Category: Human Anatomy

The first thing that occurs to mind when the word ‘muscle’ is mentioned is usually the people who go to the gym resulting in their muscular bodies. Although it is correct that buff people can flex and show their physical state proudly as it takes real hard work, even people who are physically inactive still have muscles. I had no deeper knowledge about the system, other than the general knowledge that it is underneath the skin and allows the body to move, more known as contracting the muscles. After reading and conceptualizing the muscular system, I gained a better understanding of the whole system.

As a former STEM student, I did have background knowledge about the systems, but it was too vague, all I remember was each system’s gross anatomy was discussed and how it primarily functioned. At this point, I should have expected that our body is full of wonders, yet I still get amazed by facts such as there are more than 600 muscles in the human body and that it is made up of countless muscle cells which are specialized for the function of contracting. The skeleton and muscles work together as the musculoskeletal system. This system acts as a homeostatic mechanism to allow humans, even animals, to move to more favorable external conditions. The human body has many muscles that work together to help our body do what it needs to do. Muscles play a role in everything we do. They control our heartbeat and breathing, help digestion and, of course, allow movement.

What I said previously was all possible because our body contains three types of muscle tissues: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal. The human body has many types of muscles, which makes sense because our body has many different functions. It was a concept that was easy to understand because our organs are scattered around in different areas of our body. To summarize the types of muscles, smooth muscles are found in the walls of hollow internal organs and blood vessels of the body, such as the interior of the eye, the small intestine, the bronchioles of the respiratory tract, the urinary bladder, and many more, except for the heart. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart as it is also an involuntary muscle just like smooth muscles. Cardiac muscle makes the heartbeat, the pumping action of the heart beating keeps the blood flowing through the cardiovascular system. Skeletal muscles comprise the body’s muscular system and account for about 40-50% of a person’s weight. They are the muscles that move bones and generate movement as it is the only voluntary muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles help keep the body balanced and in an upright position by maintaining the body’s posture. Knowing the types of muscles made me realize how complex our body can be to produce simple movements such as lifting our arms, standing up, blinking, and even just breathing. But to truly understand the muscular system, I also learned its microscopic anatomy, which was way more complicated than I expected because of all the processes our muscle fibers have to go through just to produce a single contraction.

Learning about the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscles was not easy, but once I got the gist and started envisioning the parts of the muscle, it became natural for me to connect the anatomy and its physiology. As we all know by now, we have more than 600 muscles, each muscle we have consists of fascicles, which consist of muscle fibers (muscle cells) that contain myofibrils, divided into segments called sarcomeres. In myofibrils, sarcomeres can be found where the basis of muscle contraction theory happens also known as the ‘sliding filament theory’, with the help of threadlike proteins, myofilaments, which are known as actin and myosin. Thick filaments are made primarily of the protein myosin but also contain the ATPase enzyme. The ATPase enzyme breaks down ATP and releases the energy used for muscle contraction. Thin filaments are composed of actin proteins and several proteins that regulate the transfer of myosin heads to actin proteins. Myosin heads form a cross-bridge when connecting thick and thin filaments during contraction. When the actin-containing filaments slide against each other during contraction, the actin and myosin filaments completely overlap, making the lighter central H zone of the sarcomere disappear. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is another important organelle in muscle fibers (SR). Every myofibril in the muscle fiber is surrounded by the SR, which is a specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The main function of this complex system is to store calcium and release it when needed. The trigger of muscle fibers is stimulated as calcium is the final ‘go’ signal for contraction.

Skeletal muscles are most known for their capacity to contract and create movement. Muscle fibers have various functions outside of creating contractions, such as excitability, contractility, extensibility, and flexibility. All of these capabilities, including excitation, and the ability to receive and respond to stimuli, are linked to contraction because movement is caused by the response of muscle fibers, which generates an action potential. Contraction causes extensibility, or the ability of muscle fibers to stretch. After stretching, the muscle fibers should return to their natural position, where flexibility is seen, as this allows the muscles to rebound and resist. Skeletal muscle activity can be easily understood as its other functions are all related.

Another specialization of skeletal muscles is the site where a motor neuron’s terminal meets the muscle fiber, called the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). It is where the muscle fiber first responds to signals from the motor neuron. However, before nerve impulses reach the neuromuscular junction, they must travel through certain pathways. Like any other system, stimulation usually begins with the help of neurotransmitters to generate an action potential and thus causes a contraction that causes muscle fibers to pull the tendons into the bones causing the body to move. When nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscles, it has different reaction rates after stimulation and those are twitch, summation, unfused tetanus, and fused tetanus.

In general, it is clearly established that the muscular system primarily causes contractions. But in order for muscle contractions to happen, its process must also be understood, and it is where ATP regeneration occurs, especially during muscle activities. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy source for muscle contraction. Direct phosphorylation, aerobic respiration, and anaerobic respiration are the three mechanisms for ATP regeneration. From what was discussed, we people do not have the infinite ATP to keep doing our muscle activities for as long as we want. As I would assume that all of us experienced that we became physically exhausted at some point in our lives and we had no energy to continue whatever we were doing, may it be playing sports, exercising, etc. It can be referred to as muscle fatigue when our muscles are strenuously exercised for a long time that it has become unable to contract even though it is still being stimulated. For muscle fatigue to occur, oxygen deficit is a major factor. When exercise triggers an oxygen deficit, the body will work to replenish oxygen levels during what is known as a recovery period.

Although it has been discussed how muscles shorten when they contract, that is not always the case. There are two types of muscle contractions, which are isotonic and isometric. Isotonic contractions are familiar to most of us as it is what we do daily, such as bending the knee, lifting weights, and smiling. Isometric contractions, on the other hand, are contractions in which the muscles do not shorten, and an example is when we push the palms of our hands together in front, our arms and chest are contracting isometrically. Doing such examples made me learn more about how the muscles contract and how natural it is for humans to do it without knowing that they are. While I do know that exercising is good for us, I do think that we should also be able to tell what specific exercise we should be doing to achieve our health goals. Aerobic exercise, also known as endurance exercise, was a given example that produces more flexible muscles for greater fatigue resistance, and to do so we can start by participating in an aerobics class, jogging, and bike rides. Resistance exercise requires very little time or no special equipment, such as push-ups, squats, lunges, planks, etc. Doing resistance exercises regularly can increase muscle size and strength.

Every movement that we do is the result of the contractions of our muscles, but what I did not know before was that every movement had its own origin and insertion. An origin is attached to the immovable bone, while insertion is attached to the movable bone, which makes the insertion move toward the origin. Our movements depend on our joints and muscles, which makes sense as we have different types of muscle movements such as flexion, extension, rotation, abduction, adduction, circumduction, dorsiflexion and plantar flexion, supination and pronation, inversion and eversion, and lastly, opposition. When we had our practical quiz, we did all sorts of muscle movements and even classified which muscles we were currently tugging. And what I learned from that is you need to identify if it was either the prime mover, the antagonists, the synergists, or the fixators. Having 600 muscles to remember seems impossible, but we soon learned that most of the names of the muscles were hints to their structures and functions. At the end of the discussion, only the most important muscles were mentioned because there were too many, such as the facial muscles, chewing muscles, neck muscles, trunk muscles, anterior and posterior muscles, etc.

After reading and conceptualizing the muscular system, I gained a better understanding of the whole system. When we were assigned the muscular system for our group’s topic, I did not know how wide the scope of our topics would be, but we had a fair distribution as we had a thorough discussion. As soon as I got my topic, I knew my part was not easy, so I studied the muscular system as a whole. It took me from books to articles to videos to understand the whole concept of the system, which made me ponder how complex it was. After a lot of reading and watching, I started to understand its anatomy which soon was followed by its physiology. I broke down the information I was learning into smaller pieces, starting with the human body having over 600 muscles and progressing to its gross anatomy, then finally its microscopic anatomy. It was not easy, but with the help of numerous examples of how we use our muscles in our daily lives, I understood how it functioned better as I got to put in another perspective on how our muscles work. One thing that was for sure was it was overwhelming to learn about the system on a whole new level, it was more than the vague, general discussions I was taught in the past. I got to learn about different muscle activities and muscle movements, and even identify the muscles by how its name was created. Getting the chance to discover the muscular system taught me a lot of things that would not let me view the system like before. I would now be constantly thinking about how our muscle cells go through a lot of processes just to generate a contraction, and it made me appreciate my body more.

Smoking is a bad habit that is usually done to reduce stress and anxiety. It is believed by most people that nicotine—a drug inside tobacco can help calm frustration, stress, and anxiety. When in reality, plenty of researches had shown that smoking increases stress and other unwanted symptoms. In this era, aside from reducing stress, smoking is considered a somewhat cool thing to do—mostly by teenagers who wanted to look trendy and cool without thinking about the consequences of such reckless behavior. Smoking leads to tons of health issues, including cancer, pneumonia, heart diseases, and plenty of others. Aside from health issues, smoking also reduces the appearance of the smoker, causing them to look haggard and older than they appear to be.

There are three major dangerous chemicals inside the cigarettes that cause illness to human bodies: tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide. Tar is a substance that causes the unattractive yellow-brown stain on the fingers and teeth of a smoker. The layers of tar that formed inside the lungs will paralyze and can eventually kill cilia—which is a hair-like structure that helps to trap pollutants inside the lungs. A paralyzed or dead cilia will let the toxins to travel deeper into the lungs. Toxins that successfully get into the alveoli will be carried into the bloodstream and begin moving to other parts of your body, effectively affecting every organ in your body and cause diseases such as diabetes, heart diseases, cancer, and fertility.

