Category: Homer

Introduction

Throughout history, women have been considered the weaker sex. They long existed under the domination of men in both political power and physical abilities. Confinement and an emphasis on delicacy have for centuries been the hallmarks of a noble womans lifestyle. These attributes were imposed upon women more out of a sense of control and fear than out of any real need due to actual delicacy or peril. In establishing these customs, it has been generally acknowledged that women had a power that was beyond mens comprehension, originating from her ability to conceive and bear children and continuing in her ability to control those around her through various, non-physical means. Outer control over the female person, through physical strength, bodily confinement, and emphasis on physical frailty were often enough to keep women docilely occupied within the home while fictions were established that would help to protect the status quo. One such fiction was in the concept that women should not receive too much education, an idea that ran even into the twentieth century, as they were considered intellectually incapable of comprehending the complexities of male thought patterns and therefore would not benefit from too much educational training. Despite the constraints, though, women continued to prove that their strength was beyond the reach of men, demonstrated again and again through the characters of mythology and legend. This mysterious power of the female is illustrated as far back as Homer in his epic tale, The Odyssey, particularly in the character of Penelope.

Main body

The status of women in ancient Greece, even in the great first Republic of Athens, was not the same kind of freedom women experience in todays republics, despite the rumors of Athens greatness and equality. According to Vrissimtzis (1997), women were refused citizenship and were not allowed to hold property in Athens in the old days. In Sparta, women were able to hold onto these rights but were not allowed to conduct significant business, although some worked as court entertainers or concubines. The most women could expect to own was the right to their dowries, which would go with them should they divorce or re-marry following a husbands death. It is seen through the many suitors seeking Penelopes hand that the culture in which she existed enabled her to safeguard her husbands property for as long as the two were wed, but that the wealth of her dowry would go with her, encouraging the many suitors who camped out on her doorstep. Within this culture, women like Penelope could obtain a divorce in theory, but it carried great social consequences and was difficult to obtain. Socially, women could only appear in public if chaperoned by their husbands or female servants and education was withheld from them Guardianship of the female person was considered necessary in the Greek culture because it was thought that without the judicious governance of the male, the female would incline to complete wantonness (Carson, 1990: 140). Penelope is a paragon of womanhood because, although she is not guarded by any male protector in Odysseus absence and she is actively pursued by a number of young men, she remains faithful to her vows of marriage and keeps herself surrounded by female servants at all times, even within her own home where the suitors have taken up unwelcome residence.

Throughout the play, Penelope is presented as a fine, upstanding woman, faithful to her husband in her adamant refusal to accept any of the suitors that park in her courtyard seeking her hand after his disappearance. In all respects, Penelope demonstrates the ideals of womanhood not only in her beauty, which is almost as legendary as her cousin, Helen of Troy, but also in her talent as she efficiently manages the household and her husbands estates while participating in the very feminine duties of weaving and sewing. This activity is seen to take over the primary duty of the wife in ancient Greece, that of procreation since her husband is not available (Thompson, 2005). It is the one activity that she, as a proper noblewoman, is able to participate in personally, tying her hands and her notice to her project and providing her an excuse to spend her hours alone or at least not in the immediate company of the suitors. However, she is also working on a shroud, a symbol of death, and spends her nights pulling the threads from the project, undoing the work shes completed, signifying the unproductive and ultimately useless nature of the business (Lowenstam, 2000: 333). That she is capable of fulfilling her wifely duty to produce children is also illustrated throughout these scenes as the activities of her loyal and upstanding young son are depicted, despite the absence of his father and the similarly futile attempts of this son to produce positive action. Her real strength as a woman, though, is perhaps best illustrated in her 20-year wait for the husband she is sure will return to her although shes received no word or hopes to support her. As is discussed through Carson (1990), this was considered to be a very unusual trait for a woman and a mark not only of the high esteem Penelope held for her husband but also in her own stellar qualities. It is helpful to remember that Helen, Penelopes cousin, was the woman who started the Trojan War as a result of her own fickle-hearted attachments.

Penelopes proper feminine weakness is shown to meet the ideal in her inability to physically remove the suitors from her home, indicating she is not stronger than the male members of her society. Despite this, she is able to keep them under a semblance of control through the use of feminine wiles, that other form of strength possessed by women. When the suitors will not take an outright no for an answer, Penelope devises a scheme that allows her to both remain faithful to her husband and postpone any decisions. In order to keep the men in line, Penelope promises to select and marry one of them as soon as she is finished weaving a funeral shroud for her father-in-law, which she unweaves every night. When this trickery is discovered, the men indicate She may rely too long on Athenas gifts  / talent in handicraft and a clever mind; / so cunning  history cannot show the like (book 2). Therefore, despite a lack of education or ability to wield any real power in the court, Penelope is seen to keep the entire realm in line by the simple application of cunning and intellectual resourcefulness. Her intelligence shines through again as she recognizes her husband returned in disguise and offers a final challenge to the suitors that she knows only Odysseus can hope to meet, come forward now my gallant lords; for I challenge you to try your skill on the great bow of King Odysseus. And whichever man among you proves the handiest at stringing the bow and shoots an arrow through every one of the twelve axes, with that man I will go. This provides Odysseus with the means by which to defeat the men that have invaded his home before they gain the ability to overtake him. Like her faithfulness which continues to create even as it doesnt create, Penelopes intelligence enables her to remain superior to the suitors that constantly pressure her to accept one of them, never succumbing to their accusations that the misfortunes of their own estates and the drain on Odysseus property are entirely her faults.

Conclusion

Through her faithfulness, her properly womanly activities, and her exercise of intelligence within this realm, Homer indicates that women were much stronger of intellect and spirit than they were frequently given credit for in his time and in the many years that intervene between the modern age and ancient Greece. Through her activities, staying confined to the house, keeping female servants around her, and occupying herself with the appropriate activities of weaving and sewing, Penelope illustrates the constancy of love and family. The hopelessness of her work reflects the emptiness of her life without her husband and her reluctance to take on a new mate even while her dedication to keeping the peace encourages her to devise a means of accomplishing both her own chastity in her husbands absence and his courts coherence. Her cunning is revealed as she finds a peaceful means of controlling the men who wont leave and its success through a period of more than three years. It is significant that it is only through the interference of another woman that her trick is finally revealed to the suitors, forcing her to determine a new ruse. Fortunately, this occurs at just about the same time as Odysseus, disguised as an old man, finally returns to the court. Again, it is through her intellect and cunning that Odysseus is first recognized for who he is despite the costume and then given the space he needs in order to retake his home. In none of these instances is Penelope bested by the forceful, physically impressive men of her world. Penelopes weaving, seen to be a passive, fruitless thing by the outside world, thus takes on a world of the connotation that reverberates with meaning even in todays industrialized society.

