Category: Homer

Homer was a Greek epic poet and supposedly the author of The Iliad and The Odyssey which are thought to be composed sometime between 750 and 650 BC. In Homer’s Iliad, the characters Sarpedon (mortal son of Zeus) and Patroklos (companion of Achilles) who both die noble and heroic deaths are commemorated with the grandest burials, whilst in Homer’s Odyssey, the character Elpenor (youngest companion of Odysseus) was given a much smaller burial.

Sarpedon, who was killed in battle by Patroklos, had his body carried away by Apollo who cleansed the blood from his body and anointed him with ambrosia, the food of the gods. He then proceeded to clothe him in ‘imperishable garments’ and together his brothers buried him in Lycia, a land he had founded.

Patroklos was also killed in the same battle by Hektor after he killed Sarpedon. At the sight, Achilles and other close friends mourned the loss. Briseis had ‘flung herself on the body, shrieking loudly, and tore with her hands at her breast, her tender neck, and lovely face’. Achilles had also abstained from food and drink for a period of time to express his sadness and mourn the loss of his best friend and companion of many years. The funeral consisted of both human and animal sacrifices: sheep, cows, horses, dogs, and twelve Trojans; their flayed corpses were piled around the pyre on top of which lay Patroklos’ body. The pyre was set alight to start the cremation and ended when the flames were doused with wine and his ashes collected in a golden urn which was placed in a mound. After the burial, Achilles held funeral games such as chariot races with prizes to be won.

Both characters were given grand ceremonies and this is thought to suggest that it was due to their high social statuses and importance in society. However, if we observe the character Elpenor in Homer’s Odyssey, it is evident that his social status is lower than that of Patroklos or Sarpedon. Elpenor drunkenly fell to his death from a roof and was left unburied as his friends had a pressing task to handle. When Odysseus encounters Elpenor’s spirit in the underworld, he feels immense sadness and promises to go back and give him a proper burial which he does by cremating his body, burying it with his armor on the sea shore, and marking it with an oar. It can be argued that perhaps his modest burial was due to the lack of means at the time as his friends were extremely busy and his family was not notified until much later rather than it being due to his lower social status.

Although the texts are fictional and made for entertainment purposes, there is truth in the funerary customs and burials depicted. There should be a basis from which Homer got his ideologies of death and burials and this is most likely to be a real-life tradition.

There are various books in which Homer’s epic poems are used as textual evidence in explaining funerary customs in the Greek era as there is not much other textual evidence to examine. Works such as ‘The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition’ by Margaret Alexiou and ‘The Greek Way of Death’ by Robert Garland has written about what we can interpret from the deaths of Homeric characters and how it can be applied to our inferences about ancient Greek society.

In ancient Greek myth, heroes were humans, male or female, of the distant past, gifted with superhuman abilities and descended from the immortal gods themselves. What defines the heroic life itself is the fact that humans are mortal. The certainty that one day you will die is what makes us human, distinct from animals who are unaware of their future death and from gods who do not die. In this essay what makes a hero and the qualities one possesses and what one has to go through to be considered a Homeric hero such as honor, how to achieve honor, what is valued in Homeric myths as well as what is devalued will be discussed.

The very first quality that is valued in a Homeric hero is an honor. Not just having honor but as well as how one achieves it. The belief that one needs to have personal honor is widespread throughout the Iliad. While honor was important to every person, to the hero it was the most important quality he could own. The difficulty of the tasks a hero faces weighed heroic value, of course, battle brings the highest honor while hunting and athletics acquire less honor, and so on and so forth. The hero’s responsibility and obligation were to fight and the ultimate goal and the highest way to achieve honor was a warrior’s death in battle. One could not avoid life-threatening situations and maintain his honor this almost always resulted in preparing his life for the risks of battle and was a must. Whether the battle was a single combat, a massed hand-to-hand combat, or massed missile combat a hero must not turn away (Wees 2). A hero lived by strict social and cultural norms that would direct his life at home and on the battlefield. He must have an understanding of where he stands in society and carry out in accordance with society’s expectations which included a hero’s suffering and a hero’s death (Adkins 4; vol. 91). Like Adkins mentions in Homeric Values and Homeric Society “There are activities in which success is of paramount importance; and in these, commendation or the reverse is reserved for those who in fact succeed or fail” which is to say that actions are not the only thing that measures a hero but results as well (4; vol. 91).

Not only was it not enough to have honor but it was important to value honor, and have values in general, above life. Homeric heroes believed that men had to stand together in battle; men had to respect each other; and must avoid excessive cruel acts as well as deliberate acts of cruelty and injustice. Shared honor was very important to the Homeric hero’s status. Their honor revolved around not only battlefield-related challenges but was also determined by his relationship with his family and the city. A Homeric hero had to respect his superiors and show loyalty to his friends, and could in no way disgrace himself, his family, or his community (Adkins 10; vol. 92). There is a Homeric hero’s personal concern for personal honor and their competitive objective to always be the best.

While having honor and valuing honor above life and anything else are two major qualities in being considered a Homeric hero what is devalued is quite simple; the opposite of what is valued. Weakness, such as running away or turning down a daring task, constitutes one for failure. As like mentioned before the action and intentions and emotions of one are simply not enough to be praised but the results need to be reward worthy too (Adkins 6; vol. 91). A hero must be willing to fight to the death in battle for their family’s honor, communities honor, and above all their own personal honor. Intentional acts of brutality and unfairness were not only frowned upon but despicable. A Homeric hero believed that if he was ready to kill an enemy it should be done fast and quickly and was not to make one suffer; mercy over revenge (Adkins 13; vol. 92).

In conclusion, there are quite a few qualities and bullet points that constitute a Homeric hero; with honor being at the top of the list followed by valuing honor. In a Homeric myth honor is the center of the web while it spreads and has different traits that all connect in the middle. Heroes must have the honor and achieve honor in respectable ways as well as value honor above anything else to be considered Homeric heroes. Going to battle for one’s community and lying down their life without question was the most honorable thing a hero could do. While unfortunately in some instances failure was seen as non-heroic and was, for lack of a better word, a disgrace being a hero was a choice and a role that one had to take. In a sense, we still have these values today maybe not as harshly and not as expected but nonetheless still there. We appreciate the things our active members and veterans do for our country or community and we tend to hold that in high regard.