The second dangerous substance inside cigarettes is nicotine, a chemical known as the addictive ingredient in tobacco products which makes quitting hard. Commonly believed to reduce the feeling of stress by releasing dopamine—which is a chemical causes feelings of euphoria and is thought to play a significant role in addiction. This myth is proven wrong by researchers and is explained that the calmness it provided merely lasted for a while and after the effects of the chemical wear off, the smoker will feel worse than before.

Carbon monoxide is not one of a cigarette composition. But it appears when cigarettes are burned. This is because flame causes oxygen gas and high-content carbon substances react and produce carbon monoxide with steam as a by-product. Carbon monoxide that travels into your bloodstream may reduce the ability of hemoglobin to bind with oxygen which makes the smoker’s organ receives less oxygen that is needed to do the organ work. high concentration of carbon monoxide inside your blood may be lethal. The effects this substance caused are worse to the bystanders (passive smokers) who inhale the gas by accident because the filter inside the cigar is not provided by our respiratory systems

These are just a few examples of chemicals inside cigarettes. There more than 7000 chemicals inside it. about 250 of them are harmful to your body and 69 of them may lead to cancer. From the text above, I conclude that smoking kills and the effects it caused are mostly harmful to the human body. It should be put inside the public’s head that this activity not only harm themselves but to other people around them, whether it’s their loved ones or even strangers.

Smoking weed has many cons in the human body, as it is a preventable common health risk factor. Smoking weed can potentially lead to death, or this drug can cause severe damages in the body. When someone smokes, every smoke they inhale will flow throughout the entire anatomy body and will leave a trace behind. The respiratory system is the system that gets most affected, due to requiring access to inhale and exhale the smoke. When the drug is inhaled, the smoke goes into our lungs who then releases the dosage it to the bloodstream, and let it flow freely into the entire body impacting our organs. Because the respiratory system is affected by the drug, the breathing system can cause different types of infections, diseases, or lung problems, like chronic bronchitis and may cause damage to lung tissues.

Aside from the respiratory system, weed can also alter the nervous system like one of the most vital organs, the brain. The brain gets involved into all this health problems because once the THC (the main active ingredient in cannabis) is carried to this important organ, the brain. The brain gets triggered when the drug activates where there is a high quantity of brain cell receptors. In other words, it triggers the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that makes us feel euphoria. In that case, that is how people get the ‘high’ they feel and have short term side effects, like impaired memory or changes in mood.

In other cases, there are long-term effects and because we are talking about teens here, teens who consume it, are in the process of brain development due to an early age. When young adults start consuming Marijuana at a young age, their brain will begin to develop differently than a normal healthy teen’s brain. This change will affect this developing vital organ causing chronic health issues early or later in life. The heart also gets affected since it increases the probability of stroke, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and sudden cardiac death. When the consumption of smoking takes place, it may lead to damages in the lining of the arteries causing atheroma, the building of fatty material that narrows the artery.

The health issues of smoking weed are physical and mental effects, affecting the daily lives of the teenager consuming the drug. For the physical effects of smoking, it includes breathing problems, increases heart rate, problems with child development during and after pregnancy, and intense nausea and vomiting. When you hear this, you may think they are temporary effects, and yes they may be, but once you consume this drug your consciousness gets delay; therefore if you are driving it may cause preventable accidents.

For mental effects, it includes temporary hallucinations, temporary paranoia, and may worsen symptoms in patients who have schizophrenia. When the consumption of Marijuana causes mental health issues, it means that the usage is getting to a constant utilization, and may become a long-term outcome of smoking pot. Smoking has many consequences in the human body, but one that you can not change is that the consumer is at risk of dying at a younger age.

Skin makes up 16% of every human’s body weight, which makes skin the largest organ, therefore, the most vulnerable to our environment and actions. It monitors and controls the body’s thermoregulation. This is important as the body temperature needs to be maintained between an average of 37°C to 37.8°C, to be able to function at its full potential. Once the skin is damaged it not much loses this ability to be able to monitor the body’s thermoregulation Stem cells start off basic and then can adapt to match the specific characteristics of the original cell that they are replacing. A Skin graft is a medical procedure that involves transplanting skin from a health region of the body to the damaged area or wound. This report will explore the SHE / Key concept of Development, discussing the developments in skin graft technology through the use of stem cells on third degree burns.

A burn is an injury that effects skin tissue. Causes of burns can vary from a number of different factors; heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, friction or radiation.[footnoteRef:3] When skin is burnt, a cellular inflammatory reaction response occurs. This response generally occurs to protect the body from pathogens and foreign materials from entering or infecting the body. However, when the skin is subject to burns, this response intensifies, which can cause the injury to become more severe. In the area in which the burn has taken place. Cells have been damaged, intense evaporation leads to the cell losing all its fluid, physical damage to the membrane, oxidation and the extra cellular proteins lose their adhesiveness from the burn which causes the skin cells separate. Burns are categorised into 3 different categories depending on the severity and thickness of the burn (figure 1). The three different types of burns include first degree burns where the epidermis layer of skin (outer) is damaged, second degree burns where the dermis layers of the skin (middle) are damaged, and third degree burns where the damage affects the hypodermis skin tissues (figure 2).

A stem cells is a cell that has the ability to be manipulated and developed to be a specialised cell (Figure 3). Stem cells can be used to replace damaged tissues such as burnt skin cells. Stem cells have unique properties that enable the cells to continually divide and produce new cells. When cells divide, they can change into different type of cells, there are three types of stem cells, embryonic, adult and induced pluripotent / iPS stem cells.[footnoteRef:5] Third degree burns victims are treated using a procedure called skin grafting. Induced pluripotent stem cells are used for a type of skin graft that heels third degree burns victims. In this procedure adult skin cells are manipulated by scientists in laboratory settings. The manipulation is the rearranging of the cell’s DNA sequences.[footnoteRef:6]This transforms the adult cell into stem cells. These stem cells are known as iPS stem cell as the DNA sequences of the cell have been reprogrammed, these stem cells can become a verity of specific stem cells such as skin cells which are used for skin grafts.

Third degree burns wound are regally non healing wounds, patients that have burns this extreme have to undergo a medical procedure to heal the damaged area. There are many varieties of skin grafting procedures that can be used depending on the wound. Researcher are developing the use of stem cells for skin grafts.

In 1881 the first recorded successful skin graft procedure took place to treat a burn wound.[footnoteRef:7] Skin grafting is where skin or stem cells are harvested from the victim’s body to then be transplanted on to the wound. Skin grafting has been developing ever since the 1880s and is the most common treatment used to treat burns patients. There are three different types of skin grafts that can be used, Autograft is where the patient’s own skin cells are used from a healthy region of the body. Allograft is where the skin graft comes from a donor and Xenograft which is skin grafts obtained from an animal usually a pig. All three of these skin grafts are efficient but all have their flaws and are only temporary solutions. This is why scientist developing new ways for burns victims to receive skin graft while making it eco-friendlier, society friendly and more long-term results.

Skin grafting techniques are constantly being develop and improved, some of the latest research in skin grafting has been the development of using stem cells. In 2002 the Bali bombings occurred where 28 victims were admitted into the Perth burns ward where some of the patients were treated on by using an experimental procedure at the time.[footnoteRef:9] The type of skin graft is known as spray on skin. This was first test of the spray on skin around the world and it had promising results. Since then scientist have been continuously developing the procedure and in 2018 clinical trials were held in the US, where spray on skin was applied onto third degree burns victim’s wounds.[footnoteRef:10] The spray was made by is made by using a skin biopsy, this is where a sample of healthy skin stem cells are harvested from the patient’s body. The stem cells are then dissolved in an enzyme which creates a spray on solution that is then applied to the wound. The treatment helps regenerate skin in the effected burnt areas. The results from the 2018 clinical trial was that there was that the spray on skin grafting needs development as the results of the third-degree burns victims shows that the graft that only last for a short-term time period but left less scaring. Development of the spray on skin is still happening where scientist are trying to develop a spray that last for long time while heeling still leaving less scarring compared to traditional skin grafts and meshing procedures.

The development of stem cells being used for skin grafts that heel third degree burns. Over the past two decades the development of the skin stem cell has opened path ways for scientist in new ideas and techniques that can change how a skin graft is applied. All the new developments can help minimalize scaring and make a long-term solution. The future development will help people who undergo the treatment be able to monitor and controls their bodies thermoregulation and complete everyday tasks that a non-burns victim can do.

