Category: Homeostasis

Introduction

Homeostasis is the propensity to resist external influences, allowing internal conditions to maintain stable and relatively constant for an organism’s optimal survival. The heath of an organism is dependent heavily upon the effectual homeostatic regulation of the human anatomy. If a homeostatic imbalance occurs illnesses and diseases arise due to regulatory mechanisms being unable to return to equilibrium and can ultimately lead to fatality. Systems depend on various components to ensure the health of organs such as glucose and insulin. The importance of glucose and insulin is explored as cells require these for energy and survival. Without successful regulation of these diseases and other illnesses arise.

Paragraph 1

Homeostasis is key to the successful function and health of the human anatomy. The importance of homeostatic regulation is vital because if a body system fails to regulate to a stable equilibrium, conditions will deteriorate and can ultimately lead to death of the organism. Diseases and illness arise when homeostatic mechanisms are unable to return to the desired stable equilibrium. This effect is generally referred to as homeostatic imbalance. Homeostasis is regulated by independent mechanisms that include thermoregulation, osmoregulation and chemical regulation. A negative feedback system the most prominent feedback loop within biological systems. Thermoregulation is an example of negative feedback systems, when internal temperatures rise, the hypothalamus and skin receptors sense this imbalance. The imbalance (stimulus) triggers an order from the brain. This order creases a response to the imbalance by excreting sweat from the skin surface to help decrease the body temperature and return to equilibrium, just as the body will shiver to aid the response to a temperature decrease. Osmoregulation excretes excess salts, water and urea through the urinary system and endocrine system where organs help to expel these unnecessary compounds. Chemical regulation requires different systems such as the nervous system, endocrine system, digestive system and respiratory system to maintain equilibrium by releasing the stimulus when hormone levels rise or fall. When the stimulus is prompted cells act correspondingly to maintain cell function. The process includes the release of insulin and glucose into the blood to respond to increasing and decreasing glucose levels. Chemical regulation will also prompt an increased breathing rate in response to carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream. The nervous systems perpetuate homeostasis by controlling various parts of the human anatomy. The nervous system consists of the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system. Peripheral nerves are outside the spinal cord and brain which transfer to limbs and organs. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Hypothalamus in the brain is vital for homeostatic regulation as it controls involuntary function (medulla oblongata). Homeostasis is vital in maintaining stable conditions as cells depend on this for their survival and function, without these processes and proteins will not properly function.

Paragraph 2

Homeostatic mechanisms premeditatedly keep the internal environment within boundaries. If cell function is ineffectual the homeostatic balance becomes disturbed. This continual imbalance can lead to diseases. Disease and cellular breakdown can be caused from two specific ways: through toxicity, where cells die from excess waste products or deficiency, were cells do not receive what they require. This homeostatic disruption can cause your body to react in a way that may help or deteriorate the problem, based on influences. Apart from inherited influences (genetic), there is also various external influences that occur from environmental exposure and lifestyle selections. These influences impact the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis.

Paragraph 3

The brain is dependent upon glucose as its central energy source and effectual management of glucose metabolism is vital for mammalian brain physiology. Brain disorders are formed on the basis of a disturbance with the normal glucose metabolism as well as its interdependence with cell death pathways creates a pathophysiological basis. The human brain only contributes to 2% of the body mass although it is accountable for 20% of glucose-derived energy making it the foremost consumer of glucose. Glucose metabolism supplies the energy source for physiological brain function through the production of ATP which is the foundation for both neuronal and non-neuronal cellular perpetuation, together with the creation of neurotransmitters. Blood glucose levels can vary from various factors. Hyperglycemia, which is high blood sugar can fluctuate from many factors some including stress, menopause, illness, injury or surgery can all effect bloody sugar levels. Menstruation and menopause for women triggers a hormonal change that effects blood sugar levels. Emotional or physical stress prompts the release of hormones that can result in a high blood pressure. The human body utilizes insulin glucose to help create a state of equilibrium or homeostasis to cope with these fluctuations. Islet cells inside the pancreas are in charge of releasing glucagon and insulin. There is a variety of islet cells located in the pancreas, including alpha cells and beta cells. Alpha cells release glucagon and beta cells expel insulin. If the blood sugar becomes too inflated the pancreas will secrete more insulin. If there is a spike in blood sugar levels the pancreas will release glucagon to increase the levels. This state of balance enables sufficient energy to reach cells and prevents nerve damage that can occur with sufficiently high blood sugar levels. Blood glucose is key to supplying cells and the mammalian brain with sufficient energy to form a state of homeostasis.

Paragraph 4

An immoderate increase in blood sugar causes the pancreas to secrete additional insulin. Insufficient glucose levels cause blood sugar levels to continue to be high, this occurs when the body cannot covert enough glucose. Insulin enables cells to absorb glucose, which in effect reduces blood sugar and provides cells with sufficient glucose for energy. There are various symptoms consistent with a high blood sugar some of these include; urinating inordinately, as the kidneys try to expel excess glucose, slow healing, excessively hungry, unusual thirst, abnormal weight loss and/or itch, dry skin.

A decline in blood sugar levels prompts the pancreas to excrete glucagon, in an attempt to increase levels. When blood sugar levels become depleted the pancreas releases glucagon, instructing the liver to release stored glucose, causing blood sugar levels to increase. Meal delay, particular diabetes medication, nutrient deficiency and specific medical conditions contribute to a low blood pressure. Symptoms of low blood sugar may include; fainting, dizziness, weakness or a rapid heartbeat.

