Category: Human behavior

Have you ever wondered why someone around you, or even yourself, behaved or thought about something a certain way? If you answered “no” to this question, you would be lying. Concern for human behavior is a universal behavior among humans that has been prevalent since at least the eighth century BC in Ancient Greece. Philosophers wanted to understand what they described as the “psyche”, referring to what we know as the “mind” today. After centuries of continued interest in this trail of thought, experimentation, and research a formal academic discipline was created and named psychology. Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Given the vast interest in the various subjects that fall under the category of psychology, it is one the most extensive and intersectional academic disciplines.

History of the Discipline of Psychology

Although the ideas and main goals in the field of psychology have been around for centuries, it was not until the late 1800s that the practice began to take shape in an academic setting. In 1879 German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at Leipzig University in Germany. Because this was the first psychological laboratory in the world, Wundt has been referred to as the father of modern experimental psychology by many scholars. According to one of Wundt’s first students, he was the first professor in the philosophic field to experiment in front of his students, and “the laboratory was a small private venture of his own” (Hall, 1912, p. 315). This same student, named Granville (G.) Stanley Hall went on to become one of the most prominent pioneers in the academic discipline of psychology in America. Hall was born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, and studied philosophy at Williams College from 1863-1867. He then went on to complete his graduate studies in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in 1878 he received the first Ph.D. ever awarded by Harvard’s philosophy department. His degree was also the first American Ph.D. on a psychological topic. It was not until his postgraduate work in 1869 that he traveled to Germany and worked under Wundt in the laboratory. With the influences of not only Wundt but various other revolutionaries in the field of psychology such as Gustav Fechner and William James, Hall was able to further his historical awareness, an aspect of academia that was not common during this time yet extremely important. In 1880 he received an invitation to deliver a course of lectures on psychology at John Hopkins University. Only four years after the establishment of the Institute for Experimental Psychology in Germany, Hall opened a small teaching and research psychology lab at John Hopkins which was the first of its kind in America. In the fall of 1887, he launched the American Journal of Psychology, the first psychological journal in English which is still being published today. Hall then went on to become the first president of Clark University where he founded the American Psychological Association (APA) in July 1892. It was at this time that psychology really began to excel as a serious academic discipline. Various subfields and foci of research began to emerge such as functionalism, structuralism, and psychoanalysis. Although the field of study was expanding quickly, it was still mainly confined to an academic setting until 1896 when University of Pennsylvania professor, Lightner Witmer, opened the world’s first psychological clinic for patients, shifting the focus from experimental work to a practical application of his findings. Then, Charles Frederick Menninger and his sons Karl Augustus and William Clair founded The Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas in the early 1920s. They took a compassionate approach to the treatment of mental illness and were well-trained and adept at relating to patients which was still rare for this time period (Dwyer, 2010). This is where psychology changed from a theoretical and knowledge-seeking approach to the societal and mental health counseling focus it has today. In the early 20th century tests such as the IQ, Rorschach, and Army intelligence tests were created and are still used today in academic and work settings to gain information about a person’s intelligence, aptitude, and personality. While these types of experiments are widely regarded as beneficial and ethical, there were many others such as frontal lobotomies and electroconvulsive therapy that have remained controversial since their emergence. Because of the rapid spread of experimental practices in the field, the American Psychological Association published the first edition of the Ethical Standards of Psychologists in 1953. The document undergoes continuous review and is now known as APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. In 1946, President Harry Truman signed the National Mental Health Act, providing generous funding for psychiatric education and research for the first time in U.S. history. This act lead to the creation of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1949. It was after this that the FDA began to approve various drugs to treat more common mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder. In the late 20th century, a shift of popularity in the field can be seen as more and more psychologists used their knowledge to assist the general public, and subfields such as social work emerged. In the 1980s federal motions such as the Insanity Defense Reform and Homeless Assistance Acts were passed with an aim to assist specific groups of people who were seen to have a disadvantage in society due to psychological factors. The subject of the study of psychology (the mind) is one that is so vast and complex that there is an almost infinite amount of different foci, experiments, research projects, and subfields that can be extracted from the discipline. Even through all the years of extensive work done in the discipline, Ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus’s theory that the psyche is a mysterious object that one can never know fully still remains true to this day. For this reason, it is important for scholars in the discipline to continue to obtain and spread the important knowledge that is produced.

Prominent Researchers in Psychology

One of the earliest and most important professors and authors in the discipline of psychology, William James has earned the title among many as “the father of American psychology.” James was born in New York City on January 11, 1842. James’ father was the wealthy Henry James Sr., a theologian who valued education and intelligence. James was the oldest of five children, all of whom were raised with a major focus on knowledge and were educated by tutors in NYC and Europe during the family’s various transatlantic trips. This meant he became fluent in five different languages. He began his academic career by studying art with William Morris Hunt in Newport, Rhode Island in 1858. Eventually, he chose a different path for his life. In 1861, James enrolled at the Lawrence Scientific School, where he studied chemistry and physiology. He went on to study at Harvard Medical School in 1864. Only one year later he took a break from his education to join an expedition to the Amazon basin. It was not until 1869 that James earned his medical degree from Harvard but by this time, he had decided that he did not want to practice medicine. So, he became a lecturer at the university initially on physiology but later on psychology and philosophy. It was here that he crossed paths with the aforementioned G. Stanley Hall, as Hall was one of the graduate students in his psychology course. James advocated for the pragmatic theory of truth, a mix of the correspondence theory of truth and the coherence theory of truth, which states that a proposition is true if it is useful to believe. His worldview of pragmatism included that the world is a mosaic of diverse experiences that can only be properly interpreted and understood through an application of ‘radical empiricism’ (Shultz, 2004). Radical empiricism asserts that there can never be an entirely objective analysis of the world and experience; the mind of the observer and the act of observation affect any empirical approach to truth. In 1887 James published his most renowned and influential book, The Principles of Psychology, combining his ideas on psychology and philosophy.  The book was written with much clarity and charm and vehemently disputed Wundt’s view of psychology, more specifically, Wundt’s analysis of consciousness into elements (Schultz and Schultz, 2004). William James’ contributions to the field of psychology were endless.  The Principles of Psychology is still read and studied today, over one hundred years after its publication.  His new, innovative ideas enlightened the United States, calling for the beginning of functionalism. James was influential to many other psychologists such as Freud with his psychodynamic theories and personality research. Although James did not confirm himself as a psychologist, he was a philosopher and educator of both psychology and the newly developing world.   