Bibliography

1. Cleveland Clinic (2020) Burns: Types, Symptoms & Treatment, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12063-burns, Accessed 12 February 2020
2. Encyclopedia Britannica (2020) stem cell | Definition, Types, Uses, Research, & Facts | Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/stem-cell, Accessed 12 February 2020
3. Body temperature: Normal ranges in adults and children, (2020) , Body temperature: Normal ranges in adults and children, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323819, Accessed 17 February 2020
4. BBC Science & Nature – Human Body and Mind – Organ Layer, (2020) , BBC Science & Nature – Human Body and Mind – Organ Layer, https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/skin/skin.shtml, Accessed 17 February 2020
5. MedStar Washington Hospital Centre Blog Centre View, (2020) , MedStar Washington Hospital Centre Blog Centre View | How stem cells and skin grafts are shaping the future of burn care, https://blog.medstarwashington.org/2017/06/05/research-burn-care-stem-cells/, Accessed 17 February 2020
6. HCPro, (2020) , three types of skin grafts, www.hcpro.com, at: http://www.hcpro.com/HOM-78558-2949/Coding-tip-Note-the-three-types-of-skin-grafts.html, Accessed 22 February 2020
7. Healthcare IT Australia, (2020) , Australian developed spray-on skin for burns treatment seeks FDA approval, https://www.healthcareit.com.au/article/australian-developed-spray-skin-burns-treatment-seeks-fda-approval, Accessed 1 March 2020
8. Understanding a Burn Injury | Model Systems Knowledge Translation Centre (MSKTC), (2020) , Understanding a Burn Injury, https://msktc.org/burn/factsheets/Understanding_Burn_Injury , Accessed 1 March 2020
9. Pluripotent Stem Cells, iPS cells | Learn Science at Scitable, (2020) , Pluripotent Stem Cells, iPS cells | Learn Science at Scitable, https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/turning-somatic-cells-into-pluripotent-stem-cells-14431451/, Accessed 9 March 2020
10. nhs.uk, (2020) , Skin grafts from stem cells – NHS, https://www.nhs.uk/news/genetics-and-stem-cells/skin-grafts-from-stem-cells/, Accessed 9 March 2020
11. MarketWatch, (2020) , AVITA Medical Announces FDA Approval of the RECELL System for the Treatment of Severe Burns in the U.S, https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/avita-medical-announces-fda-approval-of-the-recell-system-for-the-treatment-of-severe-burns-in-the-us-2018-09-20, Accessed 11 March 2020
12. Burns & Trauma, (2020) , History of burns: The past, present and the future | Burns & Trauma | Full Text, https://burnstrauma.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.4103/2321-3868.143620, Accessed 11 March 2020
13. New type of human stem cell may be easier to manipulate | Harvard Stem Cell Institute, (2020) , https://hsci.harvard.edu/new-type-human-stem-cell-may-be-easier-manipulate, Accessed 13 March 2020

Abstract

The article analyzes the different research in looking at the ways Computer science has changed and still deals with our education and the different careers it impacts. It focuses on the numerous education provided throughout Indiana and what each degree provides in this field. It also talks about the various jobs this schooling can get you including the pros and cons of each job provides, and the way it affects jobs not under computer science. Additionally, it provides research about the salary and growing demand it has and the future it is liable to have, saying that in general, salaries for computer science graduates are high across the country due to the widespread demand for qualified IT applicants. Also stating that nano-computing is making a big change in computer science and the way it will shape our future of it.

Education

For my education research, I chose to look into Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis for a 2-year program (in-state) which would cost roughly $46,608. “In the Department of Computer and Information Science at IUPUI, applications of computer science range from biological and life sciences to software development–involving every aspect of life from homeland security to archiving cultural heritage. Here, you will develop and use innovative problem solving techniques to tackle the toughest technology challenges.” “Your advanced classes will have just 10-15 students, and you will work closely with your professors. The department maintains a student-faculty ratio of 11:1.”

At Indiana State University. A 4-year program (in-state) would cost roughly $81,380. “The computer science major provides students with a solid foundation for a career in computing and related areas. Students begin with a core sequence of courses that develops the programming and analytical foundation needed for delving into advanced study in many areas of computing.” “Upper-level courses focus on an in-depth understanding of important areas of computing, including courses in both foundational and emerging areas. Courses in foundational areas include computer architecture, operating systems, theory of computation, programming languages, algorithms, software engineering, and systems programming”

Indiana University Bloomington has a Master’s program (in-state) that would cost roughly $153,948. “The program is designed so that highly motivated students can earn a master’s degree in just one additional year. To do that, you’ll take at least one graduate-level course during your senior year, when you’re still classified as an undergraduate.” “Your experiences here will prepare you to work anywhere and to thrive as technology changes.”

Careers

Cyber security consultant

Depending on what computer science specializations you studied during your degree, you may wish to specialize as a cyber security consultant or an information security specialist. Maintaining cyber security in the modern world has become increasingly important, so in this role you will focus on understanding the risks to the security of information or data. You’ll analyze where security breaches may occur or have occurred, and restore or reinforce systems against such breaches, to ensure that confidential data is protected. This role could include ‘ethical hacking’, meaning deliberately attempting to hack into your employer’s network to expose any weaknesses. Alternatively you could work as a computer forensics analyst or investigator to combat the increasing phenomenon of cyber-crime.

Pros

Good salaries: Cyber security professionals are generally well paid once their careers are established. Their compensation is strong compared to the average employee at most organizations, and salaries appear to be increasing. The jobs are everywhere: The cyber security professionals we talked to work at banks, investment firms, federal government agencies, telecommunication companies, health care providers, IT services organizations, universities, local governments, public school systems, and government contractors. Companies in nearly every industry sector need to have qualified cyber security professionals, either in house or on contract. Opportunity to be self-employed: There are plenty of IT and cyber security professionals that we spoke with that chose to be self-employed. Because technology is often outsourced and consulting is commonplace, there are plentiful opportunities to work independently as a self-employed professional in the cyber career space if you so choose.

Cons

On-call and demanding hours: A cyber security attack is a critical problem, and unfortunately can happen at any time, so many cyber security professionals are in a situation where they are expected to be accessible at any time, including weekends or evenings. The number of times that they may actually be contacted varies greatly, which can make this negative a non-issue or a real problem, depending on the situation. Lack of resources: Most managers know that cyber security is important, but it is very common in the cyber security field to have management that doesn’t really understand what you do and the importance of your work. Because of this, jobs in cyber security require constantly communicating to management and advocating on your own behalf. This seems to not be the case everywhere, but some cyber security professionals mentioned this as a negative, which usually occurs in larger organizations that are not in the cyber security industry.

Education required

All Security Consultants must understand IT security from the ground-up. That means organizations and consulting firms will require, at a minimum, a bachelor’s degree in Computer Science, Cyber Security or a related field (e.g. Engineering).

Games developer

Games developers produce games for personal computers, games consoles, social/online games, arcade games, tablets, mobile phones and other handheld devices. This role splits into two main parts. First, there’s the creative side of designing a game and dealing with the art, animation and storyboarding. Second, there’s the programming side, using programming languages such as C++. To increase your chances of entry into games development careers, it would be helpful to have studied related aspects during your degree. It is also essential that you create a portfolio (for artistic roles) or working demo (for programming roles) with examples of work to show employers.

Pros

An advantage of being a game designer for many people is the ability to do what you love. Those who enjoy video games have the pleasure of working in an industry that creates the subjects of their passion. One aspect of game design is games testing, which allows some workers to play the games to find bugs, issues and inconsistencies in the flow of the game.

Cons

As the game industry increases, the number of workers seeking opportunities increases as well. With more gaming professionals looking for employment, the ability to stand out from the crowd becomes more difficult. Video game design is an attractive career for many people who enjoy playing video games, but not everyone has the talent or skills to advance in the field. An education in computer science, programming, graphic design, animation and sound engineering is necessary to enter the industry.

Education required

Becoming a video game programmer begins with earning a bachelor’s degree in computer science, software engineering, or a related field. Although requirements for these majors differ, most students will complete core courses in mathematics, computer science, and data analysis

Multimedia programmer

A multimedia programmer is responsible for designing and creating multimedia computer products, making sure they are functional and maintaining fidelity to a designer’s specification. You’ll use creative as well as technical skills to develop multimedia features including text, sound, graphics, digital photography, 2D/3D modelling, animation and video. You’ll need to work with the designer to understand the design concept, discuss how it can be technically implemented, identify the operational rules necessary, write efficient computer code or script to make the features work, run tests of the product to test for bugs and rewrite or add new code if necessary. You’ll also be available for technical support after the product is completed, and need to keep abreast of industry news and developments in order to suggest and implement improvements. You may work across platforms (such as the internet or mobile phones) or remain specialized in one platform. Your role may overlap with similar IT roles such as a web developer, games developer, systems developer or software engineer, or you may find yourself working in tandem with these professionals to achieve mutual goals.

Pros

The advantage of being a Computer Programmer is that you get to work in teams, apply your knowledge at home and have a positive job growth.

Cons

The disadvantage in this business is that the work environment tend to be the same, high level of stress, and need to be committed to the job and work long hours.

Education required

Employers might require a bachelor’s or master’s degree for prospective multimedia developers, while some applicants only need an associate’s degree, certificate or experience in the field. Related programs include the multimedia developer certificate, Associate of Applied Science in Multimedia Web Design, Bachelor of Arts in Multimedia Web Design and Master of Arts in Interactive Multimedia Arts, as well as studies in media arts and technology, multimedia digital arts and multimedia Web development.