Paragraph 5

The development of diabetes occurs when insulin is unproductive or when the body is unable to produce enough of it. These factors form diabetes from inadequate blood sugar regulation. There are various distinct diabetic types which include type one, type two and gestational diabetes. Type one diabetes is an autoimmune condition that can often present itself at a young age. Here the immune system attacks insulin-secreting beta cells within the increase. Type one diabetics have abnormally high blood sugar although having low insulin levels mean they are unable to utilize much of the glucose in their blood. Type two diabetes is the most common form of diabetes, this disease is generally due to poor lifestyle choices. Type two diabetics have insulin resistance meaning their cells do not adequately respond when insulin directs them to absorb needed glucose from the bloodstream. Gestational diabetes is a form of diabetes that establishes in some women during pregnancy. Whilst a woman is pregnant the placenta supporting the growing fetus can impair the body’s ability to utilize insulin. This particular form of diabetes generally goes away after the baby is born.

Homeostasis, derived from the Greek words ‘home’ meaning similar and ‘stasis’ meaning stable (1), is a dynamic state of equilibrium in which the internal and external environments of the body are maintained (2). The maintenance of homeostasis is the most important aspect of the human body. The roots of homeostatic control lay with cellular functions which provide vital products and outcomes directly influencing homeostasis. Following on from the cellular level, there are a multitude of key physiological processes and biochemical products which must be effectively controlled such as blood glucose levels, the pH of the blood, the core body temperature, oxygen saturation, heart rate and electrolyte balance. In order to maintain these, the body has specific countermeasures to prevent an imbalance, which are in the form of negative feedback systems, which work to counteract the change to return the state of imbalance to the optimal conditions. For example, erythropoiesis works to increase the erythrocyte count when its levels are too low. There are a few positive feedback systems which work alongside negative feedback systems to maintain homeostasis, for example the blood clotting process which aims to prevent mass leakage from the development of a thrombus in blood vessels. A homeostatic imbalance would have devastating effects on someone’s health ranging from total organ failure to strokes and myocardial infarctions. This essay will explain some important cellular functions and how they control the regulation of some of the principles of homeostasis, as well as explaining how a miniscule change in one specific cellular mechanism can result in a severe epidemiological outcome.

Protein synthesis is a major cellular mechanism for homeostatic control within the body, specifically in relation to the regulation of blood glucose levels. Protein synthesis is a complex process whereby DNA strands are translated into mRNA strands and these strands are translated at ribosomes embedded within the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). From this point, the recently assembled proteins are transported along the cytoskeleton in a secretory vesicle to the Golgi Apparatus (GA) where they are structurally modified, establishing the function of the protein, be it an enzyme or hormone. This process occurs in the cells of the Islets of Langerhans and influences the proportion of glucose in the extracellular fluid. Upon the detection of hypoglycaemia, α-cells secrete the hormone glucagon. Therefore, glycogenolysis occurs in the liver and the blood glucose levels increase. Muscular glycogenolysis also occurs and the glucose stores in the muscle are approximately equal to those in the liver. However, muscular glycogenolysis is said to “indirectly” contribute to blood glucose homeostasis due to the absence of the enzymes required to dephosphorylate glucose. Instead, the glucose is deoxidised into pyruvic acid, which enters the blood stream and is reconverted into glucose by the liver anyway. (2) Adjacent to the α-cells are the β-cells secreting insulin whenever hyperglycaemia is detected. In this case, glycogenesis occurs, and the blood glucose levels decrease. The homeostasis of blood glucose levels is regulated through the secretion of these hormones however, it can also be regulated by receptor expression.

Cell surface receptor expression is a crucial part of cellular functioning. The receptor proteins are synthesised and modified throughout protein synthesis; the receptors are glycoproteins expressed in the extracellular membrane, known as the glycocalyx (GCX). Direct evidence was provided in 1966 by Rambourg et al (3) stating that cells are covered by a GCX using a silver methenamine labelling technique to detect glycoproteins in the extracellular membranes of rat tissues. Receptors are directly responsible for the transduction of energy from both internal and external environments into electrical impulses (4). Focussing on the receptors expressed on the post-synaptic membrane of a neuron, it is possible to visualise the effect of receptor function on homeostatic regulation. The membranous receptors are structurally specific to the shape of the neurotransmitter with which it will bind once the neurotransmitters have diffused across the synaptic cleft. Without the specific receptors expressed on the post-synaptic membrane, the electrical impulse will not be re-established (due to cell signalling) and the response to the stimulus will not be carried out. This would have detrimental effects on thermoregulation, such as hypothermia which when detected by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus is mitigated in response. The sympathetic nervous system will regulate cellular metabolism by inducing the expression of transcriptional regulators of metabolic genes. Therefore, efferent autonomic pathways provide a link between cellular metabolism and thermoregulation (5). Through the manipulation of cellular metabolism, the core body temperature can be raised by increasing the rate of exothermic processes, thus releasing heat. Sympathetically mediated vasoconstriction also occurs in the skin as a thermoregulatory response to minimise heat loss (5), as well as stimulating the rapid contraction of smooth muscle cells (also known as shivering) to aid in the build-up of heat. The same is true for hyperthermia, vasodilation occurs near the surface of the skin and the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the production of sweat, thus reducing the core body temperature. If the receptors were not expressed in the GCX of the post-synaptic membrane of neurons, the electrical impulse would not have been re-initiated, and thermoregulation would not have been successful.

One example of homeostatic impairment arises from protein misfolding. Most newly synthesised proteins fold in their most appropriate minimal-energy configuration, thus ensuring the protein is in its most stable structural configuration. This folding process is a matter of decreasing entropy. The highly disordered DNA strands form amino acids which then enter their unfolded state, then their folding intermediate and finally, their highly ordered native state. Most proteins follow this one pathway but there are many bifurcating pathways which allow variation in their optimal structures. The most prominent structural occurrence of a functional protein in its native conformational state is the α-helix (6). However, as Reynaud. E describes, when the toxicity increases due to the build-up of amyloid, the conformational shape changes to a β-pleated sheet and this change promotes protein aggregation due to the exposure of amino acid residues. This one misfolded protein can then induce a toxic state upon other proteins through a process known as infective conformation. This amplification of toxicity eventually either kills the cell or impairs its functional ability. Usually, the cells have a mechanism for detecting misfolded proteins, however, this can become impaired due to the toxicity levels (7). As a result of this, many misfolded proteins bypass this mechanism undetected, therefore diseases can develop, one of which is sickle-cell anaemia.