Works Cited

Carson, Anne. Putting Her in Her Place: Woman, Dirt and Desire. Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.

Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. E.V. Rieu. New York: Penguin Books, 1946.

Lowenstam, Steven. The Shroud of Laertes and Penelopes Guile. The Classical Journal. Vol. 95, N. 4, (April-May, 2000): 333-348.

Thompson, James C. (2005). Women in Athens. Women in the Ancient World.

Vrissimtzis, N.A. Love, Sex and Marriage in Ancient Greece. Edinburgh: Agia Books, 1997.

Introduction

Analyzing Homers works, an interesting concept can be examined through the role of gods in his Odyssey and Iliad. This concept can be related to the sense of contradiction in the representation of gods, where on the one hand gods can be seen from the perspective of a believer- people are afraid of gods, implicitly submit to their will, set up altars and temples for them, and constantly feel Gods active involvement in their lives. On the other hand, gods often commit actions, which can invoke a laugh in people, condemnation, and even distrust. Nevertheless, I can be seen that the role of gods cannot be underestimated, and their presence can be seen as an essential part of peoples lives.

Analysis

The first evidence of the significance of the role of gods can be seen in the way they control every aspect of humans lives. In addition to the way gods are different in their tasks and areas of responsibility, where each God is taking an area to control specific forces influencing people, there are common tasks through which they are involved in the life of the mortals. The degree of involvement can be seen through the angry dialogue between Zeus and Hera over helping mortals, i.e. Achilles, where Hephaestus is advising not to argue over mortals

This is terrible; it going to ruin us all.
If you two quarrel like this over mortals (Iliad, book 1, line 606-607)

Thus, it can be understood that being involved in the lives of people is an aspect the gods, usually do. Accordingly, the involvement and the help of gods can be seen in Homers Odyssey, one example of which can be seen when Athena aided Odyssey to throw the disk farther than anyone else (Homer and Lombardo 294).

Another indicative sign of the importance of gods is based on the knowledge of mortals of gods influence, as a result of which they constantly refer to them and please them. In the Iliad the example of such reference can be seen in the Greeks propitiating Apollo with dancing and singing to please him (Iliad, book 1, line 501); in Odyssey, such example is seen through praying to gods, when Odysseys men suffered from hunger, so he prayed to the gods to show him the way (Odyssey, book 12, line 342). The importance of gods can be accessed through the perception of the characters of the authority and the power of gods, where asking them for help and pleasing them can be considered as a sign of submission.

Nevertheless, it can be seen that the depiction of Homers gods can be characterized by the closeness to the mortals, in terms of having similar traits of behavior. In that regard, it can be assumed that Homer representation of gods in such manner might have been utilized to serve a particular purpose in presenting a more colorful world, in which the gods and the mortals are integrated into one system. Thus, gods can be seen as a reflection of mortals if they were given power, through the fulfillment of their needs for their own pleasure. This can be seen through the example, where Zeus promises to strike Odysseus ship with specific enforcement in action, which can be only intrinsic to earthly matters, rather than for divine intentions; I will soon strike their ship with sterling lightning/ and shatter it to bits on the wine-purple sea (Iliad, book 12, line 398-399).

Conclusion

It can be concluded that gods are important in Homers works, although their depiction can be slightly different from the conventional depiction of the divine forces. Nevertheless, it can be seen that although gods are given several human-like traits, the type of relation between gods and mortals include common elements such as praying, helping, as well as uncommon such as involvement in mortal affairs.

Works Cited

Homer, and Stanley Lombardo. The Essential Homer : Selections from the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hackett, 2000.

True leadership requires the courage to stand alone, the fortitude to implore tough decisions, and the kindness to empathize with others. Odysseus, the protagonist of Homers Odyssey, the father of Telemachus, and the husband of Penelope, demonstrates how courageous, fearless, and effective a leader he is. Throughout the books early chapters, he demonstrates many leadership qualities, overcoming many obstacles to reach his potential goal of returning to Ithaca, his homeland country. In leading his crew back to Ithaca, he demonstrates the determination that distinguishes him as a leader. Odysseus risks, especially when passing through sirens without beeswax, as advised by the island goddess Calypso. However, Odysseus is a man among the people, and although he is not perfect, he can still prove that he is a great leader.

Odysseus, first and foremost, displays his character as a critical thinker. He thinks before acting, as shown in Volume 9 when he and his crew were captured by Cyclopes Polyphemus and had to take revenge before facing the consequences. He thought of hurting the Cyclopes with a sword, but if he did, their chances of escaping were slim. And now I pondered how to inflict the most harm on him if only Athena granted what I prayed for (9, 343-344). He intended to intoxicate Polyphemus and then blind him with fire. The next morning, they sneaked out of his nest while sleeping under the sheeps stomach. This example shows that Odysseus is well aware of the difficult challenges he faced on his way back to Ithaca.

On a trip to Ithaca, the crew was stopped by a group of Sirens. Sirens are dangerous females who bate a man with a beautiful voice to death. Before they arrived, Calypso advised Odysseus to cover their ears with beeswax for their voice. He made himself to be mast on the ship by his crew to experience a beautiful voice. His crew is always there for him, even if he tried to resist. They tied me up, then went back to the mast, lashed to the mast, and took themselves rowing again (12, 214-216). This is so intriguing because Odysseus is the only human who survived the Sirens voices and can recount the story. When the Sirens sang, they were not singing to make Odysseus feel anything but rather to make Odysseus feel something. Come this way, honored Odysseus, great glory of the Achaeans, and stay your ship so that you can hear our singing here. For no one else has ever sailed past this spot in his black ship until he has heard the honey-sweet voice that comes from our lips (12, 184-196). He and his crew were successful and did it without losing anyone. Odysseus needs to believe that his crew will not pull him off the mast of the boat with a siren. Odysseus tries to get out, but the crew only tightens him. The results show that Odysseus crew is confident enough to handle even the most difficult tasks.