Works Cited

1. Adkins, A. W. H. “Homeric Values and Homeric Society.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 91, 1971, pp. 1-14. JSTOR www.jstor.org/stable/631365. Accessed 11 Jan. 2020.
2. Adkins, A. W. H. “Homeric Gods and the Values of Homeric Society.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 92, 1972, pp. 1-19. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/629970. Accessed 12 Jan. 2020.
3. Hans van Wees. “Kings in Combat: Battles and Heroes in the Iliad.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 1, 1988, p. 1. EBSCOhost. search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsisr&AN=edsis.639200&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Introduction

“The Odyssey,” an epic poem attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, stands as a monumental work in the literary canon, chronicling the arduous journey home of the hero Odysseus after the fall of Troy. Composed around the 8th century BCE, this timeless narrative weaves themes of perseverance, loyalty, and the quest for identity against the backdrop of divine intervention and the capriciousness of fate. Odysseus’ voyage spans a decade, marked by formidable challenges, from the seductive song of the Sirens to the wrath of the sea god Poseidon, testing his cunning, resolve, and leadership. Alongside the thrilling adventures of Odysseus, “The Odyssey” delves into the trials of his wife, Penelope, and son, Telemachus, back in Ithaca, showcasing their resilience in the face of uncertainty and the machinations of suitors vying for Penelope’s hand. This epic not only explores the physical journey of returning home but also the internal journey of understanding one’s place in the world and the enduring power of wisdom, courage, and love. “The Odyssey” remains a profound exploration of the human experience, offering insights into the complexities of heroism, the bonds of family, and the enduring quest for home.

100 Words Essay about The Odyssey

“The Odyssey,” Homer’s epic tale, captures the essence of human resilience and the relentless pursuit of one’s destiny. It recounts Odysseus’ ten-year journey home following the Trojan War, a voyage fraught with divine challenges and mythical creatures. Each trial, from the cunning escape from Polyphemus to resisting the Sirens’ call, symbolizes the struggles of man against the forces of nature and the gods. Beyond adventure, it’s a story of loyalty, wisdom, and the power of wit over brute force. Odysseus’ odyssey is a metaphor for life’s journey, emphasizing the values of intelligence, patience, and perseverance in overcoming adversity.

250 Words Essay about The Odyssey

Homer’s “The Odyssey,” an epic masterpiece, stands as a beacon of ancient Greek literature, offering a rich tapestry of adventure, heroism, and the human condition. At its heart, the poem chronicles the epic journey of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, as he endeavors to return home after the Trojan War. His voyage is not merely geographical but also an exploration of human resilience, wisdom, and the complexities of fate and free will. Odysseus faces myriad obstacles, from the monstrous Cyclops to the enchanting Circe, each encounter a testament to his cunning and determination.

Beyond the thrilling escapades, “The Odyssey” delves into themes of loyalty, identity, and the longing for home. It portrays the anguish of Penelope, Odysseus’ faithful wife, who wards off suitors while clinging to hope for her husband’s return, and Telemachus, their son, who embarks on his own journey to seek news of his father. These parallel narratives enrich the epic’s exploration of family bonds and the legacies we leave behind.

“The Odyssey” also reflects on the interaction between mortals and the divine, highlighting how the gods’ whims can alter human paths. Yet, it is Odysseus’ human qualities—his wit, perseverance, and capacity for growth—that ultimately secure his return and reunion with his family. This timeless epic not only entertains but also offers profound insights into the enduring human struggle to find our way back to what we cherish most.

400 Words Essay about The Odyssey

“The Odyssey,” attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, is a cornerstone of Western literature, weaving a complex narrative that explores themes of heroism, loyalty, and the resilience of the human spirit. This epic poem recounts the arduous journey of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, as he strives to return to his homeland and beloved family after the fall of Troy. Spanning ten years, his voyage is fraught with formidable challenges, from the wrath of the sea god Poseidon to encounters with mythical creatures and seductive figures who test his resolve and cunning.

At its core, “The Odyssey” is a profound exploration of the concept of nostos, the longing for home, and the trials that must be overcome to achieve it. Odysseus’ journey is emblematic of the human struggle against adversity and the quest for identity in an ever-changing world. His encounters with characters such as the wise Athena, the loyal Penelope, and the formidable Cyclops Polyphemus serve not only as thrilling adventures but also as moral and philosophical lessons on the virtues of intelligence, patience, and fidelity.

The epic also delves into the lives of those Odysseus left behind, particularly his wife, Penelope, who faces her own trials as she fends off suitors vying for her hand in the belief that Odysseus is dead. Her steadfastness and cunning parallel Odysseus’ own, highlighting the theme of loyalty and the strength of the bonds of marriage and family.

“The Odyssey” transcends its historical and cultural origins to speak to universal human experiences and emotions. It examines the impact of war on society and the individual, the bonds that tie us to our homes and loved ones, and the enduring human capacity to adapt and overcome. The poem’s rich narrative structure, with its interweaving of past and present, and its deep psychological insight into its characters, has made it a timeless work that continues to resonate with readers centuries after its creation.

In essence, “The Odyssey” is not just a tale of mythic adventures and divine interventions; it is a deeply human story that celebrates the complexity of life and the indomitable will to persevere through hardship. It reminds us of the power of storytelling to convey enduring truths about our world and ourselves, making “The Odyssey” an invaluable treasure of world literature.

500 Words Essay about The Odyssey

Homer’s “The Odyssey,” an epic that has stood the test of millennia, intricately weaves the themes of adventure, resilience, and the quest for identity against the backdrop of a hero’s arduous journey home. This ancient Greek poem, rich in myth and legend, charts the return of Odysseus, King of Ithaca, to his homeland after the Trojan War. His voyage, extending over a decade, is fraught with trials and tribulations that test not only his physical endurance and cunning but also his moral fiber and understanding of self.

“The Odyssey” is more than a mere tale of adventure; it is a profound exploration of human nature and the complexities of the psyche. Odysseus’ encounters with mythical beings and gods—ranging from the cunning Circe to the wrathful Poseidon—serve as allegories for the internal and external battles one faces through life. These encounters challenge Odysseus to adapt, reflect, and grow, highlighting the poem’s deep engagement with themes of personal development and the resilience of the human spirit.

Central to the narrative is the concept of nostos, or homecoming, which drives Odysseus’ journey. This longing for home and the familiar is juxtaposed with the allure of the unknown and the lessons learned in foreign lands. Through Odysseus, Homer explores the tension between wanderlust and the desire for stability, a theme that resonates with the human condition across cultures and epochs.

Parallel to Odysseus’ physical journey is an emotional odyssey undertaken by his wife, Penelope, and son, Telemachus, back in Ithaca. Penelope’s steadfastness and loyalty, in the face of pressure to remarry, mirror Odysseus’ perseverance, underscoring the poem’s emphasis on fidelity and the strength of familial bonds. Telemachus’ search for his father symbolizes the universal quest for identity and belonging, further enriching the epic’s exploration of personal growth and self-discovery.