The NHS describes sickle cell disease as an inherited health conditions that affect red blood cells, the most serious being sickle cell anaemia (8). In this disease, there is an abnormal form of haemoglobin, haemoglobin S (HbS), produced from a mutation in just one of the amino acids in the β-chains of the globin molecule. This causes the β-chains to link together, forming stiff rods so that the haemoglobin molecules become sharp and spiky (2), in other words, the unidirectional haemoglobin crystals form these spikes which deform the cell (9). This causes the erythrocytes to form crescent shapes which minimises the volume of oxygen that can be carried by the erythrocyte, thus the cells that require oxygen for aerobic processes are not receiving sufficient volumes of oxygen. Therefore, a state of anaemic hypoxia ensues (10).

There are many symptoms of hypoxia, of which the most common are a rapid heart rate as a result of the increased distribution of oxygen-carrying sickled erythrocytes, an increase in the breathing rate due to an increased need for oxygen, dizziness due to a lack of oxygen to the head and more severe consequences such as strokes and myocardial infarctions due to a lack of oxygen-rich blood being delivered to the heart and brain. Another disease associated with sickle cell anaemia is atherosclerosis. The NHS defines atherosclerosis as a potentially serious condition where arteries become clogged with fatty substances called plaques or atheroma (8). The deformed erythrocytes (containing the sickled haemoglobin) agglutinate and stick to the walls of blood vessels, which contributes to the development of atherosclerotic plaques and eventually blood clots (11). These atherosclerotic plaques partially (or completely in severe scenarios) obstruct the blood flow in vessels, thus minimising the volume of oxygenated blood delivered to necessary cells and organs. Atherosclerosis has similar consequences to hypoxia because both decrease the volume of oxygen being distributed. Therefore, there is an increased chance of strokes and myocardial infarctions as well as increasing the risk of angina and coronary artery disease.

To conclude, the sources of all homeostatic imbalances can be traced back to the cellular level, where a precise component of a cellular mechanism is altered, via a mutation or other means. This, in turn, has detrimental effects on the cellular process which affects homeostatic control, therefore the principles of homeostasis are impeded, and severe consequences tend to follow.

Bibliography

1. Gabe Buckley. Homeostasis. Biology Dictionary. https://biologydictionary.net/homeostasis/ [cited 19th October 2020]
2. Elaine N. Marieb, Katja Hoehn. Human Anatomy & Physiology. Pearson. Ninth Edition. p639,933 [cited 11th October 2020]
3. Rambourg A, Neutra M, Leblond CP. Presence of a “cell coat” rich in carbohydrate at the surface of cells in the rat. Anatomic Records 1966. [cited 12th October 2020]
4. Thomas L. Lentz, Peter B.C. Matthews. Human nervous system. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 9th April 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-system [accessed on 15th October 2020]
5. Frank Seebacher, Responses to temperature variation: integration of thermoregulation and metabolism in vertebrates. Journal of Experimental Biology. 2009. [cited 15th October 2020]
6. Pauling, L. Corey, Rr.b. & Branson, H.R. The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain. PNAS 37, 205-211. 1951. [cited 17th October 2020]
7. Reynaud, E. Protein Misfolding and Degenerative Diseases. Nature Education 3(9):28. 2010. [cited 17th October 2020]
8. Unknown author. Sickle cell disease. NHS. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sickle-cell-disease/ [accessed 17th October 2020]
9. Floricin, Stotz. Comprehensive Bio-chemistry. 19B/II. Protein Metabolism. Elsevier Biomedical Press. 1982. [cited 17th October 2020]
10. Unknown author. 4 Types of Hypoxia [Effects, Treatment & Prevention]. World of Medical Saviours. https://worldofmedicalsaviours.com/types-of-hypoxia/ [accessed 17th October]
11. Unknown author. Sickle Cell Disease and Anemia. The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/70th-anniversary/sickle-cell-anemia [accessed 17th October 2020]

Homeostasis according to Colbert et al (2012) is a control system that corrects any discrepancies found in the body, it then works to keep the levels balanced and any variations that are recognised are then brought back to their baseline. Waugh and Grant (2006) also stated that control systems inside the body are required to have an original ‘tightly controlled’ boundary (Waugh and Grant, 2006:4), This boundary is likely to be different with each person Hendry et al. (2012).

Hendry et al. (2012) explained that homeostasis can only be maintained and sustained by other mechanisms within the body. These then work to even out any differences by using positive and negative feedback loops to detect, change and implement ways to correct and return the fluctuations to the original baseline. (Toole and Toole, 1995). The two feedback loops that are used within homeostasis are positive feedback where there is temporary control in a single body system moving it rapidly away from the baseline intensifying the original stimulus (Tortora and Derrickson, 2017) whereas, negative feedback which works to reverse the detected change and return it to its baseline to maintain homeostatic control and prevent ill health in an individual. (Waugh and Grant, 2008).

The homeostatic regulation consists of a sensor to acknowledge any fluctuation in levels, which then signals the control centre situated in the hypothalamus. The control centre then determines the level of alteration required and responds to the appropriate system to adjust accordingly to bring levels back within range to the pre-determined values set (Modell et al, 2015). The effector then implements the change needed to return the control system back to its baseline, once corrected then the feedback loop reports back to the detector informing it of the changes made to the system by the effector, which then switches off the feedback system until the next time it is activated this is known as negative feedback Toole and Toole (1995). (321/1000)

The homeostatic process that takes place in response to stress or anxiety, activate two parts of the brain: the cerebral cortex and amygdala. The Cerebral cortex is the decision maker to determine if the situation is threatening, then the amygdala will monitor the body’s reactions to the situation. Then the amygdala sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus (Harvard Health, 2011). This is known as the ‘flight or fight’ response which is the reaction the body makes when faced with perceived dangerous situations (CHERRY,2019). The nervous system and endocrine system work simultaneously to respond to stress. The two control systems responsible for adapting to the increased response to the physical or mental activity is the autonomic nervous system (ANS) which consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic and the endocrine system which is responsible for regulating hormone changes. (Cherry,2019)