Finally, Homers memo emphasizes how great a leader Odysseus is in the book. He demonstrates taking risks, achieving a goal, and demonstrating what a true leader is. He demonstrates the qualities of a leader, as well as how successful leaders will demonstrate unsuccessful leaders. Not every leader in the world has Odysseus versatility, which distinguishes him and sets him apart. During the journey, Odysseus has to make many important decisions, and he proves that he can make the right ones. Odysseus is determined to return home and will go to any length to do so. Odysseus is therefore a great leader because of these characteristics.

Work Cited

Homer. The Odyssey. Xist Publishing, 2015.

Introduction

In Homers writing, morality is coded as a guarantee of a secure world. Strangers are viewed as harmless or dangerous, and when the residents see them, they should prepare for uncertainty if they do not handle them with wisdom. Homers depiction of Odysseus is an embodiment of a self-assured individual that is self-made. Odysseus, in The Odyssey, leaves Troy after establishing a reputation as a hero by use of the Trojan horse (Homer 58). This interpretive essay seeks to single out and explain central themes and the building blocks of Homers world, including hospitality, loyalty, the conflict between reality and illusion, and spiritual progress.

Central Themes and How They Are Created

Hospitality as the Fear of the Gods

Homer sheds light on giving proper hospitality as a component of lifestyles that would prevent gods anger. Basically, Odysseus peers assume that unknown guests can be gods in disguise, so treating strangers without respect might result in divine punishment. This theme is created by mentioning unidentified individuals possible divine origin when it comes to sheltering them. When Prince Telemachus and Nestors son enter the land of King Menelaus, Eteoneus reports that there are two strangers that look like kin of mighty Zeus himself and asks for directions (Homer 50). Understanding that Eteoneus is unsure about accepting the men as guests and inviting them to the feast, the king regards this uncertainty as a crucial departure from his ancestors long-term values. The king educates the weapon carrier about treating guests and encourages him to think about all the hospitality we enjoyed (Homer 51). He invites the men to eat with him and passes them the choicest part [of the loin] that hed been served himself, resulting in the men comparing the king to Zeus himself (Homer 51). Therefore, among the mighty, hospitality is clearly a sacred virtue.

Loyalty

Staying loyal to loved ones and friends is another theme that Homers writing creates by emphasizing the ultimate role of devoted supporters in heroic achievement. The epic displays endless examples of loyalty and perseverance, transforming them into synonyms for having a tower of strength (Nagy). The author constructs this theme by frequently mentioning loyal handmaids, wives, and shipmates or highlighting the misery of losing such people for the characters. When Zeus decides to destroy Odysseus loyal crew of comrades, it is seen as an irreparable loss (Homer 154). Womens devotion to their husbands is another crucial aspect of the theme. For instance, Penelope waits for her husband for twenty years while Telemachus stands by his father in facing the suitors (Homer 276). Therefore, showing a firm allegiance to a closed one is framed as a critical virtue.

Appearance versus Reality

Homers writing raises the conflict of reality versus illusion by depicting the relationship between Odysseus and Athena. As a maven of makeovers, Athena thinks of the Odyssey as an illusion that disguises Odysseus (Homer 217). When she appears to Telemachus as Mentes, this image enables her to get information on the palaces wellbeing (Nagy). On other occasions, Athena makes Odysseus seem like someone who changes their appearance, including altering the way he looks prior to the meeting with Phaeacians (Homer 217). She uses the power of illusion as well, transforming into a young man& a shepherd boy (Homer 218). Athena uses illusion, deception, trickery, and admirable traits to reflect what Odysseus agility looks like.

Spiritual Growth

Spiritual growth and its relevance to power form the basis of The Odysseys universe. In the beginning, Telemachus feels lost in ways of dealing with the suitors that took his home. Later on, Athena assists Telemachus in visiting King Menelaus and King Nestor. Once Telemachus meets them, he notes that the prince ought to comport himself rather than relate to Odysseus (Homer and the Odyssey). With the help of Athena, Telemachus calls Ithacas leadership meeting and uses the platform to confront the suitors. As much as he addresses the congregation with realism, he lacks the backup of his community members. The assembly was a critical step for Telemachus towards maturity.

Laertes Shroud as the Major Symbol in The Odyssey

To tell the story, Homer creates a world with multiple significant symbols. The prominent examples of this are Penelopes shroud for Laertes, Ithaca Island, and Odysseus bow. Penelopes shroud symbolizes the cunning motives used in confronting the suitors. Since Penelope lacks the physicality of fighting, she resorts to rewarding them with wits (Homer 320). Penelope patiently waits for three years, and she promises to choose a husband when she is done with her devotions. During the day, the queen works in the royal hall, while at night, she secretly deceives young suitors.

Conclusion

In summary, Homer creates a variety of value-related themes to establish a socio-cultural context for the characters deeds and interactions. Many of these central themes are moral in nature, including hospitality traditions as a response to uncertainty and gods ability to appear in disguise, loyalty as an undeniable virtue, and growing spiritually. The Odyssey also raises themes at a nearly philosophical level, such as the conflict between illusory ideas or appearances and the real world.

Works Cited

Homer and the Odyssey. Choice Reviews, vol. 49, no. 9, 2012, Web.

Homer. Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles, Web.

Nagy, Gregory. Diachronic Homer and a Cretan Odyssey. Oral Tradition, vol. 31, no. 1, 2017, Project Muse, Web.

The heroism act happens in a moment of crisis where individuals who do anything remotely positive get the label of a hero. In ancient Greek, heroes were individuals endowed with superhuman capabilities, and the heroes were assumed to have descended from the perpetual gods themselves. Courage is at the top of the qualities of heroes as they are required to be fearless fighters and warriors ready to endanger their lives to save others. Confidence is an ability that heroes have as it helps in assuring the community that things will be better. Empathy is a significant skill for heroes as it allows them to readily help people in need rather than attempt to understand and listen to their grievances. This essay aims to analyze and illustrate the hero between Hector and Achilles, considering each individuals viewpoint for participating in the battle. The paper also outlines what the two selections teach about the values of ancient Greek society.