“The Odyssey” also delves into the interaction between mortals and the divine, portraying gods as capricious beings whose whims can dramatically alter human fate. This interplay between divine intervention and human agency raises questions about fate, free will, and the extent to which individuals can shape their own destinies.

Moreover, the epic’s narrative structure, with its use of flashbacks and multiple perspectives, adds layers of complexity to the story, inviting readers to consider the nature of truth and storytelling itself. Homer’s skillful use of language and imagery brings to life a world where the fantastical and the real coexist, captivating the imagination and inviting reflection on the deeper meanings embedded within the text.

In conclusion, “The Odyssey” is a timeless epic that transcends its ancient origins to speak to the universal human experience. Its exploration of themes such as resilience, identity, and the search for home resonates with readers across generations, offering insights into the enduring nature of the human spirit. Through the trials of Odysseus and his family, Homer crafts a narrative that celebrates the complexity of life and the unyielding will to persevere, making “The Odyssey” an enduring masterpiece of world literature.

The Odyssey, written by Homer, is one of two ancient Greek epic poems and was written near the end of the eighth century BC. The Odyssey tells the tale of the Greek hero Odysseus who has been missing for 10 years and is trying to return to his kingdom in Ithaca. Everyone, including Penelope (Odysseus’ wife) and Telemachus (Odysseus’ son), believes that Odysseus died during the fall of Troy. Based on that, suitors from all around have come to Odysseus’ palace to try to win his wife and take over the kingdom. From this, Homer tells a tale of Odysseus’ journey and the obstacles he faces to get back home to his kingdom and his wife. The epic poem consists of Odysseus facing multiple temptations and challenges ranging from escaping a cyclops to dealing with the temptations of Calypso and Circe.

Everyone knows The Odyssey as a heroic tale of a man on a mission to get home and the challenges he faces to get home. It is common to think of this as the role of Odysseus as a powerful and smart male hero who can deal with anyone, but most fail to see the fact that Odysseus’ biggest challenges come from women due to the fact that they present him with different forms of strategies for keeping him from returning. The reason that this is little talked about is that, at the time that The Odyssey was written, women in ancient Greece did not play a major role. Traditionally, women in ancient Greece had very few rights compared to their male counterparts. Their purpose in society was to stay home and raise their children and provide for their husbands’ needs when they do come home. Keeping this in mind, people during the time it was written only saw this epic poem as a heroic tale of a masculine male’s path to get home. This being true, women do play a huge role in this poem; women play the role of foils as seductresses or a combination of both.

In The Odyssey, Homer implicitly shows the sphere of influence and power women possess despite the traditional view that men have all the power in society, showing women simply exert their power using different strategies than men. In modern society, women have equal rights and equal opportunities. But back in the times of ancient Greece, women did not possess equality with men. Women were seen as only housewives with their only responsibility/right to take care of the children and the house and provide what the husband needs. Throughout The Odyssey, there are not a lot of women that the poem talks about but the influence that the few women have plays an incredibly huge role in Odysseus’ journey. A criticism by Marilyn Katz on the role of women in Greek society says that women were “regarded with contempt, secluded, uneducated and unfree and unequal” (Katz, 74). This holds true in The Odyssey, women are seen as lesser than men and yet are held to higher standards than men. Even Greek goddesses such as Athena are seen as lesser than the other Greek gods because she is a woman and is seen as powerless and weak compared to the men. Women during this time period were known for what their husbands did and what they accomplished, as Penelope is known for her husband, the king, and hero. In Katz’s criticism of women’s role in ancient Greek society, she quotes Christoph Meiners who says that “Homer makes it incontestably clear that women in the earlier period were as little regarded was in the later, and no less secluded than later” (Katz, 76). This quote reveals the essence of thought of how women are portrayed in this epic poem, they are seen as just helpless and nothing without their husbands. However, this is not the case, women play a much larger role in the poem than seen by the majority of readers.

On Odysseus’ journey, he runs into Circe, an immortal goddess who seeks to prevent Odysseus from returning back to his kingdom. Circe deceives Odysseus and gets him to sleep with her and he ends up spending a year there with her. Circe represents the dangers of too much pleasure and comfort, she represents the temptations that women can give men that can completely distract them more than anything they could want. Circe uses her lustrous powers to attract Odysseus to sleep with her and stay with her for a year, even though he was set on getting home to see his wife and son. The power that Circe possesses here is unmatched by anything a man could try to do to stop Odysseus on his journey. This shows the power that a woman has in this story and how overlooked it is, everyone thinks of the physical things people tried to do to stop Odysseus but in reality, this power possessed by women like Circe is unmatched. After Circe releases Odysseus from her mansion and lustrous spell, Odysseus and his men passed by the Sirens. Under the advice of Circe, Odysseus had all of his men plug their ears with wax and tie him up to the mast of the ship so that he could hear the song. As they pass the Sirens, Odysseus begins to beg for his men to untie him and let him go but they do as they were told and leave him tied up. In a criticism of the song of the sirens by Nugent Pauline, she says that the siren’s song leads to “no escape except by avoidance since those temptresses lure to their death all who approach them and listen to their song” and “there is no homecoming for the one who listens to the Siren’s song” (Nugent, 47). This reveals the power of seduction that a woman can truly have on a man, even a man with the mental abilities of Odysseus. The Sirens represent the ultimate seductress as they can claim any man with their song and no one will ever see them again if the man chooses to go to their island. In a criticism looking at the gender and internal audiences in The Odyssey, Lillian Doherty says that the song the Sirens sing to Odysseus “explicitly appeals to a listener who himself aspires to the kleos of the aristocratic warrior” (Doherty, 164). This show that the song the Sirens sing represents the temptations that come along with the goal to accomplish great deeds, such as returning home in Odysseus’ case. As you can see, the Sirens do indeed represent the ultimate seductress and show that even though women are seen as dependent upon men, men can be seen the same way as almost no man can resist the sexuality and temptations that a woman can give him.

Circe and the Sirens represent the power of seduction over men as they act to stop Odysseus from reaching his goals through their powers of seduction. Another key woman in the epic is Calypso, who holds Odysseus prisoner for seven years and seduces him to sleep with her as well. However, Calypso actually expresses her love for Odysseus, she imprisons him but only did it because she loves him and wants him to spend the rest of his life with her. But she knows that Odysseus doesn’t love her back and wants to return to his wife and son. Calypso is frequently referred to in the poem as “lustrous Calypso” as she represents the lust and seduction that women possess but at the same time, she is also very smart and insightful. Zeus later orders Calypso to release Odysseus and she sees the double standard that is in action here as Male gods are allowed to keep any female they want but she can’t because she is female. This represents the double standard that women live under in this ancient Greek society as men are seen as manly when they have many lovers but when women have many lovers they are seen as whores and are shunned.