Like G. Stanley Hall, James Cattell was a student working in the Institute for Experimental Psychology under Wilhelm Wundt who later went on to do his own influential work in the discipline. Cattell was the first-born child of William Cattell and Elizabeth McKeen in Easton, Pennsylvania in 1860. William Cattell had served as a Presbyterian minister and as the president of Lafayette College in Pennsylvania, and Elizabeth McKeen had an inheritance, making the Cattell’s a wealthy and well-known family. Cattell displayed talent in mathematics at a young age along with a love for English literature. In 1880, he graduated with honors from Lafayette College and later received his M.A. also from Lafayette College. Cattell then traveled to Germany and attended the University of Gottingen and then the University of Leipzig. It was at the University of Leipzig that Cattell met Wilhelm Wundt for the first time. In Leipzig, Cattell wrote an impressive paper on philosophy that won him a fellowship at Johns Hopkins University. During Cattell’s second year at Hopkins, he enrolled in G. Stanley Hall’s psychology course. Cattell’s interest in psychology flourished in him through experimentation with drugs. He was interested in and had tried morphine, hashish, opium, and other drugs. He recorded the effects that each had on him. It was his way of exploring and analyzing his own mind. After completion of this course, Cattell returned to Germany to study as an assistant under Wundt. Wundt and Cattell worked well together and created a study on human intelligence. Cattell, while working with Wundt, published the first dissertation in psychology entitled Psychometric Investigation. In his dissertation, Cattell researched individual differences in human intelligence. Cattell worked hard to establish psychology as a science. He felt psychology’s growth depended on the growth of quantitative methods. Cattell was the first American to instruct a statistical analysis course. He developed the order of merit ranking method. He shared an interest in Galton’s eugenics theory and supported the sterilization of less intelligent people. Cattell also felt that individuals of high intelligence should be paid to mate so much so that he promised his own children $1,000 to marry and mate with a professor’s child. Cattell’s use of statistical methods and quantification of data helped in the development of American psychology as an experimental science. He was one of the first psychologists in America to stress the importance of quantification, ranking, and ratings. An outgrowth of this work, his experimentation with psychophysical testing, was influential in the popularization of mental testing within the psychological laboratory.

Current Trends in Psychology

One current focus of study in the field of psychology is the recent increasing rate of suicide deaths in America. The suicide rate increased 33 percent from 1999 through 2017, from 10.5 to 14 suicides per 100,000 people. Suicide ranks as the fourth leading cause of death for people ages 35 to 54, and the second for 10- to 34-year-olds. It remains the 10th leading cause of death overall (Weir, 2019). The most difficult aspect of understanding suicide for psychologists is the fact that there is never a certain and universal cause. Risk factors can include health factors (depression, substance use problems, serious mental illness, and serious physical health conditions including pain), environmental factors (access to lethal means and stressful life events including divorce, unemployment, relationship problems, or financial crisis), and historical factors (including previous suicide attempts, a family history of suicide and a history of childhood abuse or trauma). Suicide is an issue that nearly every subfield of psychology has extensive research on. Basic scientists are exploring brain changes and risk factors associated with suicidal ideation and behavior. Applied scientists are seeking new ways to identify those at risk. Clinical researchers are testing new therapeutic interventions, and clinicians on the front lines are helping deliver those treatments to people who are struggling. Meanwhile, psychologists working in advocacy roles are drawing from the latest research to educate the public and promote policies proven to reduce suicide rates. And many psychologists in the suicide field have skills that extend across other subfields of psychology, enabling them to act simultaneously as clinicians, researchers, and educators. As mental health professionals, their main goal is to influence a decline in the rising rate of suicides.

Another concerning issue in psychology is the shockingly rapid use of nicotine, specifically e-cigarettes, among young adults and teens in the U.S. The incidence of vaping among U.S teenagers has nearly doubled in the past year to more than one in five high school seniors, finds research in the New England Journal of Medicine. The researchers analyzed data from more than 13,000 participants in the “Monitoring the Future” study. Among 12th graders, the proportion who had vaped at least once in the past month jumped from 11 percent in 2017 to 20.9 percent in 2018. Among 10th graders, the proportion grew from 8.2 percent to 16.1 percent; among 8th graders, it grew from 3.5 percent to 6.1 percent. The researchers say it is the largest one-year increase for teenagers using any substance in the 44 years that the study has been conducted (Patrick et al., 2018). Further, recent research has indicated that–contrary to what experts had long assumed–teenagers can become dependent on tobacco even before they begin smoking on a daily basis, that most adolescent smokers continue smoking into adulthood, and that many want to quit but are unable to do so. One of the main factors that has led to this spike in adolescent nicotine addiction is the loose relationship between the FDA and Big Tobacco. Big Tobacco is a name used to refer to the ‘big five’ largest global tobacco industry companies which are Philip Morris International, British American Tobacco, Imperial Brands, Japan Tobacco International, and China Tobacco. Because characterizing flavors increases the likelihood of underage use, such flavors should be prohibited in all tobacco products. However, it has been abundantly documented that menthol cigarettes have been advertised and marketed in a manner designed to increase the likelihood of youth initiation and progression to regular smoking. To reduce the prevalence of smoking, particularly among the young, FDA should prohibit the use of menthol as a characterizing flavor. While organizations like APA are working with the FDA to implement these restrictions, the biggest job for psychologists is direct communication and counseling with teens who are already affected by addiction and nicotine abuse. Often, practitioners may conduct a drug screening for children and adolescent patients who present with anxiety, depression, or other mental health conditions. Addiction is an affliction that is special in that no medicine can automatically assist in diminishing the effects, unlike other mental health concerns. The fact of the matter is that the addict can only heal if they want to and if they actively make a change in their lifestyle. This can be especially hard to convey to young people who may not be mature enough to fully grasp the concept of addiction, yet they are affected by it. Psychologists are working carefully to stop this rising trend through both preventative measures such as awareness of society and restrictions on the industry, and through counseling and educational methods for those affected.

The discipline of psychology has been around for just a few centuries and already, we know more about the mind than the founders of psychology could have ever imagined. The astonishing rate at which the discipline has spread and established itself proves that it will be around for many more years to come. What started as the innate human tendency of curiosity eventually led to a field of study that has helped us understand ourselves and the world around us. The innate force of human curiosity is what will continue to drive the discipline of psychology into the future and psychologists today can’t even imagine what we will know about the mind in just a few centuries from now.

References

1. Bachman J., Johnston L., Miech R., O’Malley P. (1928). Adolescent Vaping and Nicotine Use in 2017–2018 — U.S. National Estimates.  The New England Journal of Medicine, 198(1). 
2. Bringmann, W., & Bringmann, M. (1992). G. Stanley Hall and the History of Psychology.  American Psychologist, 47(2).
3. Conroy W.A., Chapman A.J., & Sheehy N. (Eds.). (2002) Cattell, James Mckeen. Biographical  Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.).
4. Dwyer H. (2010) Curriculum connections psychology: History of psychology. London, UK:  Brown Bear Books Ltd. 
5. Hall, G. S. (1912). Founders of modern psychology. New York: D. Appleton.
6. Schultz, D., and Schultz, S. (2004). William James. A History of Modern Psychology, 8th ed. 

The essay reveals how the theory of anomalous monism attempts to answer the physical status of mental events, the status of psychology, and the mind-body problem. From the outset, we should point out that Davidson believed psychology to be fundamentally different from sciences such as physics; his explanation of this is that, unlike physics, we cannot create laws or principles with which to explain or predict human thought. Following this, Davidson does not believe that psychology can be reduced to physics. He ultimately believes in a type of materialism however refutes the idea that all mental phenomena can be described purely as physical.