You

I am hoping to further my education in Nursing or Athletic Training, and though they don’t have the word computer or science in this career, it is still a vital part of the field. In today’s medical facilities, nurses must have a good grasp of how computers are used in the nursing profession. In most instances, medical staff no longer needs to decode doctor’s orders and patient needs that were written on a bedside medical chart. Electronic health records help doctors and nurses communicate more efficiently by eliminating most misinterpretations of written and verbal orders. Using computers, smartphones and tablets, nurses can create and manage electronic health records and update them, as needed. Nurses need technology to assist patients over the phone, in which the nurses record their recommendations using software or they record the recommendations in the patient’s medical record. Nurses can use software or an app to communicate with other members of the patient’s care team and family members. Nurses now use electronic health records to record and review prescribed medications. They also use software programs and apps to manage patient medications. These programs and apps help nurses not only avoid medication errors, they also prevent unintended drug interactions. Once a medical facility assigns an identification number to a patient, nurses can retrieve the patient’s health record and verify medication orders before they administer any prescriptions. They also document the care that was provided and make recommendations about patient treatments. Software and electronic device apps also help nurses update patient records, using diagnostic and treatment codes, instead of paper charts and whiteboards. Computer security technology also helps nurses keep patient records private.

Additional

The national average mid-career computer science salary is $110,100, according to Payscale. Computer science is one of the highest-paying fields, with an average starting salary of $65,900. Your computer science salary will depend on several factors, including your position, experience, and education. But in general, salaries for computer science graduates are high across the country due to the widespread demand for qualified IT applicants. Computer scientists, including database administrators, network architects and computer systems analysts, typically work 40 hour weeks in comfortable offices, but sometimes they work nights and weekends to resolve technical problems or meet deadlines. Telecommuting has enabled computer scientists to increase productivity, but for security reasons, some work must be done at the office.

Predict the future

Today computers are in virtually everything we touch, all day long. We still have an image of computers as being rectangular objects either on a desk, or these days in our pockets; but computers are in our cars, they’re in our thermostats, they’re in our refrigerators. In fact, increasingly computers are no longer objects at all, but they suffuse fabric and virtually every other material. Because of that, we really do need to care about what the future of computing holds because it is going to impact our lives all day long. We know that quantum computing, the introduction of physics into the field of computer science, is going to be extremely important; that computers are going to become really, very tiny, the size of an atom. That’s going to make a huge difference; nano-computing, very small computers that you might swallow inside a pill and that will then learn about your illness and set about curing it; that brings together biological computing as well, where we can print parts of the body. So I think we’re going to see the increasing infusing of computing into all aspects of our lives. If our Council has its way, we’re going to see an increasing sense of responsibility on the part of technologists to ensure that those developments are for good.

Work Cited

1. Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis
2. Education
3. Careers
4. Cyber security

Introduction

Today progressively more individuals think about the need to take part in sport movement to have the option to lead a sound lifestyle. Everybody, particularly kids, in any case, by and large prefers sports it may hurt them in numerous ways. Kids can be effectively harmed and veered off from their considers. Be that as it may, kids adore going exterior and playing sports or recreations with their companions. On the off chance that we have a see at history, we see that sports are given much significance from antiquated times. In advanced times, developing ubiquity of other exciting things like video diversions, TV, etc. Is diminishing the request for sports and recreations in life. Sports exercises for both, men and ladies are required to be advanced because it improves the physical, mental, monetary well being of the individual. It plays different awesome parts in reinforcing the country by building the character and well being of its citizens. Sports bring speed and activeness to a human’s way of acting. Sport teaches you to know what it feels like to win and lose-it teaches you about life. Sports provide athletes an opportunity to gain not only physical benefits, but also psychological and social skills.

Review of literature:

Football can enhance psychological well-being

Reducing negative emotions as depression and anxiety

By and large terms, there is some proof to propose that physical activity can mitigate the indications of emotional wellness issue like gloom, tension issue, schizophrenia, and craving issue and addictive practices. Furthermore, add to mental prosperity. Investigations of the connection between suicide hazard and commitment in sport have presumed that there is expanding proof that dynamic commitment in sport has a huge relationship with lower levels of sadness. (Hull, 2012) A moderately enormous measure of research has been led taking a gander at the connection between physical movement and despondency. This writing commonly presumed that there is a converse connection between physical movement and burdensome indications. Inside investigations, which have concentrated on, bunches experiencing clinical melancholy, measurements have demonstrated that physical movement prompts a decrease of manifestations. As to schizophrenia, some help taking an interest in physical movement can reduce negative indications related to the condition, including melancholy, low confidence, and social withdrawal. There is additionally a high rate of stoutness among schizophrenia sufferers. Be that as it may, there is less proof that the activity is compelling in managing manifestations, for example, sound-related visualizations. (Hull, 2012) The significance of sports in instruction, not just upgrades the physical quality of the youth yet additionally expands

Posting self steam and self-confident

Confidence refers to whether you acknowledge and esteem yourself. Your confidence creates and changes because of your background and associations with others. Self-confidence is your faith in yourself and your capacities. This can change, contingent upon the circumstance. It’s entirely expected to feel very positive about certain conditions and less sure about the others. A solid measure of confidence is important to have the fearlessness to address life’s difficulties and take part in things you find pleasant and fulfilling. (The University of Queensland, 2019) Football helps you to avoid ponder yourself. Believe your negative contemplations are in every genuine case. Overlook your qualities and abilities. Focus on your slip-ups and failings while disregarding the positive expect the worst. Avoid difficulties or circumstances where you believe others could decide you believe that you don’t have the right to have a ton of fun. (The University of Queensland, 2019) Restricted proof exists demonstrating physical movement can diminish levels of tension and pain in individuals with mellow manifestations by 20-30% and may likewise be useful for treating clinical anxiety. Physical movement is accessible to all, has scarcely any costs connected, and is an enabling methodology that can bolster self-administration. (Peirce, Lester, Seth, Turner, 2018) The Sports and Exercise Psychiatry Special Interest Group of the Royal College of Psychiatrists)

The effect of exercise

Enhance your muscles

Everybody realizes that practicing is beneficial for you. Be that as it may, what, precisely, does it do to your body? (Bruk, Jan 2018) First, muscles the body approaches glucose, a sugar the body has put away from the nourishments we eat as glycogen, for the vitality required contracting muscles and spiking development. It additionally utilizes adenosine triphosphate or ATP, yet the body just has fewer stores of both glucose and ATP. After rapidly spending these provisions, the body requires additional oxygen to make more ATP. More blood is siphoned to the practicing muscles to convey that extra Oxygen. Without enough oxygen, lactic corrosive will shape. Lactic corrosive is common-flushed from the body in 30 to an hour in the wake of wrapping up an exercise. (Klein, 2017) & (Bruk, 2018) second, lungs your body may require up to multiple times more oxygen when you work out, so you begin to inhale quicker and heavier. Your breathing rate will increment until the muscles encompassing the lungs can’t move any quicker. (Klein, December 2017) Third, Brain expanded bloodstream additionally benefits the mind. Promptly, the synapses will begin working at a more elevated level, causing you to feel increasingly alarmed and alert during activity and progressively centered a short time later. (Klein, 2017) Finally, heart at the point when you work out, pulse increments to circle more oxygen through the blood at a speedier pace. The more you work out, the more proficient the heart becomes at this procedure, so you can work out more diligently and more. In the end, this brings down the resting pulse in fit individuals. Exercise additionally animates the development of fresh recruits vessels, causing circulatory strain to diminish in fit individuals. (Klein, 2017)

Weight Loss

When you’re finished with practicing your brain will discharge more endorphins, which will lift your state of mind for the afternoon. (L, laczo 2018) One month of preparing in, you’ll previously get fitter. So make proper acquaintance with a higher power, higher reps, heavier loads and longer cardio meetings. Another key procedure as far as keeping up or recuperating emotional well-being is getting things done in your regular daily existence that you find significant and improves personal satisfaction with being played or practice football. Also, this impact loss of abundance body weight particularly helps decrease the pressure that is put on the back in this manner at times will limit some back torment. (Leamy, 2012)

Teamwork and communication

Interpersonal communications with subordinate

Mentors are instructors and with that, they must have the option to discuss successfully with their competitors. Therefore, numerous mentors feel that their competitors are the main ones that need to do the tuning in. Probably the best mentors on the planet are successful speakers and instructors, but on the other hand, are extraordinary audience members. They have a comprehension of how a competitor feels genuinely just as inwardly. Cognize the intensity of non-verbal correspondence – Not all correspondence is verbal. Truth be told, more than 70 percent of the correspondence is nonverbal. That’s implies your body positions Rick Mayo, Leader of Composite Individual Preparing Arrangements has an extraordinary introductory on these signals, articulations and activities are similarly as significant if not more than what you state. As mentors, you should see how non-verbal correspondence; for example, eye-to-eye connection, standardized and non-verbal communication can affect competitors. (Hyber, 2019) Cooperation in sports can help give members more grounded relational abilities and instruct them to work better with others. Extra points of interest in collaboration in sports incorporate figuring out how to manage struggle and presentation to an assortment of thoughts inside the group. (Harle, 2018)