Calypso represents a median between the roles of seductress and a foil as she is looking out for her own interest in keeping Odysseus as her lover but at the same time is showing the readers that Odysseus does desire to get home to his wife and son even though the temptations of the lustrous goddess. Acting as a foil for Odysseus, Calypso contrasts with Odysseus, highlighting the good qualities in Odysseus as he desires to be home with his wife and child in his Kingdom. The two main women that act as foils to Odysseus are Penelope, his wife, and Athena. Athena, the goddess of wisdom and warfare shows favor for Odysseus throughout the story because Odysseus is a courageous warrior just as she is. Odysseus also is very smart and cunning and Athena also values this too being that she is also the goddess of courage and strength and of course wisdom. For example, it was Athena interceded on behalf of Odysseus, convincing her father, Zeus, to force Calypso to let Odysseus go. Later in the epic, Athena was the one who disguises Odysseus as a beggar in order for him to stay hidden from the suitors so that he can surprise attack them when the time is right. Athena also helps Odysseus’ son, Telemachus, to embark on a journey to try to find his father, Odysseus. Athena backs Telemachus throughout his journey in the first five books of The Odyssey and is a crucial catalyst in the epic. Penelope, the wife of Odysseus and Queen of Ithaca, is another main woman in the story who plays a crucial role in Odysseus’ journey home.

Throughout Odysseus’ journey, Penelope is treated unfairly and helpless at home. Over 100 suitors are always at her house trying to take advantage of Penelope just so they could marry her and take over the kingdom. She is trying to stay loyal to her husband but since it had been 10 years since she saw Odysseus, she was being forced to choose a new husband. Penelope is shown as a helpless woman who is just standing aside while men invade her house and try to take advantage of her. But in reality, she had no hope of helping herself, there were over 100 suitors trying to impress her and become her husband, and there was almost nothing she could do. Athena and Penelope represent the perfect foils to Odysseus and play that role throughout the entire epic. Lillian Doherty, in a criticism of the foils for Odysseus, says that Penelope and Athena share Odysseus’ mêtis (possessing a quality that combined wisdom and cunning) and also “represent extremes of ignorance and knowledge, vulnerability and control, between which the hero must be stimulated” (Doherty, 33). This quote is looking at the difference between Athena and Penelope in their roles of being foils to Odysseus. Penelope is vulnerable and possesses ignorance as she has no clue that her husband is alive and is stuck trying to get back to her. Athena possesses knowledge of everything and control of everything as she is a Greek goddess.

The power Penelope possesses in terms of her role in Odysseus’ journey home is undeniable, she is one of the central reasons Odysseus pushes to get home. Penelope possesses the power of love over Odysseus and that is what strives Odysseus to get home, the love of his life is there. Doherty also says that even though Athena protects Odysseus and Telemachus throughout the entire epic, “she is also described as testing and even teasing them” (Doherty, 38). For example, her final test for Odysseus is that she takes her time before intervening in his battle with the suitors. This shows Athena’s role as a foil for Odysseus, she protects him yet at the same time tests him to make sure his heart is in the right place, keeping him on the right path back to his wife and son. As you can see, the role of women in The Odyssey is very overlooked and underestimated as they play an undeniably large role in Odysseus’ journey home. Despite the fact that Homer acknowledged the fact that women in this time were lower than men, he implicitly made women more influential in this story than women at the time were in society. The theme that women act as seductresses or foils toward Odysseus carries on throughout the story. Homer’s The Odyssey offers the story of a masculine epic hero who is on a quest to return home but fails to depict the true power and role that the women have in The Odyssey. As Homer said in The Odyssey, “A man who has been through bitter experiences and traveled far enjoys even his sufferings after a time” (Homer, The Odyssey). This quote best explains the true reasoning behind struggle after struggle that Odysseus went through from the power of the women in the story and the resulting factor was a stronger man coming home.

The Illiad is a story detailing the consequences of the competition between the three goddesses Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera on who was the most beautiful and fairest of all the Gods. They decide to have Paris, the prince of Troy, decide who was the most beautiful. They decide to bribe him with gifts of swords or of gold. Aphrodite approaches Paris with a deal that she will give him Helen, the most beautiful girl on earth. Paris readily agrees and soon manages to take away Helen from Menelaus of Sparta, brother of King Agamemnon. Menelaus then demands his wife back from Paris, but Paris refuses to return Helen. Hearing this, Menelaus seeks aid from his brother, King Agamemnon. Together they wage war against Troy.

King Agamemnon sitting on his throne

The story of The Illiad chronologically began ten years into Greek’s siege on Troy led by Agamemnon, King of Mycenae. The Greeks are currently heavily debating on the issue of whether they should release Chryseis, a captive priestess from Troy, back to her father, Chryses, a priest of Apollo who pleads to him to return his daughter. As Agamemnon continues to deny Chryse`s pleads, Agamemnon then proceeds to make threats upon the girl to her father, Apollo catches wind of this, feeling insulted and obligated to protect his followers, plagues Amagemnon’s kingdom with a pestilence.

Achilles, Greek’s greatest warrior-hero

After so many of his citizens die, Amagemnon seeks help from the prophet Calchas to determine the cause of the pestilence. Calchas reveals that the cause of the pestilence is Chryseis, hearing this, Amagemnon reluctantly gives her up, but as he was returning her, Amagemnon demands Briseis, Achilles’ own war-prize concubine and lover. Achilles, feeling slighted and dishonored, withdraws himself and his warriors from the Trojan war to spite Amagemnon.

Achilles takes it a step further and begs his mother Thesis, A nymph, and Goddess of water, to plead to Zeus and help Achilles in his resentment for King Agamemnon. Zeus decides to honor this request by sending a dream to Amagemnon promising him with astonishing victory over the Trojans. Agamemnon then gathers all the Greek leaders of the council to relay the contents of his dream. He then goes on to test the soldiers by saying that they are free to go home. As soon as he says this, the soldiers run for the ships to prepare voyage for home. All that was left was Odysseus, Odysseus then goes to the soldiers and convinces them to stay and fight.

Menelaus and Paris with Aphrodite’s Intervention

Then both the Greek and the Trojan warriors march out into the battlefield to fight it out. As this happens, Paris, the Trojan prince proposes a solution. He relays that the war is paused and that he would meet Menelaus in the middle of the battlefield over single combat. Menelaus, who harbors hate for Paris as Paris had previously stolen his wife from him, accepts the duel.