Homers Book 22 of the Iliad shows Hector is now the last Trojan outside Troy. Priam, Polydamas, urges Hector to come within from the Trojan walls. Still, he is too ashamed to accompany the Trojans in their retreat after giving the overly confident command for the Trojans to sleep beyond their borders the night before. Hector is afraid that the Trojans would accuse him of self-confidence, resulting in most killed. Hector finds it fit to return within the walls after battling Achilles and slaying him or dying gloriously in the battle before the city walls (Homer, n.d., para 2). Hector shows a great capacity for empathy when he decides to fight the Achaeans as he fears they would divide the treasure and wealth of Troy and half of everything the city owns among themselves.

In Book 22 of the Iliad, there is a conflict between Hector and Achilles before the final battle at the walls of Troy. For example, Achilles battles to exterminate the Trojans, whereas Hector fights for harmony and unification between the two nations. Hector becomes the hero since his viewpoint is optimistic and aims to unify the two conflicting regions. Furthermore, Hector shows leadership skills of selflessness and is ready to die honorably for the betterment of his people. The Trojan men and women listen and follow Hectors decisions as he is the nations protector and symbolizes Hectors heroism. Achilles acts do not stand out as heroic because the aim is to wipe out the Trojans (Homer, n.d., para 1), creating more chaos and rage between the two nations. Achilles comes out as inferior in terms of integrity as he lacks principle and has an uncontrollable temper; therefore does not get to be the hero.

Homers The Iliad provides important moral insights into Greek societys values as a story of battle, pride, rage, and loss. The Trojan resolve to engage in war is not mandatory because of courage but because of honor and respect. Hector decides to face Achilles in battle, not as a heroic act but as a tribute to the nation. In Greek society, individuals follow orders without question. Hector persuaded the Trojans to camp outside the city walls despite Polydamas advice that the troop would be safer within the walls (Homer, n.d., para 1). That night Achilles attacked and killed several Trojans, which makes Hector ashamed to face the Trojan men and women for the sake of his prominence. The Greek society believed that a supreme being, Zeus, is the one that determines winners in battle (Homer, n.d., para 2). Hector resolves to fight Achilles and let Zeus grant victory to the better warrior.

References

Homer. (n.d.). Homers idea of excellence. Iliad Book 22 excerpt.

The story of the Iliad is a famous one. When the cruel Trojan prince Paris abducts the queen of Agamemnon, Helen, war ensues between the two countries across the seas. Many heroes and gods take sides and fight the war. It is the first famous book written in Europe, written around 750 B. C. The book starts amidst the raging battle between Trojans and the Greeks. It is nine years now since they left Greece. The gods as well as the flaming emotions of those involved influence every decision in this epic. The translation by Richmond Lattimore provides an excellent background to the story and is a good step-by-step guide to the epic (Postlethwaite).

The whole epic comes into being because of the wrong decision of Paris while declaring the wrong goddess to be the most beautiful, under temptation and pressure. Even though not described in the book the incident of the Judgment of Paris is the root cause of the war between Greeks and Trojans (The Trojan Saga and the Iliad).

Since most of the heroes involved are sons and daughters of the gods and goddesses, there is a direct intervention from them in each and every action of the mortals. Through dreams, specific apparitions, and direction the gods actively take part in the war. Aphrodite even gets wounded in this process. She is the mother of Aeneas, the Trojan. Paris flees with divine help from an enraged Menelaus, in the one-to-one fight. Zeus with his thunderbolts, Apollo, Hera all take part in the war both directly and indirectly. Even Poseidon from his sea and Hades from the underworld are involved (The Iliad Book Notes Summary).

Nine years earlier they had decided to get back Helen for their Kings brother, Menelaus from the wicked Paris. They embarked on the sea voyage to the distant Troy for this purpose. The first book itself contains decisions that would change the course of the battle. The major decision is the withdrawal of Achilles from the war when his war prize Briseus is taken away from him. This happens because Agamemnon and Achilles fight with each other about the plague that haunts the Greeks. It had come from Apollo (The Iliad Book Notes Summary). His decision to keep away from the war causes big casualties in the war, on the side of the Greeks. In a war, in which ultimately no one comes out victorious, the book begins with a schism due to a false decision by the king and the reaction of the hero to that decision (Kelly. P4).

The next day comes the decision to attack Trojans by Greeks influenced by a dream sent to the king Agamemnon by Zeus. This is due to a request from Thetis, the mother of Achilles. These two events may be taken as typical examples of how decisions are made in the epic. It comes more or less from divine intervention as well as the weakness found in the leaders of the two armies. Often hasty and reckless, these cause unexpected results in a war that runs on for more than 10 years. People like the hero Achilles fights for many things other than just vengeance. His dialogue with Agamemnon makes this evident. He is fighting for other things. An epic like that of Homer is a succession of ideas too. Achilles embodies the ideas of glory, vengeance foreknowledge and responsibility. So the decisions that he or others like him, makes are always dependent on these values (Kirk. P16).

The Iliad is regarded as one of the greatest epics which show ferocious battles between the Trojans and the Greeks over a beautiful woman named Helen. In most parts of the poem, battles between the Greeks and Trojans are given more importance, but the poem also highlights the people who are fighting the war, armor, mortal glory, etc. moreover theme of this poem also highlights the importance of society, as well as the necessity of devotion related to a social code of conduct, existed in the society.

A brighter, as well as appreciable aspect about Iliad, is that it was written based on a society that was living during 600 BC. This society was totally vulnerable as well as less advanced than the modern society that we live in now. The common aspect seen in this poem when we compare it with our modern society is the influence of nature. Nature was and is still regarded as a threat to the existence of humans. During those times in Athens, Greece, democracy was regarded as a great standard system in taking decisions. All the decisions were taken by the citizens themselves affecting the society.

More importance was given to a group, clan, or tribe than an individual.

The society that is highlighted in Iliad is a typical society that is dominated by the Greeks. Here we can see that the battles of men are conducted on the basis of common beliefs, common causes, and ancestry. There is clear evidence of a very tight network in society.