When a stressor is detected that threatens to disrupt homeostasis the hypothalamus then stimulates the adrenal medulla producing the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, which then release into the bloodstream from the stimulated adrenal medulla to get ready for a short-term flight or fight response. It does this by increasing the heart rate and blood pressure (Waugh and Grant, 2008)

Abstract

Homeostasis is thrown out of its set point as a response to a stressor, like an exercise. The primary objective of this study is to determine whether an active person will have a more effective physiological response to the stress of exercise than the less active person. The proposed hypothesis is that the physical activity level of a person affects the rate of response and recovery of maintaining physiological homeostasis. The pulse rate and external temperature were the two parameters measured for the rest, response and recovery phases of homeostasis. Two female test subjects with two different physical activeness performed an exercise for 2 minutes and 30 seconds. The two trials taken were averaged and extrapolated into a line graph to compare and contrast the parameters of two test subjects. I concluded that the results are consistent with the hypothesis presented. The less active person has a higher response rate of pulse and external temperature to the maintain homeostasis than the active person. Therefore, the physical activeness of a person is found to have an effect to maintain homeostasis.

Introduction

The maintenance of a steady internal environment regardless of a constantly changing external condition is called homeostasis. It enables all body frameworks to perform within an acceptable range. Human bodies maintain a stable internal environment of ~37 °C, ~0.1% blood glucose, blood pH of ~7.35. It is maintained by feedback loops, mainly negative feedback loops which are processes where a mechanism is activated to bring the body back to its normal state. (Modell et al, 2015). If the system cannot restore its balance, it can lead to death.

The homeostasis of body temperature within a range by which a life form functions ideally is called thermoregulation. The core temperature of the body is usually different from the external temperature. The internal temperature must be kept up at a specific temperature to give an optimal environment for internal organs to perform adequately and efficiently. However, if the core temperature is not maintained, it could permanently damage internal organs. The circulatory system works together with thermoregulation. Circulatory system helps by directing blood towards the surface of the skin to secrete heat. The capillaries in the skin dilate to increase the amount of blood reaching the skin to give off the excess heat. This process lowers the core temperature whilst increasing the external temperature. This action increases blood flow thus the pulse or heartbeat increases.

The chemical reactions made during a rigorous exercise make the heart and working muscles very active, thus ending up releasing heat. Working muscles are being supplied with oxygen. Oxygen is used for aerobic respiration which breaks down glucose to form Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), one of the major endogenous sources of energy of the body (“Energy for Exercise” 2007). ATP Hydrolysis is the breakdown of ATP which releases the energy needed for an activity, and also gives off heat. ATP production and hydrolysis happen simultaneously. The distribution of oxygen to the muscles to produce ATP and the distribution of the energy released from ATP hydrolysis is performed by the pumping of the heart. During exercise, the heart works extra hard to carry out this task, thus increasing the pulse, beats per minute, of the heart. The release of heat during ATP breakdown increases the core temperature of the body. In order to maintain the body’s normal internal temperature, the increase in blood flow also directs the heat produced to the surface of the skin, therefore increasing the external temperature.

In this study, we investigated the effects of vigorous exercise on the physiological homeostasis. Specifically, we tested the proposed hypothesis that the activity level of a person affects their ability to maintain homeostasis. It is argued that the heart of an active person is more adapted to more physical work and does not need to pump as hard to attain homeostasis, thus should have less change in heart rate and external temperature when in rest phase and when in the response phase. The less active person, on the other hand, will experience a higher change in heart rate and external temperature to maintain stability because she or he is less adapted to rigorous work, therefore, the person’s heart needs to work twice as much to attain homeostasis. This investigation is performed in a laboratory room at the DNA building at Trent University. Two parameters were measured for this experiment; the pulse, heartbeats per minute, using a sphygmomanometer and the external temperature, by degree Celsius, using an infrared thermometer, of the two volunteers who performed two minutes and thirty seconds of skipping ropes. Average data for two trials were taken and extrapolated into a line graph in the Microsoft Excel.

Methods

The measurement of the two parameters used in this lab investigation; heartbeat and external temperature, is performed in a laboratory room in DNA building in Peterborough, Ontario Monday afternoon last January 14, 2018. The laboratory room has a controlled temperature of 22°C

In this study, we observed the three phases of homeostasis: rest, response, recovery. Our group chose to examine the circulatory system and the thermoregulatory system. From these systems, we measured heartbeat in beats per minute (beats/min), using a sphygmomanometer and external temperature in Celsius (°C) using an infrared thermometer.

Two female subjects; age ranging from 18-19 years old, weight around 110-130 pounds, height 1.50m-165m and both non-smokers, participated in the study. The variable we chose to examine in regards is the physical activity level of the experimental subjects. The first test subject is somewhat active due to work, while the second test subject is rarely active. Both test subjects do not actively engage in competitive athletics. The first measurement taken is the rest phase of homeostasis and also the controlled measurement of the study in which the two test subjects were rested for 5 minutes that includes being seated, quiet and relaxed. After the 5 minutes mark, the heartbeat is measured using a sphygmomanometer that was cuffed around the upper arm of the test subject, the external temperature was also taken using an infrared temperature that was focused on the palm of the test subjects to get the reading. The test subjects then performed jump rope using plastic skipping ropes that elicited a physiological response of 14-15 based on the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) for 2 minutes and 30 seconds rigorously and consistently. Immediately after the exercise, the response phase is taken where the two chosen parameters were measured at the same time with the subjects seated, calm and quiet. Lastly, the recovery phase is taken in which a series of measurements were observed in 3 minutes interval for 30 minutes while the test subjects were seated, quiet, calm and unbothered. (“Foundations of cellular and molecular biology” 2019). The two testees were asked to make minimal movements and do not monitor themselves in order to not get inaccurate measurements. The data collection was done for two trials and were averaged. The averaged data was then extrapolated into a line graph in Microsoft Excel.