Paris and Menelaus meet in single combat over the most beautiful maiden on Earth, the cause of the ten-year Trojan war, Helen. Aphrodite, who was the one who promised Paris to give him Helen, then intervenes in the fight in order to help Paris win. Despite Aphrodite’s intervention, Melenaus still ends up being the victor.

The goddess Athena, who is in competition with Aphrodite, and is someone in favor of the greeks, soon manipulates the Trojan bowman, Pandoras. She then controlled this bowman to cause a painful, but not fatal wound to Melenaus, thus breaking the truce and reinvigorating the war between the Greeks and the Trojans again.

Diomedes

Diomedes, a Greek hero manages to drive away the Trojan forces before him but, in his arrogance, blood-lust, and Athena’s manipulations, manages to strike and injure the goddess Aphrodite. The Trojan hero Hector, the son of King Priam, King of Troy, challenges the Greek warrior-hero Ajax, King of Salamis and descendant of Zeus, to single combat, and is almost overcome in battle. But is able to fend for himself, but is unsuccessful in killing Hector. Both parties from the Greek camps and the Trojan camps agree to a day of rest to grieve for the soldiers who had fallen in battle. During this period of griefing, the Acheans build a wall around their camps and ships. Throughout all of this, Up high on Mount Olympus, the gods and goddesses continue to argue amongst themselves over how they can continue and manipulate the war, despite Zeus’, King of the gods, orders not to meddle and interfere with the war.

Meanwhile, Achilles is still in isolation and refuses to give in to the requests for help from Agamemnon, Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and Nestor, offered honors and riches and even as going as far as to return Briseis back to him but only to be disappointed as their offers were rejected.

Diomedes and Odysseus, are unable to rest and sleep the night. Decides then to sneak into the Trojan camps and attack it from the inside, killing a lot of Trojan soldiers and ruining a bunch of supplies before managing to escape. Agamemnon then orders the attack on the Trojans early in the morning to continue the momentum of Diomedes and Odysseus’ attack last night. Amagemnon’s forces manage to push the Trojans back all the way to their camps but Zeus decides to intervene and manages to damage Amagemnon’s forces, turning the tides of the battle again. Zeus manages to push back and kill many soldiers who fought valiantly but ultimately died. When Zeus looks away from the battlefield for a moment, Poseidon helps the Achaeans by inspiring them to kill and injure the Trojans. Hera then concocts a plan to take Zeus away from the battlefield. She seduces him into bed and with the help of Hypnos, the personification of sleep puts him to sleep. And now with Poseidon’s aid, the Achaeans gain back momentum and manage to drive away the Trojans. However, time is limited as Zeus soon rises from his slumber and is ready to take control of the battlefield again. He then sends Apollo, his son, and god of light, to strike fear into the hearts and wills of the Achaeans with Zeus’ shield as the symbol of Zeus’ wrath.

Apollo, the god of light

Achilles, who is conflicted in his allegiances, orders his friend, Patroclus to dress in Achilles’ armor and then lead Achilles’ warriors in repelling the Trojans in his stead. Drunk and intoxicated by his own success to repeal the forces of Troy, Patroclus soon forget Achilles’ orders and continues to chase down the fleeing Trojans to the walls of Troy and almost managed to take control of the city if Apollo, god of light, had not interfered. In the midst of the battle, Hector soon finds Patroclus who is still in disguise as Achilles, and challenges him to a fight. Once again Apollo interferes and with Apollo’s help, Hector manages to kill him. Menelaus and the other Greek warriors manage to recover Patroclus’ corpse before Hector can desecrate it and cause more damage to the corpse.

Over in despair at the loss of his close friend, Achilles then proceeds to put away his misgivings with Amagemnon and successfully rejoin the battle and manages to drive away all the Trojans before him in his fury. And as the war reaches its climax with even the gods joining in battle, Achilles is clad in the new armor his mother requested made especially for him by Hephaestus, god of forges. Despite previously boasting, Hector loses his courage and turns tail as soon as he sees the sight of Achilles. After Achilles chases him around the city three times, Athena manages to trick Hector to stop and allow Achilles to catch up, Achilles then manages to finally kill him.

Achilles then continues to desecrate and disfigure Hector’s corpse for several days.

The climax of the Trojan war

The gods are displeased at how Achilles continues to desecrate and dishonor the corpse of Hector, now with Achilles dragging it all over the Greek camp so that every soldier can see the corpse and proof of his conquests. They come to a decision, they relay that King Priam, Hector’s father, is allowed to have the chance to negotiate with Achilles for the corpse of his son Hector. The gods manage to convince both parties to reconcile with a ransom, with Thetis, Achilles’ mother, convincing Achilles to accept the ransom. They then proceed to grieve both of their respective losses during a truce that lasted for twelve days. And so marks the end of the Illiad.

“There is a certain enthusiasm in liberty, that makes human nature rise above itself, in acts of bravery and heroism” (Hamilton, 45). A Hero’s Journey is never an easy one, but what defines a Hero? The best way to define a hero is by looking at literary examples such as the Odyssey or the Illiad. Focusing on the first work mentioned I will discuss the heroic qualities of Odysseus from the epic; The Odyssey. In this poem, his acts of valor are always seen as a triumph, after all, he actively represents the characteristics of what a Homeric hero is supposed to look like. Values such as struggle, loss, prosperity, and joy also make Odysseus vulnerable. What can be concluded from this? After struggle and loss can Odysseus be qualified as a hero? Abandoning his family for his own selfish gain of adventure? Throughout this tale the hero has to overcome an abundance of tasks and challenges in order to achieve this ultimate goal of reaching his family, but will he go back in search of adventure? In this essay, I am going to discuss and prove the qualities that make Odysseus a Homeric hero.

Firstly, the most obvious question asked is whether Odysseus, the hero of this lyric, encompasses the quintessential qualities of a Greek hero. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a hero as “a person admired for achievements and noble qualities”. Odysseus is definitely one of, the most paramount heroes in the ancient Greek world. He’s an ideal hero because he displays acts of heroism and bravery. On top of that, he’s also a part of both the spiritual and in physical worlds. In the physical approach, he overcomes extreme challenges and comes out on top. He triumphs in his journey and if he wouldn’t be one of the greatest heroes he would not be able to accomplish these treacherous adventures. In the spiritual sense, Odysseus reflects heroic qualities because he remains devoted to his wife even though he has been voyaging away from his household for nearly twenty years. The only thing that keeps him alive throughout this entire journey? His love for his beautiful wife and loving son. In addition, his cleverness gives him the title of an epic hero since it attracts a lot of attention. This is due to his impeccable skill in the art of language. His loyalty, courage, and intellectual agility are how Odysseus manages to get out of almost every scenario. Odysseus’ curiosity gets Odysseus into multiple challenges and dangers, yet he superbly expresses his strength and cunningness which have both helped him and the sailors escape danger. His arrogance pulls him back, but it’s the devout loyalty that drives him forward on his long and treacherous journey. Odysseus describes himself as “formidable for guile in peace and war”. He knows that he is a dangerous competitor, there are even times that his trickery has caused both harmony and violence. No matter what Odysseus faces, he always clearly demonstrates the main characteristics of an epic hero. In this instance, trickery is one of the key three factors explored.