Moreover, the system depicted here is also feudal in nature.

the social patterns presented in the poem presents antipodal tendencies. They are identified as a group versus individuals. There is a tendency in many parts of the poem that features the dominance of groups over individuals. Such characteristics are evident by the presentation of the character of Achilleus who is selfish as well as an antagonist. He is characterized as a person who neglects society. His return to the battlegrounds is because of revenge mentality rather than dedicat5ion to society. Hector and Achilleus are antipodal demonstrations, one for the group and the other for the individual. The pitiless treatment of Achilleus on Hectors body highlights his severance from the cluster and guarantees his standing as the adversary of the society (Social conformity in the Iliad by Homer).

One of the most defining works and the first one to claim to be a real piece of literature, in the Western world, the book tells about the workings of fate by unseen hands of the gods, stirring and guiding events to the aims they had set purposefully. We even come to think that, Man proposes, god, disposes while thinking about the way decisions go (The Trojan Saga and the Iliad).

The epic poem Iliad addresses many issues like war, groups, peace, mortality, immortality, love, etc. however there are underlining themes of close-knitted society patterns in it. It also has rebellious characters. The poem itself gives importance to society as an ultimate and individual as a subordinate (Social conformity in the Iliad by Homer).

Works cited:

Kirk,Geoffrey. The Iliad: a commentary, Volume 3. Cambridge: Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 1993. P1-16

Kelly, Adrian. A referential commentary and lexicon to Iliad VIII. New York: Oxford university press. 2007.P1-10

Postlethwaite,Norman. Homers Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore. 2009. Web.

Social conformity in the Iliad by Homer. 2002. Web.

The Iliad Book Notes Summary. 2009. Web.

The Iliad Book Notes Summary. 2009. Web.

The Trojan Saga and the Iliad.2009. Web.

Homers Iliad is somewhat unique among the ancient tales because of its tendency to include human features in its heroes. Although it displays the same sort of adherence to the early heroic code, the heroes in this tale retain many of their human frailties and concerns. Each character displays a desire to win glory in battle, but each also displays unique differences regarding personal strengths and weaknesses as the action of the story moves forward. Two prime examples of the human side of characters can be found in the characters of Achilles, who fights for the Greeks, and Hector, who fights for the Trojans. As leaders of their people and key figures in the war, both men tend to cast their personal values back upon those they lead, thus presenting a generalized conception of how the Greeks and the Trojans differed in their overall worldview. For this reason, it is helpful to examine these two characters in particular to gain an impression of how these two people differed from one another. In their approach to battle, in their adherence to the code, and in the way that they each violate this code, the two men demonstrate that the differences between their people are really little more than a gloss of locality.

Both Hector and Achilles can be seen to struggle with the heroic code as they prepare themselves for war.

Each character has received relatively reliable information that they will be killed in the battle  Achilles through his mother, the goddess Thetis who tells him that he will not die as long as Hector lives, Hector through the pleadings of his wife who urges him to fight from the walls. While Achilles withdraws from the battle on the pretext of a feud with Menelaus, Hector spurns his wifes pleading to honor the heroic code that insists a true warrior should not hide behind the walls of a fortress rather than stand tall on the plain.

Andromache provides him with a moment of foresight as she tells him, your valor will bring you to destruction; think on your infant son, and on my hapless self who ere long shall be your widow  for the Achaeans will set upon you in a body and kill you (Book VI).

It isnt until after Hector kills Patroclus, Achilles most devoted friend, who is wearing Achilles armor, that Achilles is finally driven to re-enter the war. Hectors words following this action show that he does not realize his own limitations and that he could never have been so successful without the help of Zeus (Lefkowitz, 2003, p. 66) and the other gods.

However, while Hector is fighting to win the war for Troy, killing whom he believes is Achilles as a means of removing one of Greeces most formidable combatants, Achilles fights merely to exact vengeance upon Hector, ignoring in the process the danger this would pose to himself.

Book 22 of The Iliad presents the meeting between Hector and Achilles and again highlights their differences in attempting to reconcile their adherence to the heroic code with their personal human beliefs. Hector, at first, determines to stand tall upon the plain as a means of encouraging his men, who remain mostly within the protection of the citys gates despite the urging of his father Priam, who can see the advancing force of Achilles army.

Hector cannot back down from this stance without losing face in front of his men, thus pride and honor are important elements in his decisions to stand firm even as he demonstrates a fierce adherence to the heroic code which dictates he must stand and boldly face his destiny. However, as he watches Achilles, full of battle rage, vengeance, and fully armed in all his splendor, come upon him, Hector finds his human heart incapable of merely accepting that this man is come to kill him and flees the scene with Achilles hard on his heels. Achilles, appearing to all intents and purposes the epitome of a Greek hero, nevertheless acts in a very unheroic fashion, dealing Hector a painful and slow death and then allowing himself and his followers to desecrate the body now unable to defend itself belying the heroic appearance and revealing his human ugliness. This is in stark contrast to Hectors previous attempt to deal with Achilles honorably and heroically by agreeing that once death overtakes one and armor is stripped, the body should be returned to the family for proper burial.

Despite the continuous conflict seen in each character between human inclination and adhering to the heroic code, each character displays that element of the code that coincides with human inclination within their final major decision. When Hector finally stops running and faces Achilles, he does so believing he has a second to back him up by handing him fresh weapons in much the same way that Minerva helps Achilles by returning his thrown spear.

Despite feeling he has an edge in facing his opponent, Hector nevertheless attempts to make a covenant with Achilles regarding what will be done with the body of whoever is slain.

Through Hectors attempts, it can be seen that this sort of covenant is typical within the heroic code of the Trojans as a means of both honoring the prowess of the opponent and of reducing the harm caused to innocent others such as family members who have remained at home.

Acting both honorably according to the heroic code and humanly as one man truly concerned about the welfare of another, Hectors dying breath warns Achilles to be careful of his own fate as a result of the actions he visits upon Hectors body. For his part, Achilles, wild in his battle lust and pursuit of revenge, follows his own Greek-inspired heroic code that insists vengeance must be complete and horrific. The human element of rage and revenge is thus given vent through the heroic code of his elders, insisting that an enemy must be completely destroyed and denied an honorable burial of any sort if vengeance is to be total.

Once the battle rage subsides, though, Achilles violates the hard aspect of the code hed been attempting to follow in favor of the gentler aspect demonstrated to him by Hector as he chooses to return Hectors body to Troy. While Priam is pulling on the human feelings of compassion and concern for others to accomplish this return, Achilles decision to acquiesce reveals the ability of an individual to change and to understand a more civil and appropriate code of honor than the barbaric slaughter of the ancients. Both Achilles and Hector struggle to reconcile their human emotions with the strict letter of the heroic code throughout the story.