Communicate with others

The Positive Mental Activity Association was set up in London in 2002, with 21 football crews over the city pointed explicitly at emotional well-being patients. Both male and female players are selected through nearby clinics, local gatherings and inns. Individuals from one of the groups in the association, Hackney FC, were addressed following 10 months in the group and revealed noteworthy enhancements in their well being. Seventy-five percent announced having the option to lessen their drug in the wake of participating in the course, a similar extent said they had a superior social and family life and that they had proceeded to land positions or do additional courses. One previous Hackney FC player, a bi-polar sufferer who is presently a mentor to the group, remarked of the individual advantages to him: It helped me make companions and was an impetus to make me progressively mindful of my self-administered; I quit any pretenses of smoking cannabis and cigarettes and turned out to be increasingly focused on what I was doing. I had the option to contribute in the manner I needed. My disease puts weight on loved ones… This has helped me turn my life around and to see that there is a promising finish to the present course of action and give me trust. It has additionally set me in a place to give others trust. Another case of the utilization of football to handle emotional well-being issues is ‘It’s an Objective’ program. As opposed to concentrating basically on the physical movement parts of football, It’s an Objective uses the intrigue of football and the offices of significant expert clubs to draw in men with emotional well-being issues to go to a course to assist them with comprehension and deal with their condition. Network mental medical caretaker Pete Sayers at Macclesfield Town Football Club started the program. (Hull, 2012) Football (or soccer) is the game that has gotten the most consideration as far as being utilized to upgrade emotional well-being in the UK, which is maybe because of it being the most famous game. (Leamy, 2012)

Discussion:

Inferences

The studies checked that being part of a team with a common target is an excellent way of communicating with coaches and colleagues alike. Contributing to a team, regardless of whether it is a leadership position, will inevitably contribute with a boost in self-esteem and the belief that each game situation is completely different. Tactics, opponents, weaknesses and strengths must all be kept in mind. Sometimes players need to figure out how to shut down a superstar player on the other team; other times it’s trying to figure out how to use their own players to draw errors. Regardless of the challenge, critical thinking skills are needed to solve it. Often participants try to find out whether to shut down the opposing team’s main player; Opposing occasions, it’s trying to work out whether to manipulate their own stars to create errors. No matter the challenge, there’s a need for logical thinking skills to overcome it. Across sports and workouts, my boys are sometimes put in difficult conditions. I saw them understand an issue and respond to the circumstance easily, and work through it.

Limitations

Due to the lack of available data, the results cannot include any information about children or females, couldn’t found any thing talk about teaching discipline. It was hard to find case study about playing football, in addition there were a little information talking about who football can effect of weight loss, and it was hard to find any information talking about over Exercising. The hardest thing I couldn’t found enough information about is the any schools for sports to help youth and young to provide their mental and physical health to avoid and save them form drinking alcohol and smoking.

Recommendations

Further research is needed to establish schools all have both controlled and unsupervised athletic activities to help students choose their participation in the games. More monitoring and limitations may have detrimental effects, but having good sports facilities and atmosphere can certainly help a student from a younger age develop positively. Moreover, more direct explanations of how football may affect athletes in their everyday lives are provided. I think future studies should provide more information about perseverance.

Conclusion

A sport is a style with the help of which athletes have fully integrated themselves into a specific dimension. To grow his curiosity, he is introduced to a unique perspective and optimistically channelizes his energy in a direction. It will definitely support the whole body in the holistic development. In addition being part of a squad helps you to sort your, though. It comes fast nothing worth it. Never. Ever. There are no exceptions in sports (even if you’re Messi!) and good athletes have one aspect in common which is really hard work and constant commitment. Talent certainly plays a part in the early years, but when they grow, they are the hard-working individuals who climb to the top. Overall, exercise is the perfect means of having the body control itself in a modern as frequently as we would. Like several many aspects in life, you have to keep the correct mentality, be focused and find the right mix and all is going to be fine. Finally, I want to say that there is big relation between mental health and sports practices and its effect positively in our lifestyle, bodies and provide our health.

“If football has taught me anything it is that you can overcome anything if, and only if, you love something enough” Lionel Messi.

Introduction:

Peripheral nerves lesions are common in clinical practice and can be caused by a wide variety of diseases like trauma, neoplasms, infections, metabolic disease and chemical toxins such as lead therefore it is of paramount importance for a physician to know the basic structure of peripheral nerves.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is considered a relatively simple part of the nervous system, compared to the central nervous system (CNS). It is composed of afferent sensory fibers and of efferent motor fibers that project to striated skeletal muscle innervating target tissues via the neuromuscular junction. interneurons located in the CNS (spinal cord, brainstem, or brain) modulate the information before efferent fiber activation in response to afferent stimulation. Thus, the PNS is considered to mediate the relationship between the environment and the self. The sensory spinal nerves, whose cell bodies are located in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and the motor spinal nerves formed by the motor axons, whose cell bodies are located in the anterior horn, constitute the so-called somatic PNS.

Spinal nerves enter the spinal cord by the dorsal root and exit the spinal cord by the ventral root through notches between each vertebra of the vertebral column. These roots merge together to form the spinal nerves. At the level of each vertebra, sensory and motor nerves come from or go to targets that are located at the same anatomical level.

2 Clinical Anatomy of PNS

2.1. Development of PNS: PNS motor and preganglionic autonomic neurons develop from the neural tube.

• Gastrulation: consist of 3 primordial germinal layers
• the primitive ectoderm
• the endoderm
• the mesoderm
• Neural induction: 3rd week of gestation in humans the primitive ectoderm divides into two parts.
• The central part will form the future nervous system
• The more lateral region gives rise to the surface ectoderm, which generates the epidermis

This phase of differentiation is called neural induction

• Neurulation: takes place during 4th week of gestation in humans during this process, the neural plate undergoes a series of morphological movements leading to the formation of a neural tube.

Neurulation leads to the formation of a neural tube that represents the primordial of CNS.

• Ventralizing the neural tube:

Formation of nervous system video = https://youtu.be/Cu4lQYbOzzY

• The peripheral nervous system: Peripheral nerves are composed of a large number of fascicles that are surrounded by connective tissue sheaths. Each nerve fascicle contains Schwann cells and fibrocytes, axons, myelin sheath, collagen fibrils of endoneurium and blood vessels.
• The diameter of peripheral nervous axons varies between 1 and 20 micrometres in humans. The nerve fibres are classified into unmyelinated and myelinated. the axons in the unmyelinated nerves merely indent the surface membrane of Schwann cells. the myelinated axons are wrapped around by Schwann cells. the connective tissue forms 3 sheaths in the peripheral nerves which are known as endoneurium, perineurium and epineurium from inside out. The endoneurium
• Nerve fibres: axon of the nerve cell is termed as nerve fibres. The bundles of nerve found in the peripheral nervous system are called peripheral nerves

Myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibres

• Formation of myelin: the process of myelination begins before birth in the late fetal period but is not complete until a year or more later after the birth.

Myelination of the peripheral nerve fibres

The axons invaginate the side of a Schwann cell, as a result the plasma membrane of the Schwann cell forms a mesaxon, which suspends the axon within the Schwann cell. The layer of plasma membrane immediately around the axon is continuous with the remainder of the plasma membrane through a double-layered mesaxon.as the process continues, the cytoplasm is extruded from the spirals into the Schwann cell body. Thus, myelin sheath consists of many regular layers of plasma membrane material which is predominantly white lipid-protein, giving the myelinated axons a whitish appearance.

Functions of the myelin sheath

• Provides support to the nerve fibres
• Aids in the condition of the nerve impulses.
• Insulates an axon from the extracellular environment.
• Responsible for the colour of the white matter of the brain and spinal cord.
• Formation of non-myelinated fibres
• Surrounded by Schwann cells.
• Axons are surrounded by Schwann cells.
• The Schwann cell plasma membrane fuses along the opening of the groove, thus effectively sealing the nerve fibre within an extracellular compartment.

Conduction of action potential along an axon

• Resting membrane potential: the resting neuron maintains an ionic gradient across its plasma membrane thereby creating an electrical potential called the RMP
• Excitability involves a change in membrane permeability in response to appropriate stimuli so that the ionic gradient across the plasma membrane is reversed and the plasma membrane becomes depolarized.
• A wave of depolarization known as an action potential and spreads along the plasma membrane.
• This is followed by the process of repolarisation in which the membrane rapidly re-establishes its resting potential.
• Saltatory conduction: leaping of the action potential from one node of ranvier to another in the myelinated nerve fibres is called saltatory conduction.

Classification of peripheral nerve fibres

• Type A fibres: are large-diameter, myelinated axons and conduct action potential at a grate speed (15 to 120 m/sec)
• Type B fibres are medium-diameter, myelinated axons and conduct action potential at a slow speed. (3 to 15 m/sec)
• Type C fibres: are small-diameter non-myelinated axons that conduct action potentials at a very slow speed (2 m/sec or less)

Peripheral nerves

consisting of 12 pairs of cranial nerves from III to XII and four of them (III, VII, IX, and X) have both somatic and autonomous fibres

1. Optic nerve
2. Olfactory nerve
3. Oculomotor nerve
4. Trochlear nerve
5. Trigeminal nerve
6. Abducent nerve
7. Fascial nerve
8. Vestibulocochlear nerve
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve
10. Vagus nerve
11. Accessory nerve
12. Hypoglossal nerve

Spinal nerves

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that arise from spinal cord.

Formation of the plexus: except for thoracic nerves from T3 to T11,the anterior primary rami of all the spinal nerves join together and/or branch to form a network of nerves known as nerves plexus.

Cervical plexus:

the cervical plexus is located below the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Its sensory fibres carry exteroceptive information from scalp, neck, and chest, and proprioceptive information from muscles, tendons, and joints, its motor fibres innervate cervical muscles and diaphragm. Sympathetic sudomotor and vasomotor fibres pass through this plexus to blood vessels and glands.