Secondly, Odysseus’s quick thinking, and his intellectual ability, mixed with his expressiveness in speech, has gotten him and his crew out of an abundance of difficult situations. One instance, was when Odysseus and his men were trapped in the Polyphemos’s cave, a cyclops who will destroy anyone in its path. After landing there Odysseus’ physical strength didn’t matter. It was only because of the sneaky cunningness that he was able to escape the ugly beast. Although Odysseus’s curiosity was what got him into that scenario in the first place, it was his ability in a speech that got him out. He manages to win over Polyphemos in the story with a few well-spoken words and an offering: “‘Kyklops, try some wine. Taste it and see the kind of drink we carried under our planks. I meant it as an offering if you would help us home. But you are mad, a bloody monster!” (Homer 155)

Odysseus manipulates the Cyclops’ sentiments by attracting him with wine. The Cyclops, evidently pleased with this gesture, gives in to his arrogance and takes the wine. Odysseus’s assurance was the first step towards his success with the Cyclops. A second example of his intelligence is tricking Telemakhos and the servants to pretend there was a wedding going on. Otherwise, there would have been suspicion but he knew that if there were live people inside he could fool them. Odysseus predicted that if someone would find out about the suitors’ death, he would not be able to escape to his father’s house. Odysseus said,

“Here is our best maneuver, as I see it: bathe, you three, and put fresh clothing on, order the women to adorn themselves, and let our admirable harper choose a tune for dancing, some lighthearted air, and strum it. These deaths must not be cried about the town till we can slip away to our own woods. We’ll see what weapon, then, Zeus puts into our hands” (Homer 433).

Behind all of this action lies Odysseus’ loyalty to his family. He returns back home to Ithaka and Penelope. His loyalty to his family was what kept him going through difficult situations. This quality of devotion makes Odysseus qualify. Nothing is more accountable to an epic hero than honor and pride, and his obligations to his family. Odysseus regularly shows situations in which his loyalty is more important than anything. Such is the case when Odysseus’s men fell prey to the Lotus Eaters. Alluding to the quality of devotion, it was his endurance that makes him a true hero.

Lastly, Odysseus’s long wait finally paid off as he was able to avenge the suitors. His intelligence was why he intermingled with the suitors. He had to calmly wait until the time to strike was right, and thus begin the bloodshed. Although Odysseus’s trickery causes him complications and discords, his intelligence also brings him unity and harmony, which fully reflects his father’s gratefulness when he returns. He tells his father: “now I shall go to our estate with its many orchards, to see my noble father who has grieved for me constantly.” (Homer-355) When he finally arrives he tells him that he is alive and had great success in his adventure managing to get vengeance by killing all the suitors. His father overwhelmed with joy expresses his most sincere gratitude for the return of his son. Odysseus’s intelligence has served him well in multiple situations since he was able to cause wars and combats, and was also able to bring joy and peace.

Finally, Odysseus completely demonstrates the qualities of a Homeric hero. Whether it’s his strength, intelligence, or cunningness, they all serve him well in trying to get out of certain situations. While his love for adventure didn’t hold him back his heroic qualities are clearly depicted throughout this epic. His loyalty, shown multiple times throughout the whole story, and his desperate desire to see his family again is what finally motivated him to journey back. Without all these qualities: loyalty, cunningness, bravery, and honor Odysseus would not be considered a hero. However, because Odysseus superbly displays these heroic qualities in his daily life he is and will always be considered one of the many Greek heroes.

Homer creates a sense of hopelessness and uncertainty in the passage. For example, Odysseus is described as being left in a state of perplexity and distress, which creates a vivid image to the reader of just how confused and uncertain he is. He also says that he ‘cannot think of anything better’, which suggests he felt helpless in this situation, and creates this sense of hopelessness and doubt in himself and the gods. This makes this an effective passage therefore as this vivid description gives the reader a clear idea as to what Odysseus feels and thinks.

Homer also uses violent imagery, such as using verbs such as ‘plunged’, to create the effect. This adds a dramatic effect and therefore makes it an effective passage. Additionally, adjectives such as ‘turbulent’ and ‘grim and menacing’ further reinforce this idea, and so make the passage even more effective.

The waves and wind described in the passage seem to mirror Poseidon’s anger and scornfulness towards Odysseus. For example, the wind is described as ‘boisterous’ and the sea is described as ‘grim and menacing’, which directly mirrors Poseidon’s festering feelings towards Odysseus. This creates an effective passage as Poseidon’s anger can be seen in a physical form – a storm – and is mirrored by the sea and wind.

This also creates a very clear image of the power imbalance between Poseidon and Odysseus. The idea that Odysseus had to ‘scramble’ connotes that he was weaker than Poseidon and so was trying to run away from him and his power. This creates sympathy for Odysseus, as he was trying to run away whilst Poseidon continued to punish and destroy him.

Homer also uses a simile – ‘sitting astride like a rider on horseback’ – which allows the reader to visualize how Odysseus was sitting. It also helps him connect with his audience at the time, as this was a simile many would understand and be able to visualize. This therefore makes it an effective passage because it helps both the modern and the historical reader to understand exactly how he sat.

The simile ‘like a gull she dived’ also adds effect. This is because many can picture a gull diving into the water, so it is easy to visualize for the readers (both present and past). This also creates detail surrounding the exit of the goddess and adds a mystical and creative aspect to the passage. This passage is therefore effective for this reason.

Finally, Homer uses personification to add effect to his passage. For example, he said, ‘the dark waters swallowed her’, which creates this idea of the sea eating her, which is good imagery as the reader can imagine this happening. This is effective due to the reader being able to picture the goddess being ‘swallowed’ by the sea.

Early in the Iliad, Homer’s epic poem about the legendary Trojan War, there occurs a famous digression known as the catalogue of ships, which names all the Greek leaders and contingents who came to fight at Troy.