Davidson makes a distinction between mental and physical descriptive generalizations; physical generalizations are strict, for example, the principle of transitivity: if x is longer than y and y is longer than z then x must be longer than z, if there was a situation where this was not the case then it would be dismissed and a new law created. However, Davidson would say that mental generalizations are normative, they are how things should be not how they are. He maintains that the reason why they are normative is that mental states are governed by the constitutive ideal of rationality. By this, Davidson means that, in general, we would act within our interests but, unlike the principle of transitivity, if we were to act against what we should do does not make the generalization that we act rationally and in our interests false, it merely means that The individual was not acting as a rational agent. For example, the addict may well know his addiction serves him no good and only causes harm yet he will continue acting against his interest.

Through an exploration of Davidsons’ principle of causal interaction, some mental events are caused by physical events and vice versa, for example, raising a hand in a lesson has been caused by a mental event of me wanting to raise a hand, however, the mental event that caused me to raise my hand could have been casually caused by the teacher asking a question. He also adds what he calls The Principle of the Nomological character of causation (PNCC), which adds that all singular causal interactions must be covered by strict laws. Davidson doesn’t immediately provide a defense of these principles however we can find his justifications deeper into his writings. These principles would lead most people to think that Davidson is going to define some psychological laws; for example, if a mental event labeled m1 is caused by a physical event p1, then given the Principle of the Nomological Character of causation, it would seem as if there must be a strict law of p1 -> m1; whenever p1 must then m1, Davidsons puts this “where there is causality, there must be a law” (Davidson,1991). Davidson however believes that properties are incapable of being held to universal laws, this is the anomalism principle, part of anomalous monism. the anomalism principle states “There are no strict laws on the basis of which mental events can predict, explain, or be predicted or explained by other events” (Anomalous Monism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020),

Now with an understanding of his three principles which seem to be at odds with each other; for example, the principles of causal interaction and the principle of nomological character of causality dictate that strict rules behind the interaction of mental and physical whilst the anomalous principle says there can’t be strict rules. Within Essays on Actions and Events Davidson admits that many philosophers see the first two premises to be in contention with the anomalism principle, Davidson says that instead of focusing on how they are inconsistent we should instead realize that they hold true, independent of inconsistency and instead “explain away the appearance of contradiction, especially the Kantian line” (Davidson, 1991). Davidsons tries to resolve this issue by saying there must be a strict law that isn’t in the form we expect, take p1 -> m1, for example, Davidsons would say this isn’t the strict law as its form is incorrect. He would suggest that m1 and p1 must have properties suitable to being laws, as Davidson would say m1 is not capable of being a property then there must be another property that takes in place, there can only be a closed system of strict laws within physical science not to do with mental events. Thus, any causally interactive mental event must be token-identical to a physical event (Davidson, 1991). On page 214 of Davidson’s mental events we encounter what has been called Supervenice of the mental on the physical, he uses this to strengthen his argument from criticism. This addition states that if an event shares all physical properties then it should share all mental ones. ‘there cannot be two events alike in all physical respects but differing in some mental respect, or … an object cannot alter in some mental respect without altering in some physical respect. ‘ (Davidson, 1991). It should be noted that to Davidson brain states are not identical even if the same mental event is taking place; having the mental event of recognizing it’s a pleasant day will not have the same brain state as someone having the same mental event.

Goddu (1999) writes in “Is anomalous monism inconsistent?” an argument against what she calls the inconsistent triad, by using a thought experiment about possible worlds Goddu effectively shows the inconsistencies with the argument, they show that the supervenience of the mental on the physical does not hold as true. By showing that there is the potential for there to be two physically identical events but with differing mental events they have effectively removed Davidsons addition that strengthened his argument.  

John Locke: our psychological properties define the self 

In this paper, I will propose a background for understanding personal identity based on the phenomenological premise of a proceeded with a continuous flow of consciousness across time, from the concept of John Locke: our psychological properties define the self. To find the problems of changes in consciousness or absences in a person’s life, I will supplement this approach by arguing for a more precise understanding of conscious streams. I will then argue for the advantages of analyzing personal identity based on memory criterion or bodily criterion (for instance: prince and the cobbler). Lastly, I will answer conceivable criticisms of the hypothesis by controlling epistemological worries that it raises for deciding individual character. 

That will include the argument that what makes a person identical over time is more significant to the concept than whether or the truth might be dependably found out by outside spectators. According to John Locke’s epistemology, the argument states that a person is connected to his consciousness. he states that consciousness is the one main thing that makes a man himself. let’s assume that Mr. Paliji has awareness of what he did in the past (worked as a Nazi guard), Locke would think that Palij ought to have been deported to Germany or should be punished for what he committed that’s his responsibility. Whereas, Locke has problems with his views that if I can not remember it, it was not that person, or can he be the same person if he loses his memory. Because according to him, if an individual can remember that crime is part of his or her life, then he will be responsible for what he did and he or she should be punished or rewarded. US government did with Mr. Paliji. If he could not remember those things then he should not be punished because Locke’s epistemology says he or she should not be punished for committing that crime which he or she cannot remember. 

John Locke said that personal identity and consciousness is a study of emotional continuity through time as he told that consciousness is inseparable from thinking or it can be considered from personal identity. John Locke says in his exposition of “Our Psychology Properties Characterize The Self”, may have been the first to expressly supposition the individual personality is controlled and proceeded with abstract. However, it also includes a notion of memory being which connects one person’s consciousness with the past. In this paper, the views of John and criticism of his theory of personal identity about Mr. Palij’s deportation. In this paper, I will propose a background for understanding personal identity based on the phenomenological premise of a proceeded with a continuous flow of consciousness across time, from the concept of John Locke: our psychological properties define the self. To find the problems of changes in consciousness or absences in a person’s life, I will supplement this approach by arguing for a more precise understanding of conscious streams. I will then argue for the advantages of analyzing personal identity based on memory criterion or bodily criterion (for instance: prince and the cobbler). Lastly, I will answer conceivable criticisms of the hypothesis by controlling epistemological worries that it raises for deciding individual character. 

That will include the argument that what makes a person identical over time is more significant to the concept than whether or the truth might be dependably found out by outside spectators. According to John Locke’s epistemology, the argument states that a person is connected to his consciousness. he states that consciousness is the one main thing that makes a man himself. let’s assume that Mr. Paliji has awareness of what he did in the past (worked as a Nazi guard), Locke would think that Palij ought to have been deported to Germany or should be punished for what he committed that’s his responsibility. Whereas, Locke has problems with his views that if I can not remember it, it was not that person, or can he be the same person if he loses his memory. Because according to him, if an individual can remember that crime is part of his or her life, then he will be responsible for what he did and he or she should be punished or rewarded. US government did with Mr. Paliji. If he could not remember those things then he should not be punished because Locke’s epistemology says he or she should not be punished for committing that crime which he or she cannot remember.  