Brachial plexus:

The brachial plexus is formed by the C5, C6, C7,C8,and T1 ventral and dorsal roots.C4 contributes only very slightly to the formation of this plexus. Injuries to roots, trunks and cords of the brachial plexus may produce characteristic defects which are described here.

• Erb’s paralysis: site of injury
• Klumpke’s paralysis
• Injury to the nerve to serratus anterior (nerve of bell)
• Injury to lateral cord
• Injury to medial cord

Lumbosacral plexus:

Made up of L1 through S5 spinal nerves, innervates muscles of the lower limb, divided into two portions:

1. Lumbar portion: L1 through L4, supplies mostly muscles of the thigh.
2. Sacral portion L5 through S5 supplies mostly muscles of leg and foot.

Radial

Radial nerves is a continuation of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and receive fibres from C5 to T1roots.it supplies the three heads of the triceps and winds around the shaft of the humerus in the spiral groove. At the level of the spiral groove, it gives a posterior antebrachial cutaneous branch. below the insertion of deltoid muscles, it lies relatively superficially on the lateral aspect of the arm. at the level of lateral epicondyle, it lies lateral to the biceps. Radial nerves enter the forearm between the brachialis and brachioradialis .in the proximal forearm, the radial nerve divides into posterior interosseous and superficial radial nerves.

median

It’s a mixed nerve derived from C5-T1 roots via medial and lateral cords of the brachial plexus. Forearm flexors and thenar muscles provide sensory innervation to the lateral aspect of palm and dorsal surface of terminal phalanges along with the palmar surface of the thumb, index, middle and half of the ring finger.

Ulnar

Receives fibres from C7, C8, and T1 roots through the medial cord of the brachial plexus. It descends medially in the upper arm close to median nerves and brachial artery.in the upper, ulnar nerves. Has no branch. at the elbow, it lies in the condylar groove, behind the medial epicondyle and then enters the cubital tunnel.

Femoral

It is formed by the dorsal portion of the anterior rami of L2-, L4 roots.it passes through the lateral border of the psoas and travels between the psoas and iliacus muscles.it emerges from the pelvic under the inguinal ligament and lies lateral to femoral vessels in the femoral triangle. About 4-5 cm below inguinal ligament femoral

Physiology of peripheral nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls all the body’s ‘autonomic’ functions, those outside voluntary control. ANS neurons span both the CNS and PNS and control homeostasis.

Divisions of the Autonomic nervous system

1) Sympathetic nervous system: preganglionic neurons found in the lateral horn of spinal cord from upper thoracic to the mid-lumbar cord (T1-T3). postganglionic cell bodies found in vertebral and prevertebral ganglia. Uses noradrenalin as postganglionic transmitter. it is generally said that sympathetic stimulation mobilises the body energy for flight or fight.

Functions of the sympathetic nervous system

• Dilation of pupil
• Widening of the palpebral fissure
• Secretion of sweat glands
• Motor for arrector pili muscles
• Vasoconstriction of blood vessels all over the body except those in skeletal muscles
• Stimulation of heart
• Bronchodilation and inhibition of secretion from bronchial glands
• Inhibition of gastrointestinal motility and secretions.
• Sensory for pain from most of the viscera.
• Contraction of sphincters of the bladders and bowel
• Motor for ejaculation.

2) Parasympathetic nervous system: preganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the brainstem and sacrum. Postganglionic cell bodies are bound adjacent to or within the walls of the organ they supply. Uses acetylcholine (Ach)as a postganglionic transmitter.

Somatic nerves system:

The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that are connected to skin, muscles and sensory organs. the SNS or voluntary nervous system is concerned with reactions to external stimulation. This system is under conscious control and is responsible for skeletal muscle contraction by way of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves. this system enables our voluntary control of muscles, as well as our reception of sights, sounds, sensations, tastes and smells.

Reference

1. Textbook of physiology volume -14 th edition Prof. A K Jain MD department of physiology maulana Azad medical college new Delhi
2. Textbook of clinical neuroanatomy-Prof.Vishram Singh, MS department of anatomy Santhosh world medical academy, Ghaziabad.
3. Clinical neurophysiology UK Misra MD, DM, MNAMS Professor and head department of neurology Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences.

Introduction

There are many lifestyle factors that can affect ocular health such as UV light, alcohol, diet, however smoking is one of the most important factors to control as it can lead to several eye problems. Most common eye problems associated with smoking include age related macular degeneration, cataracts, dry eye, optic neuritis, diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma.

Effects of Smoking

One problem that smoking can cause is dry eye which is when tears are not able to provide sufficient lubrication for your eyes. Smoking with dry eye will make your eyes more likely to be scratchy, burn or red. This is because the conjunctival mucosa is highly sensitive to airborne chemicals, fumes, and irritative gases that originate in tobacco smoke, leading to conjunctival redness, excessive lacrimation and discomfort due to stimulation of the conjunctival-free nerve endings (Yoon, Song and Seo, 2005). Smoking also increases the risk of getting cataracts which is clouding of your eye’s naturally clear lens which causes blurred vision and makes colours look dull and faded. This is due to heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and copper found in tobacco smoke which can collect in the lens causing the formation of cataracts (Schmeling, Gaynes and Tidow-Kebritchi, 2014). In addition, cigarette smoking is an established risk factor for nuclear cataract, there is growing epidemiologic evidence that smoking is also a risk factor for posterior subcapsular cataract and it has been shown to be a risk factor for many common and severe eye diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, and cataract, which can lead to irreversible blindness (Krishnaiah et al., 2005).

Additionally, the risk of age-related macular degeneration is increased whilst smoking which is when the center of the retina called the macula is damaged leading you to lose your central vision and not being able to see fine detail which is needed for everyday tasks such as reading and driving, however your peripheral vision stays the same. Macular degeneration also causes blind spots and often severely impairs central vision (Bressler, Bressler and Fine, 1988). In addition, increased oxidative stress due to smoking has already been implicated as a causal factor in the pathogenesis of some smoking-related illnesses, such as cataracts, diabetic retinopathy and age related macular degeneration (Hammond, Wooten and Snodderly, 1996). Oxidative stress is essentially an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the ability of the body to counteract or detoxify their harmful effects through neutralization by antioxidants which reduces the amount of oxygen that reaches your macula (Bailey et al., 2004). Antioxidants help maintain lens transparency, so smoking may interfere with the protection from antioxidative nutrients (Kelly et al., 2005). Oxidative stress in the retinal pigment epithelium may contribute to macular degeneration (Bailey et al., 2004).

Another problem that can arise due to smoking is optic neuritis. This occurs when the nerve fibres in the optic nerve which carry messages from the eye to the brain become inflamed therefore leading to damage in vision and smoking increases the risk of optic neuritis due to the lack of oxygen caused by carbon monoxide inhaled from tobacco smoke (Toosy, Mason and Miller, 2014). Furthermore, smokers are insulin resistant exhibiting several aspects of the insulin resistance syndrome so are at an increased risk for type 2 diabetes, consequently cigarette smoking increases the risk for diabetic retinopathy, which is when blood vessels in the eye are damaged causing blurry or distorted vision, due to its metabolic effects in combination with increased inflammation and endothelial dysfunction (Eliasson, 2003). Another common eye problem associated with smoking is glaucoma where the optic nerve, which connects the eye to the brain, becomes damaged. This is usually triggered by a large build up of fluid in the front part of the eye which causes the pressure inside the eye to rise and eventually can lead to vision loss if it isn’t detected and treated in its early stages. Primary open-angle glaucoma is a progressive optic neuropathy and the most common form of glaucoma as the disease is treatable and the visual impairment caused by glaucoma is irreversible so early detection is vital which depends on examination of the optic disc, retinal nerve fibre layer, and visual field in which the drainage angle for fluid within the eye remains open, then there are less common types including closed-angle glaucoma and normal-tension glaucoma (Weinreb and Khaw, 2004). Two relatively recent, large studies (including one prospective cohort study) investigating the effect of smoking have found a significant increase in risk of POAG (Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma) in very heavy smokers, the evidence for a link between current smoking and POAG appears stronger than that of past smoking, but recent studies suggest that heavy smoking may increase the risk of POAG. (Jain, Jain, Abdull and Bastawrous, 2016).

Overall, smoking is an important factor in ocular health in which many studies have indicated a role for smoking in the incidence and progression of age-related macular degeneration (Solberg, Rosner and Belkin, 1998). Smoking is also regularly linked with nuclear cataract however some studies suggest data on smoking and glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy and dry eye are inconclusive (Solberg, Rosner and Belkin, 1998), therefore contradicting other studies signifying that smoking increases the risk of these diseases.

Methods to prevent eye problems

Protecting your eyesight is one of the most essential things you can do to help preserve your quality of life. The foremost causes of blindness and low vision are the eye problems illustrated above. Hence there are many ways to help prevent these ocular diseases from arising such as checking if you are at a higher risk for eye diseases by checking your family’s health history for certain traits like diabetes or high blood pressure. Having said this, have regular physical tests to check for diabetes and high blood pressure due to the fact that if left untreated, diabetes and high blood pressure particularly can lead to vision loss from macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. Look for warning signs of changes in vision such as double vision and having difficulties seeing in low light conditions. Also, check for frequent red eyes, floaters and swelling as these can be symptoms for potential eye problems. Exercising more regularly and eating a healthy balanced diet is also important as research has shown that antioxidants can potentially reduce the risk of cataracts (Kelly et al., 2005), which can be attained from eating a lot of fruit and vegetables. Moreover, try to have an eye exam every year as this can determine your risk of getting eye diseases and most importantly don’t smoke.