Results

In Figure 1, the pulse rate of the active test subject is lower in the rest phase and response rate with 92 beats/minutes and132 beats/min respectively, in comparison to the less active test subject who has the higher pulse rate in rest phase, 100 beats/min and 150 beats/min in response phase. The pulse rate of the active person went back to its optimal range faster than the less active person as seen in the recovery phase. In Figure 2, the external temperature of the active participant is higher at the rest phase with 27°C, while the less active person has 23°C. The external temperature at the response phase of the active person is 23.9°C, while the less active person went up to 26.7°C.

Discussion

Physical activeness of a person affects the response and recovery rate to maintain physiological homeostasis. In this study, we found that the rate of response of the less active person is significantly higher than the active person in terms of the pulse rate. The rate of recovery in terms of external temperature is also higher for the less active person in comparison to the active one. With these findings, we, therefore, accept the proposed hypothesis that the physical activity level of a person affects their ability to attain homeostasis in response to the stress of exercise.

In this investigation, we saw the dramatic response of the body to the stress of exercise performed which is the rapid increase of energy demands from the working muscles. During the exercise, the working muscles needed extra oxygen that is used for the aerobic respiration of glucose to produce Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a very unstable molecule that one of the three-phosphate group can be easily removed that produces Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and releases energy and a by-product of heat, this process is called ATP hydrolysis. This formation of ATP and breaking down to ADP happens simultaneously in our body and the rate of demand increases as we work the body or muscles more, hence the need for the extra oxygen. These whole proceedings of supplying the working muscles the extra ATP is facilitated by the circulatory system through the pumping of the blood-carrying-oxygen by the heart. The heart rate, hence the pulse, increases for it to meet the demands of the working body. This extra ATP being produced breaks down to ADP and gives off a by-product heat. These excess heat in the body increases the core temperature which throws off the body from its acceptable range of temperature. A negative feedback system will activate in response to the disorder within the body, which in this case is thermoregulation. The thermoreceptors in the brain will detect the rise of the internal temperature which will send the message to the hypothalamus that will then signal the capillaries near the skin surface to dilate. The dilation of the capillaries will increase blood flow carrying the warm blood towards the surface of the skin to give off the excess heat inside the body. While the excess heat is given of the body, the internal temperature will start to go back to its optimal range while increasing the external temperature. Thermoregulation and the circulatory system work together to maintain the core temperature of the body.

In our study, we found that the active person has a lower rate of response than the less active test subject. This tells us that the active person’s response to the stress of the exercise is not as dramatic compared to the less active person. This is due to the strong heart and more capillaries in the working muscles of the active test subject. Strengthen heart means that there is more blood flow per beat, so the heart does not have to pump as much to supply the demands of the body. The increase in capillaries, on the other hand, increases the surface area in the working muscles that the blood flows through.

A study conducted by Chudecka and Lubkowska (2012) about the use of thermal imaging to evaluate body temperature of training athletes, had found in their investigation the better mechanism to eliminate heat formed during training which supports our hypothesis. They found that a trained individual is better at maintaining core temperature by not raising the external temperature too much. The active person’s body has undergone adaptive changes due to physical exercises that the core temperature rise is lower and the ability to dissipate heat off of the body, through intense perspiration, improves. The cooling off process begins at an early stage of exercise and starts at a low temperature. Simultaneously, external temperature decreases. (Chudecka and Lubkowska 2012).

Based on our findings, the ability to maintain homeostasis is affected by the activity level of a person but there are limitations and a contributing factor that explains the trend seen in Figure 2 of the more active person. The outfit worn of the test subjects can affect the parameters measured. The person who wore heavier clothing has poor ventilation for dissipating heat and will overheat first, hence the external temperature and pulse rate of this person is considerably higher regardless of the variable being considered. Inversely, if the person was wearing an item of lighter clothing, she will have better ventilation to radiate off heat and has a lower pulse and external temperature rate. Second, the pre-existing conditions, except asthma, that the test subjects might have had were not taken into consideration. These conditions can cause why the person’s response is significantly different from the other regardless of the variable being tested. Lastly, the two body systems investigated; circulatory and thermoregulation, are not enough parameters to provide concrete support for our hypothesis. Other factors can come into play if the other systems that weren’t measured are at advantage or disadvantage, again, because of the pre-existing conditions the test subject might have had.

Our study overall had provided enough evidence to support our hypothesis. The higher rise in pulse and external temperature rate of the less active person than the active person, suggests that the physical activeness of the two female test subject is a factor that affects their response and recovery rate to the stress of exercise. We saw a significant increase in the pulse rate of the less active person in the response phase and how quickly it dropped in the recovery phase. This trend is interesting to look at because some people are not able to lower their pulse rate at early recovery after a rigorous exercise. A study conducted about the heart-rate recovery immediately after an exercise is a prediction of mortality. Cole (1999), who performed the study, concluded that the failure of the heart to fall on normal ranges during early recovery after exercise suggests an increase in the overall mortality. All 2428 test subjects of this study were men and have no history of heart failures or other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases (Cole et al, 1999). This study can be ventured to investigate the possible illnesses that a person might develop in his or her older years by being more extensive to the variables and parameters being measured.