These verses reflect a central claim of epic poetry – that through the inspiration of the Muses, daughters of Memory, it can preserve the knowledge of people and the events of the past – a formidable power in the non-literate, oral cultures in which the Iliad evolved. The Iliad was composed around 750-700 BC, but its origins lie at least some five centuries earlier, deep in the Mycenaean Bronze Age – the world the Iliad poetically evokes.

The Mycenaeans themselves knew of writing, but appear to have used it only for bureaucratic bookkeeping in their palace states. When their kingdoms collapsed around 1200 BC, even this limited use was lost. Thus from the end of the Mycenaean Age until the age of Homer, poets who performed and adapted the epic orally kept the tradition alive, and carried memory of the Mycenaean world into new ages.

The Iliad is keenly aware of its role as the keeper of memory, and credibility is central to its storytelling. The epic is a work of fiction, and relates the events of a few weeks in the tenth and final year of the Trojan War fought between Greeks and Trojans over beautiful Helen, the Greek queen who deserted her husband to elope with a Trojan prince. Its cast of characters includes not only warriors and their captives and families, but the immortal Olympian gods, who perform many supernatural acts in the course of their eager participation in the action around Troy.

Yet despite such unabashed acts of divine magic, the epic works hard to be realistic. The famous Homeric similes, for example, evoke the familiar, verifiable, natural world. The description of battle tactics and wounds are similarly believable (if not wholly anatomically accurate), as is the careful description of landmarks of the Troad, the region around Troy. The epic’s poetic meter, the dactylic hexameter, allows expressions of rage, indignation, bravado, remorse, and grief to ebb and flow in natural cadence

Above all, Homer’s characterisation of the epic’s main players is wholly and consistently believable, achieved through the characters’ own words – their speeches – which account for over half of the Iliad’s 15,693 lines of verse. The epic’s poetic meter, the dactylic hexameter, is ideally suited to the Greek language, allowing expressions of rage, indignation, bravado, remorse, and grief to ebb and flow in natural cadence.

The Iliad has the reputation of being an exclusively masculine epic, weak on female characters, but – to choose only one contending example – Homer’s nuanced characterisation of Helen as a woman driven by reluctant, remorseful passion is as hauntingly credible as any Anna Karenina.

When the so-called Dark Age ended, and literacy returned to Greece around 750 BC, Homer, in some form or fashion, eventually wrote down the epic. Now, the heroic story from the vanished Mycenaean world went viral. Not only did its characters, mortal and divine, inspire art and other literature, but they were believed to have been real. The Trojan War really happened: Thucydides, writing in the 5th Century BC, matter-of-factly claimed that the war’s long duration had led to the destabilisation of Greek states at the end of the Dark Age. Most significantly, the Iliad changed the way people worshipped

Most significantly, the Iliad changed the way people worshipped. According to the 5th-Century historian Herodotus, it was Homer, with the poet Hesiod, who “described the gods for the Greeks”, and who also gave them human characters – the characters that shape the Olympian gods we recognise today. At the same time, people established cults to the Iliad’s human heroes, adopting them as their heroic ancestors. Belonging to the Iliad, possessing history informed by the Iliad, became cornerstones of ‘Greekness’, and of Greek identity.

In these ways the Iliad directed not only the course of the arts, but of social history. Less quantifiable, and also more profoundly haunting, were the ways in which the Iliad compelled its audiences, down to the present time, to confront such bedrock facts of human experience as mortality and morality – the difficult, dark regions that lie at the nexus of identity and religion.

What I grope to express, Homer repeatedly makes clear, and most sublimely so in the famous scene towards the end of the Iliad, in which King Priam comes through the night to the Greek camp as suppliant to Achilles. Both men have supplicated the Olympian gods at different times in the epic, and had their prayers denied. Now Priam’s mission is to beg for the body of his beloved son, Hector, whom Achilles killed to avenge the death of his own companion, Patroclus.

The power of this scene derives not just from storytelling genius, but from the Iliad’s attentiveness to its own history. The epic tradition originated in mainland Greece, most likely in the northern region of Thessaly, but following the collapse of the Bronze Age civilisations, migrated with poets travelling eastwards to the island of Lesbos and the northwest coast of Anatolia (now Turkey), including the region around Troy: this we know from linguistic studies, archaeology, and ancient accounts. One of our Iliad’s most striking characteristics is its sympathetic treatment of the Trojans, who are portrayed as fellow victims of the war, not merely enemies

In its earliest form, then, the Iliad was likely performed before mostly Greek audiences, but closer to Homer’s time the audience was also Anatolian, most likely with Trojan sympathies. The poets adapted accordingly and one of our Iliad’s most striking characteristics is its consistent sympathetic treatment of the Trojans, who are portrayed as fellow victims of the war, not merely enemies.

What if, all those centuries back, Greek poets performing in Anatolia had declined to adapt their Greek epic to the sensibilities of their changing audiences? What if they had been deaf to the ongoing history of war and displacement they encountered? What if Homer had Achilles send old Priam packing; abuse, humiliate or kill him? Would history really have turned out differently? Probably not; but something of consequence would have been lost to the world. Not just a monumental scene in a great, enduring story, but a seminal statement about humanity – made palpable thanks to the dogged realism of the epic’s long tradition.

Longinus, a scholar in the 1st Century AD, wrote “that in recording as he does the wounding of the gods, their quarrels, vengeance, tears, imprisonment, and all their manifold passions Homer has done his best to make the men in the Iliad gods and gods men.” The scene between Achilles and Priam displays this inversion, and crystallises what the Iliad poets had learned in the course of the epic’s journey. That the gods we worship might not answer, and on occasion humanity must rise to fill their place. That glory is inextricably allied to wrenching loss. That the victor shares the humanity of the most vulnerable of the vanquished; that there is no such thing as unalloyed victory in war.

Homer was an ancient Greek author and epic poet. He is the reputed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, the two epic poems that are the foundational works of ancient Greek literature. He is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential authors of all time: for example, in Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, Virgil refers to him as ‘Poet sovereign’, king of all poets; in the preface to his translation of the Iliad, Alexander Pope acknowledges that Homer has always been considered the ‘greatest of poets’.

The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy.

The Homeric epics were a defining influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who ‘has taught Greece’ (τὴν Ἑλλάδα πεπαίδευκεν, tēn Helláda pepaídeuken). From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.

The question of by whom, when, where and under what circumstances the Iliad and Odyssey were composed continues to be debated. Some scholars consider that the two works were written by different authors. It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC. Many accounts of Homer’s life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary.

The poems are in Homeric Greek, also known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant influence is Eastern Ionic. Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.

To this day we do not know exactly whether the first Greek poet really lived or only existed in stories, i.e. was a so-called mythical figure. In any case, the poet Homer is said to have written the Iliad and the Odyssey. Seven Greek cities claim to have been Homer’s hometown.