Sigmund Freud, the influential Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, made significant contributions to the understanding of human development through his theory of psychosexual stages and the role of the unconscious mind. Freud’s exploration of the nature vs. nurture debate delved into the intricate interplay between innate biological drives and external environmental influences, offering valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and personality development.

At the heart of Freud’s theory lies the concept of the unconscious mind, a reservoir of repressed thoughts, desires, and memories that exert a powerful influence on conscious behavior. According to Freud, human behavior is driven by innate biological instincts, primarily the libido (sexual energy) and aggressive drives, which he believed to be present from birth. This innate aspect of human nature, shaped by biological forces, forms the foundation of Freud’s perspective on the nature side of the debate.

However, Freud also emphasized the significant role of environmental influences, particularly during early childhood development, in shaping personality and behavior. Central to Freud’s theory is the notion of the Oedipus complex, wherein children experience unconscious desires and conflicts towards their parents, particularly the same-sex parent. Freud argued that successful resolution of these conflicts hinges upon the quality of parental nurturing and environmental factors during critical developmental stages. Inadequate nurturing or traumatic experiences during childhood can lead to the formation of neuroses and maladaptive behaviors later in life.

Freud’s case studies, such as the famous “Little Hans” and “Anna O.,” shed light on the intricate dynamics between nature and nurture in shaping psychological development. Through these case studies, Freud elucidated how early childhood experiences, particularly those involving parental relationships and socialization, profoundly impact the formation of personality traits and psychopathology.

Moreover, Freud’s theory of defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, and projection, underscores the role of environmental influences in shaping coping strategies and defense mechanisms in response to internal conflicts and external stressors. These defense mechanisms, rooted in both innate biological drives and environmental experiences, serve as adaptive mechanisms to manage anxiety and maintain psychological equilibrium.

Freud’s exploration of the nature vs. nurture debate ultimately reveals the inseparable intertwining of innate biological factors and external environmental influences in shaping human behavior and personality. While Freud acknowledged the importance of biological instincts and drives, he emphasized the critical role of environmental factors, particularly early childhood experiences and parental relationships, in shaping psychological development.

In conclusion, Sigmund Freud’s perspective on the nature vs. nurture debate offers a nuanced exploration of the complex interplay between innate biological factors and external environmental influences in shaping human behavior and personality. Through his theory of psychoanalysis and case studies, Freud elucidated how early childhood experiences, parental relationships, and unconscious conflicts contribute to the formation of personality traits and psychopathology. By acknowledging the intricate dynamics between nature and nurture, Freud’s work continues to enrich our understanding of human development and the complexities of the human psyche.

Throughout this essay I will be looking at what different issues researchers face when measuring intelligence and then discussing, with reference to recent studies, how successfully these issues have been resolved. It can be agreed that all types of intelligence tests measure human behaviour and that intelligence is seen as central to human life. I will be discussing the issues of validity due to previous experiences, and cultural differences between countries. With the aim to show that these problems can be successfully resolved using tests produce by Wechsler and Raven, respectively.

Intelligence testing was first introduced in the 19th century with the view to solve issues of wider education and identify the educational needs of children. Stanford-Binet produced a test in which they were able to use age-appropriate versions to monitor changes of intelligence quotient (IQ) of participants over the lifetime. The IQ was developed as a way of identifying any deviations from the expected average ability for age. Although the Stanford-Binet tests have been longstanding and have both high internal and external validity, it does not take into consideration the role of experience from the participants. This can be seen in an example from Cianciolo and Sternberg (2004) with a musical aptitude test. In the example, Cianciolo and Sternberg explain that a music teacher wants to test student’s natural musical aptitude by playing a challenging piece of music. It was suggested that those students who played well will have a high musical aptitude and those who played poorly have low musical aptitude. Although this may sound reasonable, it doesn’t take into account that the test could be measuring something else, not just aptitude, for example, musical experience or the student’s familiarity with that particular piece of music – therefore the test may not be accurate and rendered invalid, with many researchers questioning if these measures correspond with real-world outcomes.

To overcome this issue, David Wechsler introduced the Wechsler Intelligence Scale in 1955, with editions for both adults and children. Wechsler argued that intelligence is composed of various specific and intertwined functions that can and should be measured separately. The main point that was taken by Wechsler was that intelligence cannot be combined to give a single score, and as such he disagreed with the findings of the Stanford-Binet tests. Wechsler suggested that tests on intelligence should be based on intelligence being a multidimensional faction and should be reflected in a range of various sub-test, giving an insight into different processes.

The test itself comprises of assessments in 14 different areas including, but not limited to; picture completion, block design and vocabulary. All 14 areas are covered by two key constructs – verbal IQ and Performance IQ with four ‘indexes’. For administration and scoring, the duration of the tests varies depending on the type of score required with most of the scoring being objective and straightforward.

Due to the two different tests (adult and children) and given that each test comprised of various sub-tests, it was concluded that the range of applications for the Wechsler Intelligence Scales could include areas such as education, work and clinical research and is also used to examine the underlying processes of those with a-typical development to gain a greater understanding of disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The Wechsler Intelligence Scales also gives a deeper insight into the processes and abilities behind each participants performance, which eliminates problems such as those seen in the musical aptitude example above.

Secondly, it has been found by many researchers that the concept of intelligence changes depending on where you are from and what culture you are brought up in (Sternberg, 2001). The main cultural differences found when studying intelligence is how closely intelligence is related to the self, versus the social world. Most western cultures refer only to the individual when looking at intelligence, someone who can see answers to problems quickly, and then act on them is seen as highly intelligent whereas in eastern countries these ideas additionally extend to social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday interactions. In non-western cultures, the ability to show skills in problem-solving, verbal ability and social competence would not only be valued by the individual but also help to solve problems within the context of the wider community. This can be seen between Zambia where there is more emphasis on social responsibility, cooperativeness and obedience (Serpell, 1974) and Spain where the focus is primarily on strong mental abilities (Fernandez-Ballesteros and Colom, 2004).

To overcome the issues of cultural knowledge within intelligence tests, John Carlyle Raven, in 1938, attempted to create a test free of cultural influences. Known as the Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM), there have been multiple revisions since its first edition, the underlying theory of the test has remained consistent and is built from the concept of Spearman’s theory of general intelligence (or ‘g’)(Spearman, 1904). Much like Spearman, Raven agreed that intelligence has two different factors; Reproductive and eductive, with most of the focus of RPM mainly on eductive ability.

The Ravens Progressive Matrices covers a number of skills such as pattern detection, distinguishing the difference between important and unimportant features and making sense of differences and relationships between figures. The test increases in difficulty with different questions taken from across five different sets (A-E). The test is for use with a wide age-range – from 6 to 70 years (Verguts & De Boeck, 2002). As intended by Raven, this particular test is less reliant on cultural, linguistic or experience factors and attempts to avoid reproductive or crystalized intelligence (this is intelligence that is learnt throughout the lifetime). Unlike many other tests, the Ravens Progressive Matrices has no time limit as it is designed to provide a reliable estimate of a person’s capacity to think clearly when allowed to work steadily and undisturbed, at his or her own speed (Raven, 2008).

