develop schizophrenia. During childhood and adolescence exposure to environmental factors such as abuse in childhood and social stresses can affect the sufferers. Drug abuse enhances the risk of developing severe symptoms of psychosis due to the release of dopamine; this can encourage positive symptoms of the disease.

During adulthood the control of the disease is most effective, using anti-psychotic drugs to inhibit dopamine receptors and avoiding drugs that stimulate the production of dopamine.

Schizophrenia is a progressive neurodevelopment disorder which affects 1% of the world’s population, with 80% of sufferers having a hereditary form. Genetic mutations and environmental factors contribute to the severity of the disease and with the use of anti-psychotic drugs; avoidance of drug abuse and social stresses the symptoms can be controlled. Using family medical history and DNA to identify genetic abnormalities research continues to find the main cause of schizophrenia and understand better how and when the disease is inherited.

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