Hector must battle with his desire to live happily and peacefully with his wife and small son while still honoring a code that insists he must continuously place himself in harms way for war. Achilles finds it possible to lose his human side within the code on a temporary basis but ultimately proves himself to be admiring the more civil and compassionate ideas expressed by Hector. By comparing the actions and thoughts of these two characters, it can be seen that while neither society has a perfect conception of a heroic code that allows for full human expression, movement can be made toward a more human and civilized aspect of living that is ultimately more satisfying to each society.

Works Cited

Homer. The Iliad. Place of publication of your copy: Publisher name, Date of publication.

Lefkowitz, Mary. Greek Gods, Human Lives. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.

Introduction

Homers poem Iliad uses a concept of therapon which is not typical for any of other writers of those times and of modern times as well. The concept concerns the character whose actions are described in the lines Three times he charged with the headlong speed of Ares, /Screaming his savage cry, three times he killed nine men (Homer, Knox, and Fagles 438), which fill those who are familiar with the poem with pride for this person. These lines are about Patroclus who was killed by Hector in the Trojan War. Homers poem The Iliad strikes the reader not only with a large number of characters and depiction of events in a verisimilar manner, but by a number of concepts Homer makes use of. The concepts of courage, love, and friendship are inherent parts of the poem and can be traced throughout each of the twenty four books The Iliad is divided into. However, the concept of therapon deserves special attention. Some people tend to refer Patroclus to Achillesclosest friends whereas others state that therapon is the concept which describes Achilles and Patroclus relationships in the best possible way. It is necessary to find out which meanings the word therapon has in The Iliad, to define why this word can be used when discussing Patroclus, and why namely Patroclus death is crucial for the poem in which a number of other people are also being killed during the war.

Main body

What should be mentioned above all is that in Homers poems the concept of therapon means the close companion of the hero. In case with The Iliad the hero is Achilles and Patroclus is not only his closest companion but his squire, his henchman who is loyal and devoted to him. The fact that Patroclus was Achilles therapon, his squire, does not necessarily mean that he was of lower social status. He served Achilles which means that he, in fact, was subordinated to him but since Achilles was in constant need of Patroclus and to some extent depended on him, he cannot be regarded as his servant. Before setting off to Troy, Patroclus father instructed him to assist Achilles and to contribute to his success in the war because, though Achilles was much younger than Patroclus, he was of a noble descent and, in addition, much stronger physically. Decisive role here plays the fact that before being adopted to Achilles household, Patroclus killed a young man in his native country. Since slaying a person in the ancient Greece was a sign of fortitude, Achilles father considered Patroclus to be brave enough and worth being his sons therapon. Therefore, the concept therapon, as related to Homers poem, means an assistant, a squire, and a close companion of the hero who is fighting in the war.

What else should be noted is that therapon means ritual substitution. Originally, all warriors who are described in The Iliad are therapons of Ares, or his ritual substitution. Ares is the god of war this is why all the warriors who participate in the war fight on the part of Ares, thus, substituting him. If a warrior died during the war, he was treated as a cult hero. Achilles is Ares therapon and he becomes identical to him at the moment of his death. Nevertheless, when it comes to relations between Achilles and Patroclus, the latter can be considered Achilles therapon, his substitution, for he fought and met his death instead of him. Becoming a cult hero was an integral part of Greek warriors life. It gave them honor without which the life lost its sense this is why when setting off to war the warriors ignored any warnings about keeping off the situations which threatened their lives. Courage, physical strength, and readiness to lose lives in the war were the features that constituted heroic values and contributed to deserving the honor. The warriors could win the highest honor only at war by losing their lives in a battle like Patroclus did. He took Achilles armour and substituted him at the battlefield: Patroclus kept on sweeping in, hacking them down / making them pay the price for Argives slaughtered (Homer, Knox, and Fagles 425). Thereby, Patroclus plays the role of an intermediate dying as Achilles therapon and by this substitution making Achilles die indirectly as Ares therapon.

And finally, it is necessary to justify the significance of Patrocluss death for the poem The Iliad. First of all, his death is a sign of his loyalty to Achilles and his being a real therapon; moreover, by substituting Achilles at the battlefield Patroclus saved Achilles life. This adds to the explanation of the concept of therapon and lets the reader know why exactly Achilles valued Patroclus so much: My dear comrades dead  Patroclus  the man I loved beyond all other comrades, loved as my own life (Homer, Knox, and Fagles 470). However, the real importance of Patroclus death lies in his giving Achilles strength to continue fighting because the anger which his therapons death evoked in him, made Achilles seek revenge: To arm  son of Peleus! Most terrifying man alive! / Defend Patroclus! Its all for him, this merciless battle / pitched before the ships (Homer, Knox, and Fagles 473). Whats more, it was Patroclus death that brought Achilles back to the war and made him slay the enemies even more severely than before; although he lost other comrades in the battles, their death did to affect him so much as the loss of a precious friend. And, finally, Patroclus death made Achilles realize his mortality and he ventured to kill Hector, though it was predicted that his own death would follow shortly after the Hectors.

Conclusion

Taking into consideration everything discussed above, it can be concluded that the concept of therapon which can be observed in Homers poem The Iliad can be interpreted in different ways. Patroclus can be regarded as Achilles therapon since he was his squire and assisted him during the war. His primary task was counseling his lord in the battles and giving his life for him if it was needed. Another interpretation of the concept is ritual substitution which took place with Patroclus taking Achilles armour and meeting his death instead of his lord. This also indicated Achilles indirect death as a therapon of Ares for who all the warriors were a ritual substitution. And, eventually, the importance of Patroclus death for Homers audience lied in fulfilling his mission as Achilles therapon and giving Achilles strength to get back to fighting. The revenge, Achilles was seeking after Patroclus death, made Achilles slay Hector, even though the prophecy stated that Hectors death was going to involve Achilles death as well.

Works Cited

Homer, Knox, B.M.W., Fagles, R. The Iliad. New York: Penguin Books, 1990.