In conclusion, pursuing these instructions will not guarantee you perfect vision throughout your whole life. However, sustaining a healthy lifestyle and having consistent eye tests will undoubtedly lower the risk of developing major eye problems.

Bibliography

1. Yoon, K., Song, B. and Seo, M., 2005. Effects of Smoking on Tear Film and Ocular Surface. Korean Journal of Ophthalmology, 19(1), p.18.
2. Schmeling, M., Gaynes, B. and Tidow-Kebritchi, S., 2014. Heavy metal analysis in lens and aqueous humor of cataract patients by total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Powder Diffraction, 29(2), pp.155-158.
3. Bressler, N., Bressler, S. and Fine, S., 1988. Age-related macular degeneration. Survey of Ophthalmology, 32(6), pp.375-413.
4. Hammond, B., Wooten, B. and Snodderly, D., 1996. Cigarette Smoking and Retinal Carotenoids: Implications for Age-related Macular Degeneration. Vision Research, 36(18), pp.3003-3009.
5. Bailey, T., Kanuga, N., Romero, I., Greenwood, J., Luthert, P. and Cheetham, M., 2004. Oxidative Stress Affects the Junctional Integrity of Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 45(2), p.675.
6. Kelly, S., Thornton, J., Edwards, R., Sahu, A. and Harrison, R., 2005. Smoking and cataract: Review of causal association. Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery, 31(12), pp.2395-2404.
7. Toosy, A., Mason, D. and Miller, D., 2014. Optic neuritis. The Lancet Neurology, 13(1), pp.83-99.
8. Eliasson, B., 2003. Cigarette smoking and diabetes. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 45(5), pp.405-413.
9. Solberg, Y., Rosner, M. and Belkin, M., 1998. The Association Between Cigarette Smoking and Ocular Diseases. Survey of Ophthalmology, 42(6), pp.535-547.
10. Krishnaiah, S., Vilas, K., Shamanna, B., Rao, G., Thomas, R. and Balasubramanian, D., 2005. Smoking and Its Association with Cataract: Results of the Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study from India. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 46(1), p.58.
11. Weinreb, R. and Khaw, P., 2004. Primary open-angle glaucoma. The Lancet, 363(9422), pp.1711-1720.
12. Jain, V., Jain, M., Abdull, M. and Bastawrous, A., 2016. The association between cigarette smoking and primary open-angle glaucoma: a systematic review. International Ophthalmology, 37(1), pp.291-301.

In this essay, I will demonstrate my understanding of the anatomical organization and functions of the skeletal system, including the main bone types connective tissues, joints, and protective structures. I will also explain the biomechanics of levers when muscular forces are transmitted by the skeletal system, bone development and repair, and the effects of the disease and age on locomotion.

The Skeletal Structure and Functions

The skeletal system is an important system of the human body as it supports and protects the body. The human body has a number of 206 bones. Bones protect the internal organs in the body, for example, the ribs protect the lungs and heart, and they also support the body, this is to ensure that the internal organs are in the correct place. The skeletal system defines your body shape. It also influences the size of your hands and legs, their height and width. The muscles in the body are attached to the bones, so when they contract together, it causes the bones to move. In long bones, there is a spongy tissue that is responsible for red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body.

There are five types of bones in the human body, which are irregular bones that are oddly shaped. Their main role is to give protection to the spinal cord and the sacrum. Flat bones are shaped in a plate-like form. Their key function is to provide protection and a flat surface for muscular connection. Flat bones are things like the rise of cranial bones. Sesamoid bones are small with a smooth surface so that they can slide over. These types of bones are often on joints. An example of a sesamoid bone is the kneecap. Short bones are the same width and length. Their role is to give support and steadiness. These bones provide little movement, they are the types of bones that are found in feet, ankles, hands, and wrists. Long bones are wide but long. These types of bones are like thigh bones, but they can also be found in fingers even though they are short. Long bones give structure for skeletal mobility.

The main form of the body is maintained by a group of tissues that provide support to the body. Ligaments attach to bones to ensure that joints are stabilized. Ligaments can also be found either inside or outside of the joints. Tendons are also very strong and made of collagen that is very flexible, this attaches to the muscle at the periosteum that protects the bone due to regular movement that must be tough and can also tear under stress. A tendon sheath contains a film of synovial fluid that ensures that friction is reduced and the tendon is protected from damage. The tendon sheath surrounds ankle joints as they are more prone to rhythmic stress. Cartilages can be found in places such as your nose or ears where flexible support is needed. The elasticity types of cartilage can be fibro, hyaline, or elastic, and these all differ in elasticity from most to least elastic.

There are three types of joints in the body. The fibrous are immovable joints, each side of the bone is joined by fibrous tissue. They can be found in the structures of the skull. Cartilaginous are slightly movable joints, they are connected together by a group of cartilages that fix bones together. An example of these can be the intervertebral disks of the spine. The synovial is a freely moving joint and is very common within the human body. Synovial fluid fills the joint and makes it lubricated to rescue wear and friction. The joint is covered by a capsule called fibrous tissue, which has a smooth lining of significant tissue called the synovial membrane, synovial fluid is secreted by the membrane. Ligaments strengthen the joints that are on the outside which holds the bones together. As an example, synovial joints are in places like your knees and shoulders.

Biomechanics of Levers When Muscular Forces Are Transmitted by the Skeletal System

Stimulus is sent to the muscle to make movement, which produces muscle contractions. Muscle contractions can be defined as either isotonic where the joints will move due to tension in the muscle that is changing its length. The two types of isotonic contractions are eccentric contractions, which make the muscle longer, and concentric contractions, which make the muscle shorter. There is also isometrics, where the joint will not move due to there being no change when the muscle has tension.

Muscles need force to be able to move the bone or joint. Levers are important to ensure movement takes place. The joint acts as the fixed axis and the muscles that are around the joint ensure resistance by applying force.

Levers can be arranged into three sections. First class, this type of lever is located in the neck when your head is raised to head a football. The muscle in the neck is the stable axis, and the load is the head. The second-class lever is the load between the calcium and the effort. This lever is located in the ankle and is used when jumping. When an individual is standing on their tiptoes, the fulcrum is the ball of the foot, the load is the weight of the body, and the gastrocnemius is the muscle that is used. The third-class lever is the effort that is in the middle of the load and fulcrum. This is where the forearm will bend from the elbow.

Due to muscles only being able to contract, they work together to ensure movement is smooth and effective. Each muscle will have its own role, but depending on the muscle movement, they can be defined as agonists, this is where extreme force is needed to accomplish movement. These muscles can also be called prime movers. The antagonist muscle resists the movement of the agonist. When the agonist is moving, the antagonist rests. It is important to keep in mind that sometimes the antagonist needs to produce force. This is due to the agonist needing assistance when stopping and slowing down. The synergist muscle helps stabilize the joint when movement is happening. The fixator muscle’s role is to ensure the agonist is stabilized and over the joint in which the agonist moves.

Bones Development and Repair and the Effects of Disease and Aging on Locomotion

Bone remodeling is an extremely controlled process that holds and balances linking the resorption and formation. Therefore, maintaining skeletal integrity. Throughout aging there is a change in balance, which may result in loss of bone tissue. Bones that are aging have less mineral content and are liable to osteoporosis. When people age, their bone resorption by osteoclast cells goes beyond the rate of the formation of the bone and its weakness. This all happens because of hormonal changes, interactive lifestyle changes, and loss of calcium and other internal in bones. As bone age changes occur these are things like the bone density in the vertebrae will reduce, fluid will be lost in the intervertebral discs, which causes a shortened and curved trunk. In order and post-menopausal women, osteoporosis is a common problem, this is fatale for hip fractures in elderly people. Reduced mobility and pain are effects of reduced bone density. Due to gait changes injuries increase this results in falls due to loss of balance. The flexibility and motion of joints become more restricted with age changes. Arthritis and inflammation occur after lifetimes of using the joint, and the cushioning of the cartilage begins to break down.

Exercise is an important part of preventing bone density. Any intense exercise that may risk someone falling should be avoided. Some exercises may be walking, using elastic equipment without weights, and balancing exercises. Also, healthy diets should be maintained, ensuring enough vitamins and calcium are consumed to prevent body mass. Alcohol, coffee, and tobacco consumption should be limited so bone mineral density does not have a delayed effect.

Conclusion

In this report, I analyzed the function and structure of the skeletal system and explained the biomechanics of levers when muscular forces are transmitted by the skeletal system. In addition, I defined and explained the development and repair of bones, as well as the effect locomotion has on age and disease. After writing this report, I determined that access to more videos and reading materials is more beneficial for gathering more information. I also expanded my knowledge about the skeletal system.