References

1. Chudecka, M. Lubkowska, A. 2012. The use of thermal imaging to evaluate body temperature changes of athletes during training and a study on the impact of physiological and morphological factors on skin temperature. Sciendo. 13: 33-39
2. Cole, C., Blackstone E., Pashkow, F., Snader, C., Lauer, M. 1999. Heart-rate recovery immediately after exercise as a predictor of mortality. The New England journal of medicine. 341: 1351-1357
3. Model, H. Cliff, W. Michael, J. McFarland, J. Wenderoth, M. Wright, A. 2015. A physiologist’s view of homeostasis. Advances in Physiology Education. 39(4): 259–266
4. Pieper, S. 2018. Exercise Physiology. Trent University, Peterborough ON. Science Learning Hub. Pokapū Akoranga Pūtaiao, University of Waikato. 2007-06-21. Energy for Exercise. www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1920-energy-for-exercise. Accessed: 2019-21-01
5. Healthline, Healthline Media. 2016-09-22. Thermoregulation | Definition and Patient Education. www.healthline.com/health/thermoregulation. Accessed: 2019-27-01

Homeostasis is the self-regulatory system within human body and it also exists in animals’ body as well. It aims on maintaining the internal condition within one’s body, according to Betts et al (2017). Homeostasis is particularly significant in one’s body, as the failure of the homeostasis in one’s body might cause different kinds of disease, for example diabetes in human. According to the NHS (2019) the cause of diabetes is due to the insulin in the pancreas fail to regulate the glucose in the body. When homeostasis fails, nurses will need to involve, because the exists of nurse is to curl people who suffer from illness. “Where homeostasis ends, nursing begins” (Fawcett, Watson, & Fawcett, 2003, P.8) is describing why nursing exists when homeostasis fails, and what is the role of the nurse when homeostasis fails in the body. The main idea of this essay will be discussing the above two ideas.

Homeostasis is the regulatory system within both human and its role is to maintain the internal condition of the body stable as mentioned above. The fail of homeostasis causes different kinds of disease, one of the most iconic disease causes by homeostasis is diabetes. There are two types of diabetes, they are type 1 and type 2 diabetes respectively, while type 1 is the most common type of diabetes among the world. Diabetes causes by a various reason, it could cause by genetics, family medical history, diet and external environment (Diabetes.co.uk, 2019). Type 1 diabetes is cause by production fail of insulin due to β cell destruction according to Marx (2002).

Also, the condition of the patients who suffer from chronic illness and acquired diseases may go more worse when homeostasis fails (Kotas & Medzhitov, 2015). For example, Ma et al. (2009) claimed that, the disorder of the circadian oscillator may cause dysregulation of bile acid homeostasis and results in cholestatic disease.

REFERENCE

1. Betts, J. G., Desaix, P., Johnson, E., Johnson, J. E., Korol, O., Kruse, D. H., Poe, B., Wise, J. A., Womble, M., & Young, K. A. (2017). Anatomy and physiology. Available at: https://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1zmh@8.103:8Q_5pQQo@4/Homeostasis
2. Diabetes.co.uk. (2019). Causes of Diabetes – What Causes Diabetes? [online] Available at: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/diabetes-causes.html.
3. Ma. K, Xiao. R, Tseng. H. T, Shan. L, Fu. L, D. D. Moore. (2009) Circadian Dysregulation Disrupts Bile Acid Homeostasis. PLOS ONE 4(8): e6843. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0006843
4. Marx, J. (2002) ‘Unraveling the Causes of Diabetes’, Science, 296(5568), pp. 686-689. doi: 10.1126/science.296.5568.686. Available at: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/296/5568/686/tab-pdf
5. Kotas, M. E., & Medzhitov, R. (2015). Homeostasis, inflammation, and disease susceptibility. Cell, 160(5), 816–827. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.010

Living in this ever-evolving world of ours was never an easy task for any of us. Things gradually change over time and even consistency of routines and activities we perform every day doesn’t give us assurance that things will do stay as they are. Thinking we do not hold or even have a grasp of what is about to happen, it sure it a scary thing; but despite being clueless of tomorrow, we can live in the very moment of now. And knowing that it can make an impact for our tomorrow, every moment now shall be counted and considered.

Biology defines homeostasis as the ability to maintain internal stability in an organism in response to the environmental changes‒that despite external disturbances in a certain individual or group, balance and sustainability is maintained within the said individual or group. It does not necessarily suggest being stationary or motionless but rather involves actions of adaptation and continuous mobility despite what is happening in its surroundings.

Relating homeostasis to our present situation, with the worldwide pandemic going on and being in a community quarantine for exactly eight months now, we can also be able to maintain sustainability within our homes. As a Civil Engineering student in this challenging time we are under in, I can say that attainment of, not just proper, but quality education should not be compromised because it is our firm foundation towards being an effective professional in the future being able to cater the needs of every Filipino citizen we are ought to serve. This pandemic should not be the reason for academic freeze of students which would just block our access to education implying that our reach towards being professionals and service to our fellowmen will just get farther; good thing there are online and modular ways of learning offered to us, students, to continue having academic progress while staying at home for our safety.

Although it is a great way to spend this time while being in quarantine, learning does not stop with what the academy offers. Modernization is explored, cultivated and given available to utilization of the public to aid regarding what is good for its users‒and it can also be applied in learning. With resources available at home, there are references and lectures available online that can be of help for students, even when they find their lessons somehow difficult to understand. Sustainability relates to being able to continue over a period of time and despite the pandemic, we should be mindful of the available resources and utilize them the most effective way possible.

I can remember what an instructor once told me about giving back the help that is received. He said that “Giving back to those who help us is good, but passing on that help to other people who needs it more is even better.” and it hit me. The things that the University and my instructors taught me will be fruitful as I utilize these learnings once I become a licensed Civil Engineer and provide service to every Filipino citizen as my designs stand with stability without compromising its cost and environmental wellbeing. Until then, as a student, I hold the responsibility of not depriving myself of learning and continuing to gain knowledge through several available means that are within reach with the help of modernization our generation is aware of.