Introduction

The Odyssey is considered one of the first adventure novels in the history of humankind and a kind of encyclopedia of geographical representations of the ancient Greeks. Odysseus, in folk memory, is represented as a famous and even archetypal traveler. However, often readers forget that the legendary king of Ithaca, in fact, was forced to travel. He does not crave any adventures and does not care about distant lands; he just wants to return to his homeland. Nevertheless, the inexorable fate makes so that he is destined for roaming the vast ocean for ten more years (Musarrat et al. 14). He loses all his companions and enters into a confrontation with the gods and unknown creatures. Should he do this all just to return home and state that there is nothing better than his home? However, Odysseus did not doubt it even before his travels. Thus, one of the most important ideas of The Odyssey is that each journey is not just an adventure, but a change in worldview and an overcoming of boundaries.

Travel Mythology

People travel from time immemorial and keep doing it now. Leaving the house, people strive not only for new experiences but also for something elusive. New places and impressions disrupt the measured course of human life, and help people escape the annoying everyday fuss. Perhaps a person is forced to set off on a journey by a natural and primordial desire to change some parts of their destiny. Usually any journey has a goal, and ultimately this goal is to return home, being enriched with impressions and tired of wandering. Undoubtedly, this is not always the case, but for Odysseus, the intent was indeed to return to his native lands.

However, according to the laws of the mythological genre, the hero cannot return home the same as he was, and this is not only a matter of the past years and the impressions received. It would seem that ten years of war under the walls of Troy made him an experienced and wise man. But it takes another ten years of wandering around the sea and unknown lands to get through the obstacles and accomplish feats. Liang states that all the heroes have one thing in common: they are always in the making and the making of them requires heroic qualities, a crowd, and a myth (47). These actions allow Odysseus to change and discover new qualities in himself.

Fate forces Odysseus to leave the familiar homeland and brings him into the places inhabited by fabulous creatures, gods, and monsters. Symbolically, the hero dies in the world of people: everyone considers him dead and composes songs about him. This is evidenced by the symbolism of the Ocean, associated with the Unconscious and some initial Chaos, as well as the loss of a name. Odysseus tells Cyclops Polyphemus: My name is Nobody (Homer, IX, 366). To lose a name means to die and, at the same time, to be born again and get the right to a new life. And all subsequent challenges are only a discovery of oneself and recognition of both oneself and ones companions. Fate in the face of the gods intends Odysseus to descend into the underworld. After that, the hero reaches the world of the gods on the distant island of Trinacria, on the edge of the earth, in a symbolic paradise.

Only after going through challenges, reaching the ends of the earth, overcoming numerous difficulties, Odysseus gets a chance to return home, filled with divine wisdom. He faces the last and most difficult test: to abandon the immortality offered by the beautiful Calypso, preferring mortal life and his native home. Undoubtedly, only a real hero can go this way. Thus, according to The Odyssey, that the real journey must change something in the person himself.

Travel Philosophy

At the end of any journey, in any case, a native home awaits people. Why is Odysseus, having left the gods and rejected immortality, eager to get to his homeland? Usually home and homeland symbolize the deepest essence of a person. This is probably why any trip is, first and foremost, a search for oneself. The best way to know friends better is to go on the road with them. Sometimes leaving the familiar world is the only way to learn a little more about oneself. Before his famous voyage, Odysseus was just one of the Achaean leaders, known for his eloquence and intelligence. But the journey makes him a hero of steadfastness and a wise and experienced man.

Odysseus and his companions are two sides of the same human being, with his virtues and vices. All his wanderings are a story of the confrontation between a reasonable and noble human principle and an animal principle, personified by his companions. His friends lose the memory of their homeland and the purpose of the journey. Due to their curiosity and desire to receive gifts, they die in the cave of Polyphemus. The magic drink of Circe transforms them into those who they are: pigs and other wild animals. Blinded by greed and envy, they are not able to see the signs of fate and use its gifts. The culmination is a violation of the oath given to Odysseus and sacrilege when his companions kill and eat the sacred bulls of Helios.

Stages of travel symbolize the heros struggle with his gluttony, greed, and animal instincts. As the opposite of his companions, Odysseus is a personification of rationality and wisdom. He finds a way out of the cave of Polyphemus, descends into Hades, and returns to the earth unharmed. He is the only one of all people who can listen to the singing of sirens. According to Nikolovska, the sirens represent regression, instead of improving and moving forward in ones life (32). However, Odysseus is firmly attached to the axis of the ship, symbolizing the spiritual principle and consciousness. At the end of his journey, he remains alone, gradually losing all of his comrades. According to the plan of the gods, Odysseus should return home alone, without the help of the gods and people. He comes home unrecognized by anyone, and that is how it should be. He is already a new person, not the one who went on a journey twenty years earlier.

Travel Anthropology

Probably, everyone at least once experienced, returning home from a trip, a strange feeling that the real home was in the starting point of the travel. Leaving their usual places, people, like Odysseus, find themselves in a strange world, living according to its incomprehensible laws. Every time, setting off on a journey, people go beyond the usual and encounter the unknown (Treu, 2017, p. 102). That is one of the reasons why epics of all times inhabited uncharted lands with fabulous creatures and monsters.

Even at the end of the 15th century, Columbus sailors, furrowing the waters of an unknown ocean, expected to meet mermaids and other monsters. In addition to the natural fear of being lost in the sea, they had to overcome an irrational fear of the unknown. However, eventually, their journey allowed them to create new maps. They expanded the boundaries of the well-known and familiar places, as well as Odysseus did. During a travel, the borders of their world also get more extensive. In their lives, there are new locations and new people which become known instead of being strange and alien.

Conclusion

For many subsequent generations, Odysseus became the archetype of the traveler and the hero of modern times. After the Trojan War, the greatest and most famous heroes either perished or sunk into obscurity. Myths tell only about Odysseus and Aeneas, who were traveling. One of them is looking for a home, and the other wants to revive Troy. Both of them become a kind of model for the future people. Having gained wisdom and explored life in long wanderings, they become people over whom the divine fate is no longer in power. They overcome the impossible and create their lives with their hands. These are the ideals of future masters and philosophers and all those who are not afraid to challenge fate, who can go beyond the ordinary. Therefore, the hero does not have to go on a long journey in search of adventure: his journey is the ability to overcome the boundaries of himself. As a result, his whole life becomes a journey.