In the words of Isaac Asimov, “Science can amuse and fascinate us all, but it is engineering that changes the world” (“Isaac Asimov Quote”, n.d.). Engineers have been world changers, by trade, throughout history. Contributions from the field of engineering have shaped the modern landscape, and have continuously improved the quality of life for humans on earth. Today, an engineer can be generally defined as: one who makes ethical, practical applications with the knowledge of sciences, as in the construction, maintenance, and development of technology (“Engineering”, n.d.). While very philosophical and diverse in nature, engineering goals and motivation stem from a desire to use, economically, Earth’s materials, concepts, and forces in order to optimize life quality for its inhabitants. Perhaps, it is the goals of an engineer that best describe his or her role in society.

One of the most notable figures in engineering history is Leonardo da Vinci. However, da Vinci was not strictly an engineer; he was an artist, designer, draftsman, and mechanism. Perhaps, it was this unique blend of qualities that allowed him to become, arguably, the most impactful engineer in history. Over the course of his career as a multifaceted innovator, da Vinci produced thousands of mechanical drawings which addressed many challenges facing mankind, both in his time and in years way beyond his measure. It was through these engineering drawings that da Vinci was able to communicate his earth-shattering ideas and concepts to the world. Three specific areas that have been influenced by da Vinci’s drawings include human anatomy, flight, and war. This paper will analyze da Vinci’s remarkable efforts in these three areas in order to verify the claim that he has significantly influenced and contributed to the contemporary field of engineering.

Da Vinci’s Mechanical Drawings

As mentioned earlier, Leonardo da Vinci was an exceptional artist, with as little as a mere glance at his Mona Lisa portrait being enough to prove even the strongest of doubters otherwise. However, as much as he used his artistic talent for visual appeal, da Vinci’s artwork regarding engineering concepts, design, and ideas are more likely his most important ones. The reason being: da Vinci’s engineering drawings have impacted humanity in ways much more drastic than his artwork. They opened up the doors to human flight, allowed the average person to become more anatomically knowledgeable about his or herself, have revolutionized the way human conflicts are settled and have therefore enhanced the quality of life for his earthly brothers and sisters. An analysis of da Vinci’s engineering drawings pertaining to flight, human anatomy, and war shows that he has had a very crucial role in influencing engineering innovation in the modern world.

Human Flight

The first way in which da Vinci significantly impacted the contemporary engineering field is through his mechanical drawings regarding ideas about inventing machines that would enable human flight. Much of his inspiration to fly stemmed from an interest in birds and how their anatomy enables them to effortlessly maneuver in the air. This interest powered da Vinci to publish a codex in 1506, revealing some 35,000 words and over 500 sketches regarding his research on the nature of air, bird flight, and mechanical flying machines (“Leonardo da Vinci’s Codex on the Flight of Birds”, n.d.). In it, da Vinci embedded thousands of observations, ideas, and concepts, some of which would go on to and enable the Wright Brothers to produce the first airplane four centuries later.

The first of da Vinci’s flying device drawings were centered around ornithopters. His design drafts depict machines that had flapping wings capable of raising and launching human pilots through the air. The machine concept was based on the flight mechanics of birds, which da Vinci studied vigorously while writing his codex. However, da Vinci’s ornithopters could never work. His designs contained a fatal misconception that rendered each and every one of his ornithopter models useless. Relative to birds, humans have severely limited muscle power and endurance (“Leonardo’s Codex on the Flight of Birds”, n.d.). For decades, da Vinci remained stumped in his mission to achieve human flight.

It was not until many years later when he re-addressed his challenge with fresh eyes, that da Vinci would have massive breakthroughs in his flying machine drawings. Using his early understanding of aerodynamics and aeronautics, and concepts such as drag, lift, and stall, da Vinci designed a new machine that approached flight from a new angle. He created parachutes that could generate lift the same way in which the wings of a bird enable them to glide through the air (“Leonardo’s Codex on the Flight of Birds”, n.d.). With this new model, da Vinci successfully overcame a challenge that plagued him for years and set up a world of future discoveries in aeronautics for later generations.

Concepts da Vinci hinted at in his codex, such as gravity, drag, and lift, became formally recognized many years later, which speaks volumes about his role as a visionary. He virtually laid down the foundation for the study and application of aerodynamics and aeronautics, the fields which inevitably realized his initial dream. Today, aerospace engineers continue to build off of da Vinci’s extraordinary discoveries and concepts, albeit working towards creating flying devices that can fly at speeds that even da Vinci would never deem imaginable in his time. Nonetheless, the contemporary engineering field would not be where it is today without the significant contributions it was provided by da Vinci through his engineering drawings regarding the human flight.

Human Anatomy

Another way that Leonardo da Vinci let his artistic and engineering talents influence the world is through his study of human anatomy. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, it is unknown when exactly da Vinci began having an interest in dissecting human bodies, but clues suggest he began during his days living in Milan, which was a medical powerhouse in his era (“Anatomical Studies”, n.d.). His independent research began as a platform for artwork inspiration, but later became the focal point of an era in which da Vinci would produce thousands of drafts and engineering drawings that depicted images of the human body unseen to anyone before. His mix of artistic ability, engineering motivation, and keen eye enabled him to begin the rapid advancement in medical knowledge and technology that continually works to improve human quality of life.

His research began with the musculoskeletal system. Da Vinci combined his hands-on discoveries with his knowledge of mechanics to derive many concepts that described the human body as a mechanical system, which we know today is correct. He eventually made his way to each component of the human body, paying special attention to the heart, lungs, and brain, which he regarded as the, “motors of the senses and of life” (“Anatomical Studies”, n.d. para. 2). Over the span of two decades and 30 corpses (“Anatomical Studies”, n.d.), Da Vinci carefully created thousands of engineering drawings based off of his observations that presented human anatomy in ways remarkable for the era, and are now famously known as the “Anatomical Drawings”.

Specific drawings in his collection include: “The Vitruvian Man”, “The Skull”, “Skeleton Foot”, and “Anatomical Studies”. These masterful creations are a small part of Leonardo da Vinci’s futuristic engineering and medical studies portfolio, which would go on to be one of the most noteworthy accomplishments in science during the Italian Renaissance Era. Therefore, in these ways, it is made clear that Leonardo da Vinci used his artistic, draftsman, and engineering talents to produce mechanical drawings of human anatomy that have impacted medical sciences and contemporary engineering in a significant manner.

War

Thirdly, Leonardo da Vinci exercised his expert drawing, drafting, and engineering talents when he made significant impacts in the field of combat, weaponry, and war. For much of his life, da Vinci roamed from city to city searching for a city that would qualify as a provider of beautiful art inspiration, and a welcoming audience for his unique blend of talents. He spent the early part of his career in his native Florence, Italy, before abruptly packing up shop and departing for Milan, Italy, where the Duke of Milan stood yearning for a new court artist. Da Vinci won the post after presenting himself as, “skilled in many crafts, but particularly in military engineering” (“Leonardo da Vinci Biography”, n.d.). However, the Duke never really gave da Vinci a chance to flourish as the military engineer Leonardo knew he was. It was not until years later, in 1502, that da Vinci met and was employed by Cesare Borgia, the ruthless leader of the Pope’s army (Sparknotes Editors, 2005), and was truly given the chance to introduce his masterful war strategies with the world. Borgia made da Vinci his chief military engineer and simultaneously began da Vinci’s journey in designing futuristic war machines that would be passed down from generation to generation and impact the resolution of human conflicts, forever.

Although a pacifist at heart, Borgia’s rule empowered da Vinci to invent the most violent of weapons if it would translate to battlefield success. Interestingly enough, da Vinci arrived into Borgia’s command with plenty of unreleased, secret, military creations that were neglected by his previous patrons. During his time as an observer of the Venetian war with the Ottoman Empire, da Vinci and his concepts of mobile dams and diving apparatus (modern-day scuba gear) were rejected by the unconvinced military leaders of the time (SparkNotes Editors, 2005). Under Borgia, however, da Vinci’s ideas were encouraged and an extensive period of weapon design began. His mechanical design portfolio developed into a bible for military commanders. It contained inventions such as the 33-barrelled organ cannon, the armored car, the giant crossbow, the triple-barrelled cannon, the robotic knight, and the revolving bridge (“Famous Inventions”, n.d.). While only some of these inventions made it into production during his lifetime, da Vinci’s work inspired a host of future military development. His multi-barrelled cannons set the stage for machine guns; his armored car set the stage for tanks; his giant crossbow set the stage for rifles. Without question, his early concepts in weaponry had a monumental influence on the way future wars would be settled, paving the path for today’s military engineering field.

Conclusion

Da Vinci’s contributions to uncovering the fields of flight, human anatomy, and military technology present overwhelming evidence to suggest that he has significantly impacted and influenced the contemporary engineering field in its entirety. Truly, da Vinci used his extraordinary artistic, drafting, and engineering talents to help him accomplish the main goal of an engineer: to use, economically, Earth’s materials, concepts, and forces in order to optimize the quality of life for its inhabitants. His research and early understanding of aerodynamics opened the doors for aeronautical travel. His study of the human body allowed him to create world-renowned anatomical drawings unearthing the incredible potential of medical sciences which is still being realized today. Further, his innate gift in designing battlefield technology began a new age in war, resulting in the rapid evolution of global conflict resolution, political power, and military engineering. Without a doubt, Leonardo da Vinci actively employed his engineering prowess, making immense enhancements to the engineering profession and society alike. By trade, da Vinci was a visionary and an engineer, whose life proves that while science can amuse and fascinate us all, it is engineering that changes the world.