Introduction

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a steady state within the body despite changes in the external environment. The steady state is the optimum level for the body’s functions. For homeostasis to work the system needs to have sensors, a comparator, a set point, effectors, feedback control and a communication system. In humans, two systems need to be working together to allow homeostasis to occur. These are the endocrine system and the nervous system. The endocrine system is the system that helps produce around 50 different hormones into the blood. These hormones then activate or stimulate various organs throughout the body. The hormones also help to control and metabolism. The system is made up of endocrine glands which are all controlled by the master gland. The master gland is split up into two different parts, the anterior lobe, and the posterior lobe. Hormones made in the posterior lobe are released to the urinary system and in females to the uterus and breasts. The anterior lobe controls the hormones for the adrenal gland, thyroid gland, bones and muscles, skin and the testicles and ovaries, hormones are also responsible for the way that we react to the different environments. The nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cords and is split up int three parts the Central nervous system or CNS, the peripheral nervous system or PNS and the vegetative nervous system. It is calculated that a nerve impulse travels 90m per second inside the nerves. When a nerve impulse I transmitted before it is transmitted to the next impulse it has to wait 0.001 seconds.

When the brain wants to send messages to the body or the main organs want to communicate with the brain the messages are transferred by neurons. There are three main types of nerve cells they are the sensory neuron, the relay neuron, and the motor neuron. Neurons are the cells that make up the nervous system, their job is to transmit impulses by electrical signals to the brain and periphery. periphery is the outside or superficial portion of a body, the human body has around one hundred billion neurons, neurons are protected by other nerve cells called glial cells which constitute more than half of all organisms nerve cells. Every neuron is made up of a body, an axon, and many dendrites, neurons have the ability to regenerate tissue once it is lost and some neurons can regenerate if they have been damaged.

Alcohol is an ingredient within drinks that can make you drunk. This is called ethanol, its made from yeast ferments the sugars in grains and fruits and vegetables. For example, wine is made from sugar in grapes and vodka is made from sugar in potatoes. Alcohol is classified as a drug and can be highly addictive if consumed in high amounts. Alcohol is actually a depressant and affects the way you think, feel and behave. It also slows down the messages that travel between your brain and body. A few drinks can make you feel more relaxed, slow down your reflexes and reduce your concentration levels. However, too much drinking can lead to slurred speech, reduced coordination, confusion, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting and drowsiness, and sleeping.

Normal levels for the body

For us to understand how the body completes homeostasis we first need to know what the body starts at. So, the body like to stay at a nice and toasty 37 degrees Celsius but can sometimes be slightly higher depending on the weather where you are. If the bodies temperature goes up over the 38 degrees Celsius the body probably has a fever. Now the heart needs to stay at a constant rate while resting because if it goes above that there is most likely a major problem. the body likes to keep it between 60 and 100 beats per minute while resting, if it is higher, it is wise to go see your doctor immediately because you may be at risk of blood clots, heart failure or sudden cardiac arrest. The same goes for your blood pressure the national average for blood pressure is between 120-129 systolic and 80-84 diastolic. If a person has higher blood pressure, they are at risk of having either a heart attack or stroke because the high blood pressure causes hardening and thickening of the arteries. Maintaining a normal blood glucose level is important because it can help prevent a particular disease. That is why diabetics have to be so careful because if they do not control their blood glucose levels they could suffer from heart disease, kidney failure, nerve damage, and eye problems. For non-diabetics, normal blood glucose levels are 4.0-7.8mmol/L. To work out the bodies pH levels you need to take a sample of a person’s urine to see how acidity or alkalinity they are. The human body sets the pH levels a 7.4 which is just above neutral level if the human’s pH levels get too high or too low there is a serious risk that they could die or suffer kidney failure. The body requires large amounts of water to help keep all of the vital organs running. On average humans lose an average of two and a half to three litres of water every day, it can be more based on the weather conditions or the amount of physical activity completed in long durations of time.

Affects Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a steady state within the body despite changes in the external environment, the steady state is the optimum level for the body’s functions, alcohol is a drug that affects the body and brain. When the body’s homeostasis is disturbed the body acts to restore homeostatic balance. It acts to bring the affected area and levels back into the normal range. The whole individual’s behaviour becomes directed towards helping restore homeostatic balance. Alcohol addiction affects homeostasis because alcohol is continuously overstimulating parts of the brain. As a result, the brain has difficulty achieving the ideal balance and has to adjust to cope with the addictive substances reactions. This is called allostasis and once the original homeostasis is changed and the allostasis is reached, the brain requires the addictive substances to be able to maintain the new point of balance. Alcohol affects the body’s blood sugars levels and insulin effectiveness. As the amount of alcohol drunk increases, the effectiveness of insulin is decreased leading to the levels of blood sugar increases. However sometimes when consuming alcohol can lead to insulin secretion which leads to lowered blood sugar levels. Alcohol affects sleep homeostasis because sleep latency is consolidated and increases the quality and quantity of NREM sleep. NREM sleep is the recurring sleep state during which rapid eye movements do not occur and dreaming does not occur, accounts for about 75% of normal time. Alcohol increases the blood flow that goes to the stomach resulting in larger amounts of stomach acid which is a bad combination with alcohol and what leads to your vomiting. Over-consumption of alcohol can lead to alcohol poisoning because the brain is basically shut down from all the alcohol meaning that homeostasis is majorly disrupted by this.

Short Term affects

Why alcohol may be nice to drink and helps people relax after a long, hard day at work. Alcohol affects every single person different for example it may take a bigger build person longer to feel the effects of alcohol than it would for a skinny person. Same goes for a person that drinks regularly they may take 5 drinks to get drunk whereas someone that does not drink often may get drunk after one drink. Some short term effects of alcohol consumption are impaired judgement, slurred speech, vomiting and being unable to walk without help. When drinking your judgement becomes impaired due to the alcohol slowing down the brain activity in the parts that are responsible for self- judgement. This may make a person less nervous to engage in conversations or believing that driving while drunk is a good idea. When the person drinks too much alcohol their coordination is affected majorly, and they are usually unable to walk properly without assistance. This is because the brain becomes less associated lowering the brain’s ability to manage the movements leading to the person being clumsy, unable to walk in a straight line or even standing up. When drinking if a person drinks a few too many their speech may suddenly become slurred and hard to understand. This effect is due to the alcohol affecting the brain meaning they will lose control over the muscles in their tongue and face due to the person being restricted blood flow to the muscles. The most common effect from over-consumption of alcohol is vomiting, but why doe this happen? Well, it happens because alcohol is actually a toxin and easily upsets the digestive system, too much alcohol can actually inflame the esophagus and stomach lining. Vomiting allows for the mixture of alcohol and stomach acid that is affecting the stomach lining to exit the body and take the pressure off the stomach.