The Iliadand the odyssey is a literary work written in epic form, that is, the story was written in rhyme . The author is said to have been this same Homer, a bliMany scholars have done research on Homer. It was believed, for example, that different poets and not just one wrote this epic and at different times. The stories about the Trojan War definitely existed. However, they were initially told orally, like so many stories of that time.

Wandering singers entertained people with exciting stories of heroes. It’s no different than today, except that we often see the stories on TV. Here, too, it is about good and evil, about noble heroes and brave fighters. So one can say that the Greek sagas have lost none of their topicality.nd poet who died in the 8th century BC. lived. The theme of the Iliad is the Trojan War , which ended with the Greeks defeating the Trojans and burning the city. Many exciting stories were told about this famous fighter, which are still worth reading today.

It is now believed that Homer, or the poets, lived in the mid-8th century BC. However, many events describe experiences and occurrences that took place much earlier, in the 12th century BC. or even earlier. This is how Homer describes events from his time, but also much earlier events and mixes them up. So if you want to understand the stories and read them properly, you have to be very careful when it comes to truth and historical facts.

It doesn’t really matter, you’ll say. The main thing is that the stories are exciting, and they really are. The Iliad and the Odyssey have inspired people for thousands of years. Even today we read about Paris and the beautiful Helena, the noble heroes Hector and Achilles. We follow with interest the experiences of Odysseus, who defeated the cyclops and defied the sirens. Whether they are fictitious or have a kernel of truth, that doesn’t take away from their fascination for young and old readers.

Although the Aeneid shares many characteristics with the Homeric epic, as an epic it is different in important ways. For this reason, the Aeneid is referred to as a literary or secondary epic in order to differentiate it from primitive or primary epics such as the Homeric poems. This, should not be interpreted as value judgments, but merely as indications that the original character of the epic was improvisational and oral. Aeneid, composed later in the epic tradition, was basically non-oral and crafted. The Homeric poems give evidence of improvisational techniques of composition involving the use of various formulas. This style of composition is suited to the demands of improvisation before an audience which do not allow the poet time to create new ways of expressing various ideas. In order to keep his performance going he must depend upon stock phrases, which are designed to fill out various portions of the dactylic hexameter line. On the other hand, Vergil, composing his own personal poetic language. Thus, in the Aeneid, absence of the continual repetition of formulas can be seen, which are unnecessary in a literary or secondary epic.

Virgil, however, does imitate Homeric language without the repetitions. This is another reason for calling the Aeneid a secondary epic. For example, Virgil occasionally translates individual Homeric formulas or even creates new formulas in imitation of Homer such as ‘pious Aeneas’, imitates other Homeric stylistic devices such as the epic simile and uses the Homeric poems as a source for story patterns. Although in this sense the Aeneid can be called derivative, what Virgil has taken from Homer he has recast in a way which has made his borrowings thoroughly Virgilian and Roman. Virgil changed the value system characteristic of the Homeric epic, which celebrated heroic individualism such as displayed by Achilles in the Iliad. The heroic values of an Achilles would have been anachronistic and inappropriate in a poem written for readers in Rome of the first century B.C., who required their leaders to live according to a more social ideal suited to a sophisticated urban civilization. Therefore, although Virgil set the action of his poem in a legendary age contemporary with the Trojan War before Rome existed, one must judge the characters of his poem by the standards of the poet’s own times.

The Aeneid differs from the Iliad and the Odyssey in that it often gives evidence of meaning beyond the narrative level. Homeric narrative is fairly straightforward; there is generally no need to look for significance which is not explicit in the story. On the other hand, although Virgilian narrative can be read and enjoyed as a story, it is often densely packed with implicit symbolic meaning. Frequently the implicit reference is to Roman history. While Homer is little concerned with the relationship of the past to the present – the past is preserved for its intrinsic interest as a story – Virgil recounts the legend of Aeneas because he believes it has meaning for Roman history and especially for his own times. For example, the destruction of Troy resulting in the wanderings of Aeneas and his followers west to find a new life can be seen as parallel to the history of Rome in the first century B.C., which included both the violent destruction of the Republic and the creation of peace and order by Augustus. Also suggestive of the Roman, ‘civil war’ between the Trojans and their Italian allies, and Aeneas’s victory over the Italians in this war suggests Augustus’s ending of the Roman civil wars. It shows the importance of Roman history in the Aeneid.

Another important difference between the Aeneid and the Homeric poems is that the former has a philosophical basis while the latter were composed in an era completely innocent of philosophy. The Aeneid gives evidence of the influence of Stoicism, a Hellenistic philosophy which had gained many adherents in the Greek world and by the first century B.C. had become the most popular philosophy of the educated classes at Rome.

Anchises’s digression on the nature of the universe and human existence (6.724-751), which combines Stoic physical theory with Orphic and Pythagorean teachings (transmigration of souls). On the other hand, the gods in the Aeneid for the most part do not reflect the Stoic view of divinity. They are basically the traditional anthropomorphic deities of myth as required by the conventions of epic. However, Stoic influence is evident as in book 1 when Jupiter is closely identified with providential fate.

In the Aeneid there are innumerable echoes of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Perhaps, in book 12 where your knowledge of the Iliad will enable you to see how important figures of Vergil’s poem are associated in various ways with heroes of the Iliad. These references to the Iliad provide an interesting and significant commentary on the action of the Aeneid.

Finally, one should be conscious of recurring images in the Aeneid such as snakes, wounds, fire, hunting, and storms, and their meaning for the narrative. As an imagery, the Virgilian technique of making a real part of the story an image and vice-versa, can be noticed. For example, consider hunting in the Aeneid. In book 1 Aeneas is a real hunter who slays deer; in book 4 in a simile he is a metaphorical hunter of Dido and then again, a real hunter as he and Dido engage in a hunting expedition. No doubt Virgil intended these three instances of hunting to refer to each other implicitly and to comment upon the story. Recurring words have a significance in the Aeneid uncharacteristic of the Homeric poems, which, due to the nature of oral poetry, as a matter of course employ constant repetition of formulas. Two of the most important recurrent words in the Aeneid are furor, which means `violent madness’, `frenzy’, `fury’, `passionate desire’ etc., and its associated verb, furere `to rage’, `to have a mad passion’. These words have important meaning for the characters in the Aeneid to whom they are applied and whose behavior must be evaluated by reference to the Stoic ethical ideal. In addition, these two words connect the legendary world of the Aeneid with Roman politics of the first century B.C. because they were often used in prose of the late Republic to describe the political chaos of that era.