Works Cited

Homer. The Odyssey. W. W Norton & Company. 2017.

Liang, Meng. The Making of Odysseus the Hero in Homers Odyssey. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, vol. 6, no.7, 2017, pp. 43-47.

Musarrat, Maria, et al. A Socio-Cultural Study of the Odyssey by Homer and the Odyssey by Usman Ali: A Comparative Analysis. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature, vol. 5, no. 1, 2017, pp. 13-22.

Nikolovska, Vanessa. The Natures of Monsters and Heroes. The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research, vol. 16, no. 1, 2015, pp. 26-35.

Treu, Martina. Ulyssess Journey and Homers Odyssey: An Eternal Return. Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics, vol. 40, no. 2, 2017, pp. 102-122.

Hospitality, the relationship between a host and a guest, is one of the most important themes that Homer portrays in his epic The Odyssey. In particular, Homers work provides excellent examples of how the ancient Greek societies had institutionalized hospitality. Indeed, hospitality was one of the most effective ways of solidifying relationships and building strong alliances between people or people and gods. Noteworthy, Homers work exhibits the power and influence of hospitality, a social institution that required the society to treat their guests. In fact, both gods and humans are expected to have the appropriate hospitality, which shows that guest-host relationship was an ethical norm in the Greek society. Hospitality was used as a platform for measuring human and deitys behavior. Nevertheless, men and gods portray different ways of treating guests. While some treat their guests warmly, others violate the rules of the hospitality institution, which causes misfortune. Arguably, Homers aim was to describe how hospitality was both an ethical norm and a social institution, which he has portrayed using the contrasting attitudes of hospitality versus brutality.

In Homers work, Odysseus and Telemachus travel widely, visiting strange lands and people located far from Ithaca. Homers portrayal of the way the two characters are treated is an indication of how different gods and men treat their guests. In fact, the first few episodes in the epic feature the two individuals as they travel in strange lands. The interaction that both characters have with their hosts during their travels provides a good indication of the importance of hospitality and the process in which the relationship between the guest and the host is developed.

In the first episode, Homer demonstrates the development of a host-guest relationship between Telemachus and King Nestor. When Telemachus arrives in Nestors capital of Plyos, he finds the king and his subjects holding a major feast. He is warmly invited to the feast after he portrays humility towards them. In addition, it is worth noting that humans have a distinct code of hosting guests. In this case, Telemachus shows humility. First, he welcomed before even introducing himself. According to the rules of hospitality, guests should be made comfortable with food and bathing water before they can introduce themselves. For instance, Telemachus is given enough food during the feast. After his satisfaction, King Nestor seeks to know his identity, saying &Now that the men have enjoyed their meal, it is the time to probe them and find out their identities. The king continues by addressing Telemachus and his men &Strangers- friends, who are you? Where did you come from&? (Wilkie and Hurt 297).

It is also worth noting that humans offer gifts to their guests who show humility. For instance, Homer describes how King Nestor offered Telemachus a gift as a sacrifice for friendship. He says&I offer you a heifer with broad brows& It has never been yoked. I will also sheath its horns with pure gold& (Wilkie and Hurt 306). The hospitality institution also requires guests to be treated in an attractive manner. Young girls provide men with services such as bathing, an important sign of honor. For instance, King Nestor orders Polycaste, his youngest daughter, to bath and cloth Telemachus. Homer says that the young princess &Rinsed him, rubbed him down with oil and clothed him in a handsome cap and a good shirt (Wilkie and Hurt 347). In addition, the king ordered his men to transport the guest using the best chariots when he left the kingdom.

Similarly, Homer shows how men treat their guests with care and respect when Telemachus arrives in Sparta. Here, King Menelaus orders beautiful women to bath and cloth Telemachus before he is offered food. Although the process is the reverse of the norm in Nestors kingdom, the basics are the same- to treat a stranger before his identity is known. For instance, the king tells Telemachus &Help yourself with food and feel welcome. Once you are satisfied, we will ask your name and origin& (Wilkie and Hurt 310). Again, he is offered a nice send-off.

Moreover, the welcoming culture of humans is portrayed when Odyssey arrives in the island kingdom of Phaeacia. Here, he is treated with food, clothing, gifts and good food before he reveals his identity. Later, King Alcinious asks Odysseus now you can tell us your story& Where do you come from&? (Wilkie and Hurt 412).

Nevertheless, some hostile men behave badly, violating the customs and the rules of Xenia. For instance, when Odysseus meets Cyclops Polyphemus, the ruler fails to provide the guests with food, gifts or the right treatment. Instead, the Cyclops enjoys the food alone before asking the strangers &Strangers, who are you and where did you come from& (Wilkie and Hurt 451). In response, Odysseus tells the king &We are men of Achaea&From Troy& We need a good welcome from you because that is the custom. Please respect the gods&We are at your mercy (Wilkie and Hurt 451).

In some instances, humans portray violations of the norm, even when treated as guests, but the consequences are often bad. For instance, when Odysseus is away, the suitors are treated well in his house. Nevertheless, when Penelope asks them to vacate because her father was returning, they ignore the homes owner and continue making merry. Consequently, they lose Penelope before they are killed.

Similarly, the gods act according to the custom and norms of Xenia, treating strangers well as long as they are humble. For instance, the god Zeus protects strangers and expects men to do the same. However, Zeus punishes anyone who fails to treat strangers in the right manner. For instance, Aelous, the god of winds, treats Odysseus warmly and protects him. However, Odysseus men are greedy. They decide to open the gifts that Aelous gives them prematurely. This act angers Aelous and prompts him to punish the men by blowing them back to the island.

However, it is also worth noting that some gods treat men well. However, they are corrupt and violate the cultural norms. For instance, although Aelous treats Odysseus and his men as his guests, he has personal interests in their story. He treats them well in exchange for the story of Odysseus because he wants to benefit from it. When he realizes that the men are greedy and might not help him, he punishes them.

In conclusion, hospitality was a highly institutionalized aspect in early Greek societies and was protected by the gods. Gods expected people to offer their guests the right treatment even before their identities are revealed. Failure to comply with these norms often led to punishment.

Works Cited

Wilkie, Briwn and James Hurt. Literature of the Western World, Volume I: The Ancient World Through the Renaissance. 2000. Print