In conclusion, there are various issues which researchers face when trying to create a suitable test to identify a person’s level of intelligence. Within this essay I have given examples of two different problems; validity due to previous experiences, and cultural differences between countries. Given that both the Weschler Intelligence Scale and the Ravens Progressive Matrices, mentioned previously, are longstanding and widely popular tests on intelligence, it can be agreed that these problems have been somewhat resolved, although further research and study into the field of intelligence will likely produce more problems and solutions in the future.

The widely known concept of self esteem can be defined as the confidence and awareness in one’s own self-worth. Those with a high satisfaction in their own abilities and self-integrity are commonly recognized to be in possession of a higher level of physical and psychological health than those who maintain low self-esteem. This has a direct effect on all manners of life, ranging from the individual themselves to their own broader influence on society. Although a high level of self-esteem nurtures various positive aspects across a broad spectrum of human life, such as increasing confidence (Owens, 1993) and self-enhancement within healthy relationships (Sciangula et al, 2009), there are arguably more negative effects of maintaining a level of high self-esteem within human behaviour.

Cultivating a strong sense of self-esteem has clear benefits for every human being. Those who undertake a proactive effort in exercising self-care, such as getting enough exercise and sufficient sleep have been observed by researchers to increase their own perceptions about their self-worth, and in turn performing better at menial to difficult life tasks on a regular basis. Additionally, researchers Standage & Gillison (2007) found that Secondary level education students with high self-esteem were increasingly motivated to complete their schoolwork as a result of partaking in a small amount physical activity. Generating a sense of collective self-esteem has also shown its constructive qualities for the individual. The term ‘collective self-esteem’ can be described as the self-image that is developed by an individual based on their worldly interactions with those that they can establish themselves with. For example, individual transgender females who were transitioning from males were observed to sustain a better level of mental health than those who did not feel like they had a collective to turn to for support (Sánchez & Vilain, 2009). Self-esteem is certainly advantageous in the well-being of the individual. However, more prevalent issues can arise when an excess of self-esteem is fostered.

The cultivation of unrealistic and extreme self-views can have detrimental consequences for an individual and those around them. One such instance is the development of narcissism. Those with narcissistic personality disorder and narcissistic traits tend to have a reduced level of empathy for others. They usually appear increasingly confident but are extremely sensitive to criticism (Dickenson, et al 2003). They believe that their friends, family and associates should supply them with special treatment in their day to day life. This can deteriorate their relationships and place a strain on their own grandiose beliefs about themselves when their inflated views based around themselves are challenged.

High self-esteem can have undeniable positive attributes to the self. There is no doubt that self-esteem has an immediate effect on the personal relationships surrounding the individual, whether they may be familial, romantic or friendship based. It has been reported that those with an unhealthy level of high self-esteem form and sustain fewer beneficial relationships than those who self-proclaim to have a healthy view of themselves (Rusbult et al, 1987). Within the educational sphere, students who observed a comfortable level of self-esteem developed above relationships with their educators, which in turn led to students to become more motivated in their academic achievements. Researchers Thomas and Daubman (2001) focused primarily on ‘the relationship between friendship quality and self-esteem in adolescent girls and boys.’ They noticed that young women were more inclined to have a lower percentage of self-esteem than young males. A positive factor of harbouring high self-esteem in females is that it reduces the chances of developing bulimia.

As mentioned earlier, those with narcissistic tendencies struggle with personal relationships. The fact that narcissists have trouble with committing to one long-term romantic relationship portrays the detrimental effects of fostering too much self-esteem. It is known that the various types of relationships for those who harbour an excess of positive self-views, such as stranger relationships, workplace relationships and education related relationships, do not differ from one another. Those with self-inflated views have been observed to display an above average increase of anger and aggression when challenged, which can understandably place a strain upon an individual’s close connections. This deterioration of close positive contact can ultimately leave this person with high self-esteem increasingly isolated and confused. These problems will persist due to the fact that the escalated self-esteem causes an individual to believe that they themselves are not at fault, and blame will be placed on those surrounding them.

It is commonly acknowledged that an inflated level of self-esteem is a great benefit to society. Researcher Smelser (year) intelligently stated that the well-being of society depends on the well-being of its citizens. This can be seen in the relationship between a prosperous society and high self-esteem. For example, those with low self-esteem are more inclined to seek out negative behaviour to combat their interpersonal struggles. This negative behaviour can hastily evolve into a wide variety of social problems, which can have an unfavourable influence upon society and the population itself. Cultural views and expectations must be taken into account as to what the members of each individual society believes to be ‘negative’, for example; wedlock. The fact that those with low self-esteem tend to partake in petty crime, delinquency and act aggressively towards others in their surrounding circles (Donnellan et al, 2005) cannot rebuke the concept that fostering high self-esteem has an adverse effect on society.

While these factors are certainly positive for society on the whole, preserving high self-esteem in adolescents increases the chances that they may experiment with harmful activities such as substance abuse and promiscuity (Baumeister et al, 2003). This can have a steady negative impact on society as a whole as the ‘future generations’ fail to regulate their behaviour, and turn to illegal and unhealthy activities. An overbearing amount of self-esteem can nurture self-entitlement, which can have a direct opposing impact on a healthy society. Those with high self-esteem are less likely to be willing to work as part of an equal team. Young people with high self-esteem perform better in a group setting than those with low self-esteem. It is a definite positive for these individuals, but it can create a construct of favouritism for those who appear to apply more effort in this group work, leading to those with low self-esteem to be discriminated against within a group setting. Although those with an increased level of self-esteem are more likely to assist the less advantaged members of society than those with low self-esteem, it is only for their own benefit. Their inflated and sometimes unrealistic self-views can leave an individual requiring to make themselves appear better than others. While these efforts can cultivate a healthier society, those less privileged individuals and those in difficulty outside the societal norms are usually left to their own devices once the high self-esteemed person has proved that they are an above valuable member to society.

The overall impact that crime can have on a victim may differ by its severity, some may have a subtle effect, while others may have a more harmful effect. We can often detect when someone has been harmed in some type of manner, whether it is specifically linked to crime or something different. Coping with the impact of a crime that remains with the victim, can be rather difficult and even hard to express to others. An important factor to consider when deciding the punishment for a criminal is the statement that comes from those affected by the crime committed. Victims are given the opportunity to express how they have been affected by what is known as victim impact statements (Worley, V., 2018; Worley, R., 2018, p. 677-678). The effect a victim has is extremely important and should be regarded when determining the result of how a criminal is reprimanded; as this may immediately correlate with the sense of justice for the victims.

In today’s society, victim impact statements are becoming significantly more prevalent and impactful during the decision-making process of a criminal’s sentence. Victim impact statements are used to describe how those who have been impacted are affected by a crime. These statements can come in the form of a written document or can be verbally communicated. Victim impact statements are used by both the judge and the parole authorities to provide information regarding how a victim has suffered and how it has directly affected them when determining the length of an offender’s jail sentence or parole (Worley, V., 2018; Worley, R., 2018, p. 677-678). The victim may include a description of the emotional, financial, and/or physical outcomes that correlate with the result of the crime and their suffering (United States Department of Justice [USDOJ], 2019). Victim impact statements have an important purpose and can have a large impact on the outcome of how an offender is sentenced.