Medium-term effects

While it would be nice if there were only short-term effects from the consumption of alcohol however there are some effects that last more than 24 hours and can sometimes happen for up to two weeks. Some of the effects include diarrhea, breathing difficulties, headaches and drowsiness, and most would be unpleasant to be suffering from. When drinking a person may get diarrhea because alcohol disrupts the digestive system, so the alcohol will go through the small intestine getting the alcohol absorbed and all the excess is pushed out of the body by the urine and poo. The colon muscles move in coordinate squeezes to push out the poo, and alcohol speeds up these squeezes not allowing water to be absorbed like normal, causing the poo to come out as diarrhea often very quickly and with lots of water. Some people when drinking can suffer from breathing problem and have to be very careful with just how much they drink. This is caused because some peoples body just don’t agree with alcoh0l or they could be allergic to alcohol. It is believed that there are actually components within the alcohol that are leading to the breathing problem it is sulfites. Everyone knows that alcohol affects the brain and slows it down so why do people suffer from headaches after drinking. This happens because some of the chemicals within the alcohol react with the brain they trigger headaches and for some unlucky people migraines. Headaches usually occur over the days after the alcohol consumption as the alcohol levels lower within your body. The main factors that affect how severe the headache is the amount of alcohol that was consumed the night before and how much sleep the person had gotten that night.

Long term effects

Unfortunately, sometimes for a drinker the line between a few social drinks and alcohol abuse becomes fuzzy and there are some very serious long-term health effects from when this occurs. Such as brain damage, fertility issues such as low testosterone levels, inflammation of the liver and heart problems. Overdrinking causes brain damage because as heavy amounts of alcohol enter the body the harder it is for the liver to process meaning excess alcohol travels to other parts of the body like the heart and brain. Alcohol causes ‘blackouts’ when consumed in large amounts so constant ‘blackouts’ can lead to permanent damage. they will suffer from memory loss and affects the brain from retaining any new memories, for example, an alcoholic may not remember what they had for breakfast. The most common term of brain damage caused by alcohol is called a wet brain and is linked to the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome which are two forms of dementia.

Alcohol abuse over a long time can affect the testosterone levels within men, meaning their sexual parts such as the testicles and prostate will be affected. The testosterone levels are affected because the alcohol damages the Leydig cells within the testicles that produce the testosterone. Alcohol has the effect to increase the stress hormone cortisol within some people and decreases the testosterone production, alcohol increases the conversion of testosterone to estrogen within the body. While testosterone may decrease in the testicles it has been found that it increases within the brain which helps to explain why some people get overly aggressive or have rapid mood changes when they become overly intoxicated and why so many assaults occur while people are drunk.

The liver is the organ that is responsible for getting rid of harmful chemical that could affect the blood. It takes the liver 1 hour to process on an alcoholic beverage as it can only process so much at a certain time. When alcohol is drunk in rapid succession all the excess alcohol is left and goes into the blood, affecting the heart and brain that is how people get drunk quickly. Alcohol abuse causes the liver cells to destruct and results in the liver being seriously scarred, this scarring may even lead to liver cancer. Many heavy drinkers get the disease fatty liver disease or alcoholic hepatitis which can further develop and be fatal. Fatty liver disease is a build-up of fats within the cells of the liver to the point where at least 10% of the liver is fat.

Conclusion

In conclusion consumption of alcohol has a side effect of the body and the process of homeostasis. It has been shown what are the risks are for those that want to drink alcohol even for one night of over-consumption and the serious risks for those that cross the line into alcohol abuse. The body does so much work to maintain homeostasis and drinking just adds extra stress on your organs and could lead to major problems later and life.

Bibliography

1. https://www.verywellmind.com/definition-of-homeostasis-22207
2. http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions1/biology/homeosts.html
3. https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/alcohol-facts/health-effects-of-alcohol/effects-on-the-body/alcohol-and-sugar/
4. http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/24/11/1888
5. https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/NREM
6. http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/homeo.htm
7. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-body-structure-and-homeostasis/a/homeostasis
8. https://www.abpischools.org.uk/topic/homeostasis-sugar
9. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics
10. https://www.medicinenet.com/creatinine_blood_test/article.htm
11. https://www.healthline.com/health/dangerous-heart-rate#dangerous-symptoms
12. https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Periphery
13. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/water-a-vital-nutrient
14. https://www.ausmed.com/cpd/articles/normal-electrolyte-levels
15. https://transfusion.com.au/transfusion_practice/anaemia_management/iron_deficiency_anaemia/diagnosis_and_investigation
16. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/maintaining-homeostasis/
17. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/resting-heart-rate
18. https://www.mydr.com.au/heart-stroke/blood-pressure-what-is-your-target
19. https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/blood-glucose-monitoring
20. https://www.alcoholrehabguide.org/alcohol/effects/
21. https://beta.health.gov.au/health-topics/alcohol/about-alcohol/what-are-the-effects-of-alcohol
22. https://www.healthline.com/health/how-long-does-alcohol-stay-in-your-system
23. http://thehealthydrinker.com/2011/04/slurred-speech-drinking-alcohol/
24. https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthy-living/wellbeing/a28261/alcohol-throw-up-vomit/
25. https://www.healthline.com/health/diarrhea-after-drinking-alcohol
26. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313460.php
27. https://www.alcoholrehabguide.org/resources/medical-conditions/alcohol-related-brain-damage/
28. https://www.verywellmind.com/alcohols-effects-on-testosterone-66543
29. https://www.mydr.com.au/gastrointestinal-health/fatty-liver
30. https://migraine.com/headache-types/hangover-headaches/