Victim impact statements are not required or mandatory in any way, victims are given the option and must decide on their own; although they are strongly encouraged. Overall, there are two goals for constructing victim impact statements. The main goal is to support the victim’s right to present his/her story in their own words to the proper authorities on how the crime has directly impacted them (Worley, V., 2018; Worley, R., 2018, p. 677-678). Often times victims are not asked for testimony in a case, which leaves victim impact statements being the only way a victim can participate in the criminal justice process. Their statement is also one of the only ways to confront or speak to the offender that has injured them (National Center for Victims of Crime [NCVC], n.d.). Victim impact statements can be used as a way to provide a safe and guarded space for victims to confront their offenders, which can drive a positive contribution to the healing process (Pallini, 2017). Many victims find that their stories and trauma are vital pieces to be presented in front of the court. Edna Erez, suggests, “those victims often benefit from participation and input…the overall experience of providing input can be positive and empowering.” A study shows that victims feel highly satisfied with their level of justice and say that it gives them a sense of fairness (Erez, 2019). The second goal for writing a victim impact statement is to provide the victim with a sense of therapeutic justice, as it can be seen as a coping mechanism or a sense of closure. Furthermore, this goal is more to help and support the victim rather than the court, such as the judge and jury (Worley, V., 2018; Worley, R., 2018, p. 677-678).

Encouraging one who has been affected by a crime to present their feelings through a victim impact statement can be rather difficult. Often times when victims think about preparing a victim impact statement, they get unbearably anxious, as this may bring back some of the bad memories and possibly hurt them even more (NCVC, n.d.). Victims will often feel this way because they feel as if they are under pressure and feel that they are carrying the weight of the decision for the conviction of a crime (Erez, 2019). When it comes to the victim, writing a statement can be extremely painful, largely due to it most likely being the first time they have thought about presenting their side of the situation. Many victims realize that this can reproduce the impact and cause them to relive the situation they have suffered from once already (Worley, V., 2018; Worley, R., 2018, p. 677-678). Even though this can be a daunting and difficult process for victims, studies show that impact statements are making a difference.

According to Jim Parsons and Tiffany Bergin, multiple studies have proven that victim impact statements can provide justice to victims. A study shows that “the use of these statements was linked to dramatic increases in victim satisfaction with prosecutors. However, other longitudinal studies have shown that impact statements do not increase overall satisfaction with the court process” (Parsons & Bergin, 2010). Other studies show that when victims can interact through a victim impact statement, this indicates that many choose to write one, leading to some kind of beneficial value for the victim (Kilpatrick et al., 1998). Although, other studies have shown that victim impact statements may not always have a successive value. Another study looked into the difference between written statements and oral statements to determine their effectiveness. The study revealed that orally presented statements have an increased amount of value to a victim than a written statement (Bibas, 2006). Victim impact statements are identified as ’emerging best practices to decrease the potential for trauma and can be used to enhance the beneficial elements of victim interaction with the criminal justice system (Parsons & Bergin, 2010).

Victim impact statements often provide a therapeutic level of justice and therapeutic advantages for victims. The victim impact statements support them in improving their general mental health and social welfare circumstances. In further research, studies show that victims that have spoken out and provided their side of the story, have felt more relieved, and satisfied, and this has allowed them to cope with the victimization (Erez, 2019). Edna Erez wrote, “…resolves the emotional aspects, achieve emotional recover, or achieve formal closure.” This feeling was found for those victims who have never been involved in the justice process. It allowed them to remind the judges how a real person who is now considered a victim has been affected by the crime committed and will remember the offender for the rest of their life. Victim impact statements from a physiological standpoint offer the victim the chance to speak out and remind themselves that they don’t need to be silenced by their offender (Robbennolt, 2006).

Lastly, over the years many people have fought for victim impact statements to be allowed in any type of criminal case. Previously, these statements were only permitted in capital crime trials which a case split into two phases; the first phase being the guilt phase using factual evidence and the second phase being the sentencing hearing. These crimes often include a legal process for the death penalty or a life sentence in prison (Dieter, 2007). Recently, there has been a fight to allow victim impact statements into non-capital crime trials, which include felony or misdemeanor crimes that do not involve the death penalty (Sentencing – Felony, 2019). The main problem that has developed from this includes the issue of bias coming from the victim’s side of the story. It is thought that victims could use their impact statement to negatively persuade the judges, parole authorities, and/or the juries of the case to seek sympathy and remorse (Askanas, 2016). Another preceding issue that is viewed from victim impact statements is the concept of them being prejudicial and other random information being brought in which could lead to capricious decisions or outcomes for the offender. The U.S. Supreme Court has proven that victim impact statements do not directly focus on misleading the judge or defendant by their eligibility to inform the judge how one has been affected. They have looked at and proven this through three different cases, Booth v. Maryland in 1987, Payne v. Tennessee in 1991, and South Carolina v. Gathers in 1989. Overall, they have determined that the influence of victim impact statements and their impact is relevant when determining the sentence in both capital and non-capital criminal court cases (Myers & Greene, n.d.).

Victim impact statements are extremely important and have a significant effect on a victim’s feeling of justice and closure. Victim impact statements serve as an opportunity for victims to speak out about how a crime has affected them. These statements help assist judges and other court authorities when it comes down to determining the sentence of the offender. Victim impact statements have provided many positive outcomes for victims in studies over the years. It has been found that victims being given the opportunity to speak out, has allowed them to reinforce their mental health and stability, as well as feel empowered and gain a feeling of fairness. Writing a victim impact statement is not always easy for the victim, it can often bring back memories and even cause them to relive the situation all over again. Although, the studies conducted over recent years, have proven that victim impact statements do provide a positive and helpful experience for victims in the healing process. Victim impact statements are found in both capital cases and non-capital cases in the interest of justice for the victim. Overall, victim impact statements do create a powerful message and create a strong sense of justice in the interest of the victim.

Most people live very busy lives, juggling relationships, education, jobs, and so much more. As a result, most people find that there is so much to do yet so little time in the day. Consequently, the task that many people neglect in order to accommodate for this lack of time is progression towards their personal goals. In my case, my preoccupation with school, family, and hobbies has led me to consistently push my goal of exercising aside. I rarely exercise each week; and I was determined to change that habit, especially because of the plentiful health benefits associated with exercising: reduced stress, weight loss or maintenance, and lowered risk of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, I set a goal to exercise at least three times a week for at least an hour per workout.

As mentioned, one reason why I wanted to exercise more was to reduce stress. School can be very stressful, and I think it is important to find a healthy way to cope with that stress. Exercise has been proven to reduce the levels of stress hormones in the body, such as adrenaline and cortisol (Puterman et al.). Moreover, exercise also encourages the production of endorphins, a hormone which stimulates elevated feelings of happiness (Paungmali et al.). I decided that exercising would be the easiest way to reduce my stress, while simultaneously improving other areas of my health.

Exercising also helps to increase confidence as a result of losing or maintaining weight. Exercise alone does not necessarily lead to weight loss or maintenance. However, studies show that individuals who exercise consistently are more likely to have healthier diets than those who do not exercise (Fanning et al.). This combination of exercise and a healthy diet can lead to weight loss or maintenance and therefore an increase in self-esteem. In addition to these cosmetic and psychological benefits, exercise can improve blood circulation, reduce the risk of blood clots, and improve heart strength and function (Buchner et al.). In other words, people who exercise on a regular basis are less at risk of developing a cardiovascular disease. These health benefits are yet another reason why I set an exercise goal.

Unfortunately, the prevalence of obesity is on the rise in the United States (Rosenthal et al.). There are multiple factors that contribute to this epidemic: the availability of junk food, technological advancements, and sedentary jobs. However, a primary element that contributes to obesity is motivation, or rather, the lack thereof. As previously mentioned, many adults (myself included) lead busy lives and claim that they do not have the time or energy to exercise. As a result, approximately 80% of Americans do not get the recommended amounts of exercise each week, which is about 2.5 hours (Rosenthal et al.). Therefore, in order to meet this recommendation, I set my goal as 3 hours of exercise per week.

I met my goal, getting approximately 3 hours of exercise each week for about 8 weeks (refer to Table 1.). I was not expecting to succeed. However, I was very motivated and set aside time each morning to exercise, as I recognized that I am typically tired and lazy in the evenings. Moreover, I set a rather strict schedule, exercising every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. I did run into some barriers that often required me to instead exercise in the afternoon or evening. These barriers include watching television, going out with friends, and completing copious amounts of homework. However, I do not regret succumbing to tempting obstacles, such as Netflix, because removing these barriers from my daily life is not realistic and may cause me to resent exercising. Nevertheless, I found that following a schedule greatly increased my chances of success, along with holding myself accountable in a journal. In the future, in order to be more successful with my behavior change, I would focus on exercising in a way that I enjoy. Some of the workouts I completed for my goal were not enjoyable, and, as a result, I often felt like giving up. Therefore, in order to stay motivated, I would concentrate on sports and walks as my source of exercise if I were to repeat this project.

This process, which included documenting my actions relating to my health goal on a daily basis, helped me to achieve success. I often make schedules for myself that include a list of tasks to complete for the day. Therefore, by adding exercising to the list, it became a priority rather than a neglected chore. From this project, I learned that if I truly apply myself and work towards my goals, even if there is only a little progress each day, I can be successful. I easily see myself using this process in the future to change other behaviors, and I would recommend it others as well.

Works Cited

1. Buchner, D. M. (2009). Physical Activity and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Older Adults. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 25(4), 661–675. doi: 10.1016/j.cger.2009.08.002
2. Fanning, J., Walkup, M. P., Ambrosius, W. T., Brawley, L. R., Ip, E. H., Marsh, A. P., & Rejeski, W. J. (2017). Change in health-related quality of life and social cognitive outcomes in obese, older adults in a randomized controlled weight loss trial: Does physical activity behavior matter? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 41(3), 299–308. doi: 10.1007/s10865-017-9903-6
3. Paungmali, A., Joseph, L. H., Punturee, K., Sitilertpisan, P., Pirunsan, U., & Uthaikhup, S. (2018). Immediate Effects of Core Stabilization Exercise on β-Endorphin and Cortisol Levels Among Patients With Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Randomized Crossover Design. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 41(3), 181–188. doi: 10.1016/j.jmpt.2018.01.002
4. Puterman, E., Weiss, J., Lin, J., Schilf, S., Slusher, A. L., Johansen, K. L., & Epel, E. S. (2018). Aerobic exercise lengthens telomeres and reduces stress in family caregivers: A randomized controlled trial – Curt Richter Award Paper 2018. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 98, 245–252. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.002
5. Rosenthal, R. J., Morton, J., Brethauer, S., Mattar, S., Maria, E. D., Benz, J. K., … Sterrett, D. (2017). Obesity in America. Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases, 13(10), 1643–1650. doi: 10.1016/j.soard.2017.08.002

If there is no responsibility, nothing in life can be fully utilized. If it is difficult for people to take responsibility for their actions because they believe that they will not face any consequences. Responsibility is the responsibility of the individual or the department for the concept of responsibility. The performance of a particular activity o As a result, for example, when an employee is tasked with ensuring the smooth progress of the project and knows that he will be blamed for not doing so, he may also say that he is responsible for the project while setting goals. Accountability can be applied in two ways. The first is internal accountability. When people promise to be true to their own values and fulfill their commitments, it is from the inside out and creates the credibility of trust and respect from others; the second is external. Accountability, which comes from the outside, is not responsible for oneself but for others. Create an environment where people feel pressured. Follow a set of social norms and standards.

Accountability is responsible for one’s actions. It can be used in public service through rules and regulations. Have the security of punishment and fear of the relationship between superiors and subordinates of the law: external and internal accountability mechanisms are moral values, education, on the other hand, is responsible for conscience, accountability is a value important in public services because it leads to good governance, it relates to The relationship between the state and its citizens and the degree to which the state is accountable for its actions and full project timelines help make the most of time, and through accountability records. And the measurement results provide opportunities to reflect on success, which in turn will help motivate people to gain experience and challenges in the future and also help create achievable milestones to achieve goals. In long-term projects, public services significantly involve the use of public resources, so accountability is an important factor.

The principles and concepts that are important to public sector accountability include transparency, fairness, integrity, and trust. The same principles that will be discussed are as follows: First, transparency includes responding to requests for information and providing people with the information they need to participate in decisions that affect them. The public debate needs transparency to strengthen public sector accountability and promote fairer, more effective, and more efficient governance in the context of transparency in this report. Degree of openness of public entities to their activities. Provides information on where and what it does. And the degree of information about how it happened and how it was carried out. Second, it is about the power to be exercised in a way that fulfills the purpose of value and the responsibilities of that power granted or maintained by public entities and individual holders. The third equity is equity and equity in practice. The concept of addressing issues fairly means that investigating agencies act independently and openly, and believe that all relevant information is carefully and without undue delay. Most cases also include allowing the complained party the opportunity to comment on any findings that are detrimental to them. Also, the essence of trust is consistency between the proposed content. Over time, when the parties act with considerable transparency and consistent integrity, the parties begin to understand each other’s expectations, understand that they can support each other, and build a relationship of trust.

Introduction

In Todd Phillips 2019 film the Joker it touches upon a man named Arthur Fleck, an aspiring stand up comedian who is constantly mocked and made fun of by those around him. The film uses a past to present timeline as it shows how Fleck had already had poor mental health issues, therefore held a grudge on those who made him suffer as he wanted them to feel the same pain that he had gone through in his life. This then brings off the dark side of Arthur as he turns into a villainous criminal also known as the Joker as he hid himself behind clown makeup, but also used this as a stamp for people to refer to him as. Flecks character had turned bad in hopes to seek revenge on those who have previously hurt him such as the boys who jumped him, Murray from the Murray show, his parents who gave him up for adoption, his mother who did not think he was funny and never believed in him becoming a comedian, the boss who fired him,the therapist who never listened to him and his struggles and many more . This film was set in the past, and worked its way to Arthurs present. Through the use of this film’s timeline one was able to gain background information about Flecks’ past which made it easier to understand why he turned bad in the end. As Lao Tzu once stated “ If you are depressed you are living in the past. If you are anxious you are living in the future. If you are at peace you are living in the present”. This quote is very applicable in this film as the timeline and Flecks mentally show he is living in the past which affects his present harmful actions. Therefore this essay discusses the use of the past to present timeline in the film and how it pertains to the current issues in today’s society including; bullying and abuse, mental illness and violence.

Abuse/Bullying

To begin, bullying is a big issue in today’s society, although schools are making initiative to help stop it, it still goes on. According to the Canadian Institutes of Health Research that “At least 1 in 3 adolescent students in Canada have reported being bullied recently”. When bullying happens it can affect a person’s entire future and how they view themselves and how they view the world as a whole. Right from the start of the film right til the end of the film, Fleck was abused physically as well as verbally. At the start of the film Fleck was jumped by a group of teenagers who took his sign but further ended up violently beating him until he was on the ground unable to move. Even though one physically saw Fleck being abused in this scene one can also infer that there was pre existing abuse that Fleck had gone through as he held up a card to a lady on the bus that explained how he has a condition where he laughs uncontrollably because of a brain injury. In saying this and being aware that Fleck was adopted one can infer that he could have been abused as a child and since he was so little and does not remember being adopted he probably does not remember the past trauma however plays a role of his current mental state. Through being taken advantage of his entire life it had changed how Arthur had perceived the world, he viewed it as everyone was bad and needed to feel pain like he did. “Studies have demonstrated that the effects of bullying victimization go beyond the development of depression, anxiety and social exclusion. Problems experienced by victims are not merely minor diffi- culties but include severe problems such as psychotic symptoms and suicidal ideations”(L. Arseneault et al.,2009,p.722). Therefore through being set in the past it is evident that his torturous past contributed to him turning into the Joker.

Mental Illness

Furthermore, mental illness is a very serious and very common issue that has arisen in contemporary society. In this film it uses the past to present timeline which demonstrates how poor Fleck’s metal health was in the past in which turned him into his present state also known as the Joker. Throughout this film there are many indications that Fleck is mentally ill for example he was going to therapy, was put into a mental hospital, made jokes about his death, was on seven different medications and kept asking for more, he also tells his therapist he feels like she’s not listening to her or that she would not get it. According to The Canadian Mental Health Association “Violent behaviours are often associated with life stressors, which are the events in a person’s life that bring about significant anxiety and stress. Stress is often related to major and everyday life events, such as life transitions, loss and grief, experiences of trauma or victimization, loss of a job or career changes, or changes to family structure or among friends. Diminished access to the social determinants of health, including income insecurity, unemployment, inadequate housing and food insecurity, can also cause life stress”.Through being set in the past it gave people Flecks back story and realize that a lot of the factor listed above such as trauma and a loss of job, contributed to Flecks mental illness which further snowballed into him being the Joker. In today’s world since mental health has been a very big issue people are getting easier access to help such as therapy and counselling being instilled into schools, accessible hotlines, and over awareness to the issue in general. As Fleck for example did not have access to a hotline to call when his therapy ran out of funds and was no longer able to run. In society and in the film mental illness is a real issue that needs to be taken seriously and as was shown in the film if one does not receive the attention and tools to help their illness it will only continue to get worse and spiral into other issues that could either be harmful to themselves, other or both.

Violence

Lastly, violence is an ongoing world issue. In today’s society violence is very common as the news constantly shows shootings, killings, wars and that is just to name a few of many violent cases one witnesses in contemporary society. Violence is a very prevalent action that the joker takes pride in. The Joker builds his persona on violence and making the lives of the others suffer just as he has. The joker uses violence for others to go through and feel the same pain that he has his entire life. For Aurther his violence came gradually. His passion for violence derived from as discussed previously his past experiences that affected his mental state which brought the dark side within himself. The Joker was mad at the world and wanted everyone to feel the pain he had suffered through his entire life whether it be a stranger or a loved one. For example the first people he had ever killed were the men on the train who he did not know or have any emotional attachment to. However he still felt ashamed and hid the fact from his mother that he had a gun and or was a murderer. However with his mental state worsening Arthur was even able to kill people in which he had an emotional connection with such as his mother or Murray. Fleck was able to kill his mother by strangling her with her pillow as he felt betrayed that he was adopted. As well as Murray the man he met several times and loved to watch with his mother on tv. At the end of the film he was able to kill Murray without hesitation as he felt hurt that Murray had made fun of his dream of becoming a stand up comedian.

Course Concepts

Throughout this film the use of the course concept of gender and essentialism is shown. As one is able to identify Arthur Fleck is a grown man, most grown men are thought to be as strong, providing for their families, independent etc. In which this film shows that Arthur is in fact none of those. Arthur lost his job, he is not strong due to him being both mentally and emotionally unstable, he is not independent as he still lives with his mother. This shows essentialism because in the world today people are categorised in a stereotypical type of way as in a way society thinks we should be. That is why Arthur was mocked and made fun of because he was different and society did not approve of him. However only when he had stopped caring about what society had thought of him he was confident enough to be unapologetically known as none other than the Joker.

Conclusion

In conclusion in the 2019 film the Joker directed by Todd Phillips used a past to present timeline. One was able to get Flecks entire backstory to understand why he was showing mental health issues. This led him to a dark place where he chose to seek revenge and make others suffer because he had suffered. Phillips used this method of film to demonstrate how the issues the joker had in his life intertwined with issues that are relevant in today’s society. Firstly one got a glimpse into the abuse and bullying the joker constantly had to go through right from the opening scene when Fleck was jumped right until the end where they were mocking him on Murrays show. Secondly, this film touched upon mental health which is a big problem in today’s society. These mental health issues are shown many times throughout the duration of the film as Fleck has been locked in the mental institutions in the hospital, goes to therapy and discusses his death.Through set in the past one was able to see all that the joker had gone through that contributed to his mental health problems in which enabled the audience to empathize more with this character. Lastly, the issue of violence is prevalent in both temporary society as well as in this film. Through the use of past to present time frame the audience was able to see how Arthur Fleck, an innocent man who would not take a gun for his own protection, had proceeded to be the Joker, a criminal who is easily able to kill a person and not feel guilty about it. Violence is very prevalent in this film as well as modern day society, with killings continuously happening. In which both scenarios connect the violence and killings to the mental state the criminal is in.

Bibliography

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4. “Violence and Mental Health: Unpacking a Complex Issue.” CMHA Ontario, ontario.cmha.ca/documents/violence-and-mental-health-unpacking-a-complex-issue/.